Gaspar H. Korndörfer, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Brazil
Improving nutrient management in sugarcane cultivation
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A nutrient management strategy which relies on the total replacement of all nutrients in the biomass is not sustainable from an economic or environmental point of view. This chapter therefore reviews more sustainable strategies for nutrient management in sugarcane cultivation. It begins by discussing the benefits of crop rotation, green manure and trash retention, before a detailed consideration of cane fertilization with nitrogen and other macronutrients, micronutrients and silicon. The potential uses of cane processing residues are considered. Finally, foliar diagnosis is reviewed as a tool to evaluate the nutritional status of a crop.
Pekka Huhtanen, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden
Feed evaluation and formulation to maximise nutritional efficiency in dairy cattle
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This chapter reviews the evaluation of energy and protein value of ruminants’ feedstuffs. It emphasises the importance of accurately estimating feeding values to optimise production. The chapter discusses experimental methods and models used to evaluate the energy and protein values of feeds. The advantages and weaknesses of static empirical models and dynamic mechanistic models are discussed. The chapter emphasises the need to evaluate models using large data sets from productions studies to improve the accuracy of predictions of production responses.
Dr Dr Peter Neuenschwander
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: fruit and other tree crops
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This chapter reviews control methods for the main pests affecting fruit and other tree crops. It describes the use of classical biological control for mango, papaya, cacao, coconut and citrus. Mango mealybug, Rastrococcus invadens, has been controlled with great success across West and Central Africa by two parasitoids. On papaya, the spiralling whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus has been controlled by two serendipitously introduced parasitoids. Papaya mealybug Paracoccus marginatus from South America was brought under control within one year by another parasitoid. These results were compromised by the invasion of the tropical fruit fly Batrocera dorsalis. The resulting mis-use of pesticides was replaced by bait sprays and parapheromones, a parasitoid introduced in Benin and Cameroon, and management of the African weaver ant Oecophylla longinoda. A new species of phytoseiid mite was introduced against the coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis. On cacao, Phythophthora megakarya was controlled by managing shade trees, soil cover, and applying fungicides. Cultural control measures were developed for cashew.
Nalini C. Gnanapragasam, Former Deputy Director (Research), Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka; currently Agricultural Tea Consultant - Malwatte Valley Plantations PLC, Sri Lanka
Insect pests of tea: shot hole borers, termites and nematodes
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The tea plant (Camellia sinensis (L) O. Kuntze) is a perennial crop and every part of the plant is prone to infestation by some pest over its lifetime. The prevalence and occurrence of the pest is primarily determined by the specific agro-climatic conditions, the type of cultivar and the cultural practices adopted within a given specific location. This chapter briefly describes the biology and ecology of important pests attacking tea in the different tea-growing areas of the world and the type of damage/injury induced, focusing on shot hole borers, termites (both live wood and scavenging varieties) and nematodes.
Xin Sun and Eric Berg, North Dakota State University, USA
Factors affecting the colour and texture of pig meat
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In pork, colour and texture are the two most significant factors influencing consumer perceptions of quality. It is therefore important to understand the many factors that can affect pork colour and texture, because these factors influence purchasing decisions. Furthermore, those in charge of marketing pork must be informed regarding the assessment methods available to monitor, evaluate and categorize pork colour and texture. In this chapter, we will explore the biological and environmental factors that affect colour and texture in pig meat. We will then introduce and discuss existing and potential methods for assessment of the colour and texture attributes of pig meat.
Mingyang Huang and Yu Wang, University of Florida, USA; and Chi-Tang Ho, Rutgers University, USA
Factors affecting pork flavour
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Pork-related products such as bacon, sausage and ham comprise a large portion of the meat products sold in today’s market due to their desirable flavour. The application of various processing methods such as cooking, curing, deboning, grinding, canning and application of additives or spices during processing greatly contribute to the characteristic aromas of specific pork-related products. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an integrated overview of the essential flavour constituents in pork products and the presumptive factors affecting pork flavour. Despite large differences among animal species, genetics, and methods used in processing and cooking, this chapter will attempt to focus on consensus odorants that have been studied by at least two independent groups, and will emphasize the heat-induced formation of pork odorants’ pathways.
