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The evolving racial perceptions of the Japanese between 1735 and 1854 were shaped by both Western observers and emerging Japanese voices. Framed by Linnaeus’s Systema Naturae and the forced opening of Japan’s ports, this long century coincided with the global ascent of racial thought amid growing technological, commercial, and geopolitical disparities. While Western nations rapidly industrialized, expanded their empires, and formulated racial ideologies to justify their dominance, Japan remained a populous and militarily formidable nation – one poorly understood by Western cultures enthralled by the stirrings of “scientific” racism. This disconnect generated a unique tension in global racial discourse.
In this definitive work, Rotem Kowner explores three central themes: the emergence of modern racial theory – defined by belief in immutable racial hierarchies – and its role in shaping Western views of the Japanese; the centrality of visual representation in constructing and reinforcing racial categories; and the concurrent development of a Japanese proto-racial discourse that often portrayed the Japanese as superior – directly opposing Western portrayals. This ideological clash would later fuel the racial conflicts of the twentieth century.
Through a compelling analysis of textual and visual materials, A Hardening Hierarchy offers groundbreaking insights into the intertwined formation of Western and Japanese racial ideologies. Kowner establishes a vital historical link between early representations of the Japanese and the more virulent racial discourses that emerged in the modern era, providing an essential foundation for understanding racial conflict in East Asia.
“A work of uncommon depth and ambition. Drawing on sources across a dozen languages, Kowner reconstructs with meticulous precision how the Japanese came to be cast as immutably inferior within an increasingly rigid global racial hierarchy while simultaneously recovering the indigenous proto-racial discourse taking shape within Japan itself. Indispensable for anyone studying the formation of Western views of Japan or the global history of racial thought.” Frederik Cryns, International Research Center for Japanese Studies
“A fitting continuation of his epic first volume on race. By examining the longue durée of racial thought through the lens of Japan, an imperialist non-white nation, Rotem Kowner complicates prevailing narratives and offers a deeper, genuinely global perspective on the emergence of modern ideas of race.” Kiri Paramore, University College Cork
“Who are the Japanese? Or rather, how has this question been posed over time, on the basis of what information, and with what agendas? Rotem Kowner’s explorations of these questions will be essential reading for all scholars on racism and racial identify, and, of course, of Japan, for decades to come.” Timon Screech, International Research Center for Japanese Studies
“The long-awaited second volume in Kowner's series on Japan and race is perhaps even better than the first. Full of insight on the elusive idea of a Japanese race, it should be required reading.” Michael Keevak, National Taiwan University