Dr Dr Ignace Godonou
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: vegetables
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In many West African countries, vegetable production is a key sector of urban and peri-urban agriculture. However, production is undermined by biotic constraints, mainly arthropod pests, disease-causing organisms and plant parasitic nematodes. In an attempt to combat this, farmers frequently use broad-spectrum and highly toxic pesticides. However, farmers’ coping strategies against pests and production constraints remain largely ineffective. This chapter reviews some key biotic constraints and presents a number of alternative management strategies. For instance, IITA identified and developed biopesticide Bba5653 to control Plutella xylostella on cabbage. Attempts were made to develop botanical pesticides such as cassava peels against root knot nematodes. In Benin, natural enemies of aphids were recorded, with Lysiphlebus testaceipes emerging as a promising element in aphid management strategies. We conclude that there is a need to increase farmers’ awareness of the side effects of highly toxic pesticide use and to offer training on the use of biopesticides and botanicals and the preservation of pests’ natural enemies.
W. Tadesse, A. Amri, M. Sanchez-Garcia, M. El-Bouhssini, M. Karrou, S. Patil, F. Bassi and M. Baum, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Morocco; and T. Oweis, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Jo
Improving wheat production in the Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) region
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Wheat is the principal staple food in most countries of the Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) region, accounting for 45% of the region’s per capita calorie intake with an average wheat consumption of about 200 kg/capita/year. Wheat production in the region has increased both horizontally and vertically from 1961 through 2013. However, most of the countries in the region are still unable to meet their national demand. This chapter reviews the major challenges of wheat production, the available wheat production technologies and the ways forward to improve wheat production while conserving the natural base in the region.
Jeffrey Rushen, University of British Columbia, Canada
Housing and the welfare of dairy cattle
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In modern dairy farming, lactating cows and un-weaned calves are often housed indoors, in a restricted space, at high density, and/or separate from other animals. Such housing conditions affect the welfare of the animals by creating risks of illness and injuries and placing restrictions on behaviour. This chapter will examine issues arising from the physical and social aspects of dairy cattle housing, with a focus on the most current and controversial issues in the area. Sections 2–5 focus on the different housing systems available for lactating cows and on the advantages and disadvantages of these alternatives. Sections 6–8 then review the issue of housing for un-weaned calves.
Jacques Le Gouis, INRA, France and Malcolm Hawkesford, Rothamsted Research, UK
Improving the uptake and assimilation of nitrogen in wheat plants
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Nitrogen is a critical macronutrient with a major influence on wheat grain yield and end-use quality. The key challenges are to detect and use genetic variability to breed for more efficient wheat varieties. For this, traits related to nitrogen capture by the root system, then nitrogen assimilation and finally nitrogen remobilization from source organs to the grain are to be considered. The possibility of using these traits will depend on the available genetic variability and the identification of molecular markers associated with relevant chromosomal regions. Future major research trends include the developments in high-throughput phenotyping and characterization of the response to combinations of environmental factors.
V. Pérez and J. I. Hormaza, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea La Mayora (IHSM La Mayora – CSIC – UMA), Spain
Exploiting the mango genome: molecular markers
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As in other crops, the development of molecular tools is allowing significant progress in understanding different aspects of mango biology. This chapter reviews advances made in the use of different molecular tools in mango in the last decades, including biochemical markers and DNA research. The chapter looks ahead to current and future developments in the field, including next-generation sequencing and localization of genes of interest for breeding purposes. The chapter offers suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Lilian Elgalise Techio Pereira and Sila Carneiro da Silva, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil; Cory Matthew and Ignacio F. López, Massey University, New Zealand; and André Fischer Sbrissia, Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, Brazil
Grazing management for sustainable grazing systems
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Grasslands play a key role in soil, water and biodiversity conservation and deliver numerous other ecosystem and cultural services. This chapter defines key terms associated with grassland grazing systems, with a particular emphasis on the meaning of grazing management and sustainable intensification. The chapter outlines current knowledge regarding major effects of grazing management on above- and belowground plant responses. The chapter then discusses how the mass flow of herbage can be manipulated through grazing management targets. Selected major effects of grazing on soil C and N stocks are then presented in the fourth section, and the chapter highlights how grazing strategies that maximise animal performance also have the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to potential future research aimed at sustainable improvement of grassland and animal productivity within a context of global climate change.
J. Bell
Improving water management in sorghum cultivation
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Grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) is a drought tolerant crop that has been grown across the American Great Plains since the early twentieth century, primarily as a feed crop. Sorghum’s deep, fibrous root system provides greater root volume and therefore potential access to a greater soil water volume enabling sorghum to withstand greater periods of water stress if there is ample stored soil water. This chapter examines dryland production of sorghum and sorghum irrigation methods, including deficit irrigation. The chapter also addresses the relationship between soils and irrigation management.
Peter J. Gregory and Christina K. Clarke, University of Reading, UK
Establishment and root development in wheat crops
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Good establishment lays the foundations for wheat yield. Here, we have used the term ‘establishment’ to encompass development and growth prior to the elongation of the main stem. We describe how the seedling root system establishes and then outline how four agronomic practices (time and depth of sowing, seeding rate and soil moisture conditions) affect the initial growth of the plant. We present a case study from Australia on how embryo size and seed mass affects early growth, and conclude with some recent ideas as to how root systems might be optimized in different soils to increase production.
Grant Dewell, Iowa State University, USA
Ensuring the safety of feed for beef cattle
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The unique ruminant digestive system of beef cattle enables them to eat and digest a wide range of feed products, including by-product or alternative feeds not utilized in other livestock production systems. It is important to ensure that the various feed products provided to cattle will not pose a food safety risk to the people who consume beef products. This chapter will provide an overview of the three major areas where food safety risks can be introduced via feed material: purchase of contaminated feed products, contamination during storage and contamination of feed due to mixing or delivery errors. In each case, measures to prevent unacceptable risk are also briefly considered.
Dr Dr Stefan Hauser
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: banana and plantain
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Many smallholder farmers in humid sub-Saharan Africa rely on bananas and plantains (Musa spp.) as major staple food and income generating crops, with only a negligible portion traded internationally. Banana and plantain production is mainly threatened by various pathogens and pests. This chapter describes the major diseases including fungal diseases (Fusarium wilt, black sigatoka), viral diseases (banana bunchy top and banana streak virus), bacterial disease (banana Xanthomonas wilt) and pests such as nematodes and weevil, affecting bananas and plantains.. The chapter also describes measures used to manage and control these diseases and pests.
Ben Tyson
Ensuring biodiversity in dairy farming
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Dairy farming may affect the biodiversity of microbial species, grass or pasture species, soil, native vegetation, and other flora and fauna on the farm itself. It can also affect aquatic, downstream estuarine and coastal biodiversity because of the nutrients, pesticides and sediments transported away from the farm through surface runoff and groundwater. This chapter will address the impacts of dairy farming on biodiversity, approaches to biodiversity enhancement, measures for enhancing biodiversity and strategies for engaging farmers in biodiversity enhancement. It then reviews a number of case studies to illustrate these issues.
Moshe Lapidot and Ilan Levin, Institute of Plant Sciences – Volcani Center, ARO, Israel
Genetic resistance to viruses in tomato
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The cultivated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) constitutes a major agricultural industry: it is grown worldwide and, in terms of vegetable crop production, is only second to potato. Tomato plants show a wide climatic tolerance and are grown in both tropical and temperate regions around the world. Viral diseases are responsible for heavy yield losses and are one of the reasons that in many locations tomato production has shifted from open-field to protected production. The three most important tomato viruses in terms of production losses are Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV), Tomato mosaic virus (ToMV) and Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV). This chapter describes the development of genetic resistances to these three viruses in tomato.
Dr Andreas W. Ebert
Ensuring the genetic diversity of tomatoes
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This book chapter describes key issues regarding genetic diversity of tomatoes, including taxonomy and mating system. Figures on global ex situ conservation of tomato germplasm are provided and the world’s largest collection in the public domain, held by AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center, is described in some detail. This chapter also deals with the policy framework for the conservation, access and benefit-sharing mechanisms of plant genetic resources (PGR). It describes how the policy framework and stricter phytosanitary requirements affect the exchange and use of PGR. Ways to strengthen sharing of PGR for food and nutrition security and climate change adaptation are discussed.
A. S. Ross, Oregon State University, USA
Genetic and other factors affecting wheat quality
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Wheat quality derives from interactions between the components of the kernel. In turn these components are themselves collections of multiple sub-components. Many components are under genetic control and are modulated, if not profoundly influenced, by growing conditions. This chapter focuses on the three main polymeric components of wheat grain: protein, starch, and fibre, as these are arguably the primary contributors to wheat flour functionality. It explores the relationship between sustainable wheat production and wheat grain quality and milling performance as well as analysing in detail the protein, starch and fibre composition of wheat grain.
Alma Delia Alarcon-Rojo and Ana Luisa Renteria-Monterrubio, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Mexico
Ensuring safety in chilling and freezing of poultry meat
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Poultry is the most traded meat worldwide, and its consumption has increased almost continuously since 1965. In order to achieve sustainable production, the poultry industry must continue to develop its methods and technologies, and in doing so must take into account the standards of safety required by consumers. This chapter presents a review of safety practices and potential risks associated with chilling and freezing of poultry meat. It covers relevant research on the improvement of poultry safety during chill processing, post-slaughter handling risks and procedures, and the most important poultry pathogens and their control.
David Mengel, Kansas State University, USA
Improving soil and crop nutrition management in sorghum cultivation
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This chapter provides an overview of the nutrients needed, quantities of nutrients used and concepts of nutrient management commonly utilized in commercial grain sorghum production. The chapter describes how these concepts can also be applied to subsistence production as practised in much of the developing world where sorghum is grown. The chapter focuses on the management practices and techniques utilized for the essential mineral nutrients commonly observed to be deficient in sorghum production. These include: N, P, K, S, Fe, Mn, Zn and Cl. The chapter will discuss soil and other conditions under which deficiencies may occur; methods to assess nutrient availability and nutrient sources, both chemical fertilizers and also common by-products which can be used as nutrient sources; and preferred methods and time of applications.
Michael S. Lilburn, Ohio State University, USA
Enhancing the nutritional quality of poultry meat
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The pattern of poultry meat consumption has changed considerably, and these days, there has been a significant increase in the consumption of poultry meat products that are easily purchased and/or prepared. Genetic selection has largely helped to meet the market demand for increased poultry meat for achieving growth rate and improved protein accretion, particularly with respect to the breast muscle or white meat portions of the carcass. The objective of this chapter is to review the basics of poultry carcass growth and development and the fundamentals of lipid metabolism. The aim is also to discuss new research developments in the matter of enhancing the nutritional quality of poultry meat.
Dr Dr Peter Neuenschwander
Improving plant health in sub-Saharan Africa: conclusions and future challenges
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This chapter provides concluding comments for ‘Critical Issues in Plant Health: 50 Years of Research in African Agriculture’, a book focussing on research carried out by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) to improve the health of crops in Africa. In addition, it also outlines future challenges faced in improving plant health in sub-Saharan Africa for IITA. IITA projects and their impacts are discussed in relation to issues such as biological control, resistant varieties, cultural and environmental control, biorational control (including use of botanicals and entomopathogens) and chemical control. The impact of IITA projects on combining techniques in integrated pest management (IPM) is also covered. Lastly, an overall assessment of projects is made, and IITA’s plans for the future are included, as are recommendations for the future.
Prof. Robert Pym
Helping smallholders to improve poultry production
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Small-scale family poultry farming is practised by a large proportion of smallholder families in the rural and peri-urban areas of most of the world’s developing countries. By enabling improvements in disease control, breeding and genetics, and management and nutrition through smallholder poultry development projects which incorporate a participatory farming approach, value chain assessment and appropriately focused training and extension programmes, such projects have the potential to impact very meaningfully on poverty alleviation, household nutrition and food security, the health and education of children and the empowerment of women as the principal poultry keepers. These outcomes constitute a number of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.
Stevan Z. Knezevic, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
Flame weeding techniques
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Flaming as a vegetation control method began in the mid-1800s. It is based on utilizing heat for plant control, and has the potential to be used effectively for at least six agronomic crops (field corn, sweet corn, popcorn, sorghum, soybean and sunflower) when conducted properly at the most tolerant crop growth stage. There has been increasing interest in integrating flame weeding with conventional cropping systems, and where herbicide use is undesirable, such as in cities, parks and other urban areas. In this chapter, we review flame weeding requirements, the mechanism by which it reduces weeds and the potential uses of the technique. We also consider its advantages and disadvantages, including its potential environmental impacts.
Dinesh D. Jayasena, Uva Wellassa University, Sri Lanka; and Cheorun Jo, Seoul National University, Republic of Korea
Enhancing the flavour of poultry meat
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Understanding the chemistry of poultry meat flavour and factors affecting poultry meat flavour is vital in order to produce the most flavourful and consistent product possible by preserving and/or enhancing the flavour of poultry meat. This chapter describes different mechanisms and chemical compounds responsible for poultry meat flavour and off-flavour development and explain the main factors affecting poultry meat flavour, which can be manipulated to enhance the flavour of poultry meat.
Xinguo Mao, Institute of Crop Science , Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China; Delong Yang, Gansu Agricultural University, China; and Ruilian Jing, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China
Improving drought and heat tolerance in wheat
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Changes in global climate have increased the variability of precipitation, and have made episodes of drought and/or high temperature more common. These stresses, often occurring in combination during grain filling in arid or semiarid areas, are considered the two most common environmental limitations to wheat growth and yield potential. Therefore, the improvement of drought and heat tolerance, as well as grain yield, is of great importance in selecting wheat cultivars. This chapter aims to assess the genes involved in drought and heat tolerances, and the promising physiological traits that may assist in traditional genetic improvement for increased tolerance to drought and heat stress in wheat. It focuses on advances in our understanding of the molecular markers associated with physiological traits, and the roles of various important genes in determining a wheat plant’s response to heat and drought stresses.
Margaret Sexton, Primary Industries and Regions, South Australia (PIRSA), Australia
Egg washing to ensure product safety
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The structure of eggs poses specific problems for washing, especially in large commercial operations. However, washing is a valuable process, both to make eggs look clean and to reduce the bacterial load on the shell. This chapter reviews those properties of eggs that are relevant to the washing process and then shows how important cleaning principles can be applied to the special case of washing of eggs to improve product safety.
M. L. W. J. Broekhuijse, Topigs Norsvin Research Center B.V., The Netherlands
Factors affecting the reproductive efficiency of boars
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Efficient artificial insemination (AI) is essential for future challenges in the pig industry. Core business for AI companies worldwide is diluting semen from high fertile breeding boars, and by that inseminating many sows. Efficient use of AI boars with high genetic merit is important to maximise dissemination of the genetic progress made in the breeding nucleus. An overview of factors affecting the reproductive efficiency of boars is presented. Boar semen is the most important carrier of genetic progress.
John M. Gonzalez, Sara M. Ebarb, Kelsey J. Phelps and Michael E. Dikeman, Kansas State University, USA
Effects of metabolic modifiers on beef carcass composition and meat quality
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Metabolic modifiers are compounds that are either fed to animals or implanted to improve rate of gain, feed efficiency, dressing percent, carcass meat yield, visual meat quality, shelf life or meat palatability. This chapter presents a general review of the effects of metabolic modifiers on carcass composition, fresh meat quality and cooked meat palatability. Emphasis will be on those metabolic modifiers that are approved for use in cattle in the United States and other developed countries. The main types of modifier discussed are anabolic steroid implants, beta-adrenergic agonists, vitamins D3, E and A, and somatotropin.
Bernard L. Schroeder, University of Southern Queensland, Australia; Andrew W. Wood, Tanglewood Agricultural Services, Australia; David V. Calcino and Danielle M. Skocaj, Sugar Research Australia Limited, Australia; Alan P. Hurney, Edmonton, Australia; and
Good planting and cultivation practices in sugarcane production
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Plant crop establishment provides an opportunity to ensure that best management practices (BMPs) are identified and implemented or continued on-farm. If it is not done well, the ensuing crop could be negatively affected. This chapter focusses on a philosophy of BMP associated with sugarcane farming systems and explores how this enables good decision-making when crop establishment practices and activities are being considered and implemented by a grower. The chapter addresses the need for best practice crop establishment planning for sugarcane crop cycles, implementation of crop establishment plans, residue management, rectification and soil amelioration activities, fallow and sugarcane planting strategies and sugarcane cultivation practices and weed control.
Manuele Tamò, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Bénin; Léonard Afouda, Université de Parakou, Bénin; Ranajit Bandyopadhyay, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; Harry Bottenberg, United States Agency
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: legumes
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The yield potential of cowpea and soybean is severely constrained by several biotic stresses, negatively impacting on the livelihoods of farming communities. Resistant germplasm is often the first line of defence against plant pathogens inducing foliar diseases like Asian soybean rust, but needs to be accompanied by proper resistance management plans, including understanding and monitoring of pathotype formation. This chapter shows how combatting soil-borne pathogens, nematodes and particularly insect pests requires a truly integrated approach, which can vary in the assembly of its options depending on the nature of the organism. IITA scientists and collaborators have developed a range of interventions, often discovered only after thorough ecological and biodiversity studies, as in the case of flower thrips and pod borers in cowpea. Our research has resulted in a strategy using tolerant varieties, establishing and preserving natural enemies on wild host plant refugia, and intervening at the field level with biorational pesticide applications.
J. M. Clarke
Durum wheat: production, challenges and opportunities
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Durum wheat is principally used for the manufacture of pasta, couscous and, to a lesser extent, in the production of bulgur and bread. This chapter explores the challenges and opportunities of durum wheat production in the twenty-first century, addressing globally important production as well as describing approaches used to mitigate production constraints and the progress realized through these approaches in breeding in recent years. The chapter also examines future trends in this area in the form of emerging breeding technologies.
Stephen B. Smith, Texas A&M University, USA
Factors affecting fat content and distribution of fat in cattle and carcasses
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Beef cattle are highly efficient at depositing fat, and they deposit fats in a specific order: first abdominal, then seam (intermuscular), then subcutaneous and finally marbling (intramuscular, interfascicular) fat. The development and composition of these fat deposits are influenced by the diet of the cattle. This chapter addresses the origin of adipocytes, the ontogeny of fat development, factors influencing fat development and, finally, factors influencing fatty acid composition of fat depots.
Susanne Støier, Leif Lykke and Lars O. Blaabjerg, Danish Meat Research Institute – Danish Technological Institute, Denmark
Humane slaughter techniques for pigs
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For pigs, the day of slaughter includes a variety of potentially stressful elements, and this leads to animal welfare concerns. This chapter reviews how recent research can be applied in the development of new technologies and procedures to ensure a high level of welfare for pigs, while also increasing production efficiency, product quality and operator working conditions. Areas addressed include electrical and CO2 stunning methods, correct sticking procedure, group-based handling and the surveillance and documentation of animal welfare levels on the day of slaughter.
Gregory B. Penner, University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Disorder of digestion and metabolism in dairy cattle: the case of subacute rumen acidosis
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Excessive fermentation in the rumen as a result of energy-rich diets decreases ruminal pH and leads to a digestive disorder called ruminal acidosis. This chapter examines one kind of acidosis, subacute rumen acidosis (SARA), and includes a detailed case study on SARA risk in the post-partum phase of the transition period. The chapter comprehensively analyses SARA and steps that can be taken to minimize it, and looks ahead to likely future trends of research in this area.
Joel Ira Weller, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Israel
Genetic factors affecting fertility, growth, health and longevity in dairy cattle
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Inclusion of secondary or ‘functional’ traits in breeding objectives began in earnest only in the late 1990. By 2009, production traits accounted for less than 50% of the indices in most advanced countries. Breeding for fertility, health traits and herd life (HL) was hindered due to difficulty of measurement and analysis and generally low heritability. Statistical methods have been developed that overcome these problems. The advantages and limitations of breeding for disease traits and HL via selection on correlated traits and via cross-breeding are discussed. Methodologies for detection and analysis of the actual segregating genes that affect functional traits are presented.
T. B. Rodenburg, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Ensuring the welfare of broilers: an overview
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Genetic selection for highly efficient, fast-growing broilers has had negative effects on broiler welfare, and the high stocking densities used in some broiler production systems also have a negative impact on welfare. This chapter examines the welfare problems arising from these two factors, and reviews how both factors have been addressed within the European Union. Two case studies are then provided, examining the welfare effects of hatching environment and early feeding, and of alternative broiler production systems.
J. L. N. Maciel, Embrapa Wheat, Brazil
Diseases affecting wheat: wheat blast
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This chapter describes the characteristics, origin and spread of the causative agents of wheat blast, based on the experience of managing this disease in Brazil (where the first wheat blast epidemic was reported, in 1985, which still causes great losses). Although many aspects of the disease’s occurrence and control remain unknown, some advances have been made. It has been proposed that the origin of wheat blast was through the clonal propagation of an epidemic lineage of Pyricularia oryzae, derived from populations of the fungus growing on an unknown species within the family Poaceae. Recently, it was reported that wheat blast is caused two fungal species, Pyricularia oryzae, patothype Triticum, and a new species that has been described as Pyricularia graminis-tritici. Assays conducted under controlled conditions showed that Pyricularia graminis-tritici isolates were more virulent to Brachiaria (Urochloa sp., ex Brachiaria sp.; a pasture species common to Brazil) than many isolates of Pyricularia oryzae, pathotype Triticum. In addition, it has been determined that insensitivity to strobilurin fungicides is completely distributed in the Brazilian population of the causative agents of wheat blast.
S. B. Goodwin, USDA-ARS, USA
Diseases affecting wheat: Septoria tritici blotch
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Septoria tritici blotch (STB) is one of the most common and economically important diseases of wheat worldwide. This chapter evaluates various methods of disease management, considering the key developments of recent decades, the major challenges encountered and the future trajectory of this work. Fungicides have been the primary means of disease management since the 1980s, but resistance has rendered some compounds ineffective. Qualitative or quantitative resistance genes have now been found on all 21 wheat chromosomes, giving a rich but complex source of genes for plant improvement. Molecular markers are now available for many resistance genes making marker-assisted selection for increased resistance an achievable goal for the future. The first STB resistance gene has now been cloned, but the mechanism of resistance remains a mystery. Despite the huge progress made during the past twenty years, STB remains a destructive disease that is likely to require substantial future efforts for its control.
Edward C. Rojas, Hans J. L. Jørgensen, Birgit Jensen and David B. Collinge, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
Fusarium diseases: biology and management perspectives
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World cereal production faces the challenge of increasing productivity while reducing its environmental footprint. Diseases like Fusarium head blight that reduce yield and quality of the harvest are controlled mainly with agricultural practices and fungicides. These measures have been shown to be inefficient or unsustainable. After reviewing the current knowledge about Fusarium fungi–cereal interactions, this chapter describes how progress can be built over current agricultural practices in integrated pest management plans. The methods described include increasing genetic resistance by exploiting the full extent of the advantages of new technologies, as well as looking for new fungicide molecules that aim for specific fungal metabolic pathways during infection at an early stage. The chapter addresses the disease cycle of Fusarium head blight, host–pathogen interactions, genetic resistance, the role of mycotoxins, the impact of the disease on yields and loss of crop quality, and techniques of disease management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
M. Djanaguiraman
Growth, development and physiology of grain sorghum
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A thorough understanding of how grain sorghum develops is essential in determining how best to manage this crop. Grain sorghum has three predictable phases of growth: vegetative (planting to panicle initiation); reproductive (panicle initiation to flowering) and grain filling (after flowering to maturity). This chapter describes each of the phases in detail, observing how each stage is affected by factors such as genotype, temperature and photoperiod. Climatic conditions for optimal growth, as well as the effects and physiological basis of drought, high temperature and elevated carbon dioxide tolerance, are discussed. Due to climate change, sorghum-producing areas are facing increased exposure to water deficits and extreme temperatures, making comprehension of plant response to environmental stresses even more necessary. It is concluded that the use of high-yielding varieties and proper management practices will be essential to the future of this crop.
Hari D. Upadhyaya and Mani Vetriventhan, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India
Ensuring the genetic diversity of sorghum
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Sorghum is a staple food crop for millions of the poorest and most food-insecure people in the semi-arid tropics, and ensuring its diversity and conservation is therefore important for global food and nutritional security. This chapter discusses the taxonomy of sorghum, in situ and ex situ germplasm conservation and diversity, the factors shaping sorghum diversity, geographical distribution of sorghum germplasm, germplasm gap analysis, and the use of cultivated and wild genepool of sorghum to enhance crop yields and broaden the genetic base of sorghum cultivars.
Javier Sánchez-Martín, Salim Bourras and Beat Keller, University of Zürich, Switzerland
Diseases affecting wheat and barley: powdery mildew
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Powdery mildew pathogens are among the most important cereal disease-causing organisms, and can result in significant losses in yield and reductions in grain quality. They pose a significant challenge for barley and wheat agricultural production systems. This chapter aims to provide an overview of current knowledge on wheat and barley resistance to powdery mildew. First, we introduce basic biological concepts on disease epidemiology and management strategies which target mildew. We then present emerging trends and technologies used in mildew resistance breeding and research and discuss how these could be combined into effective disease management strategies in the near future. Finally, we propose additional directions for achieving durable resistance based on deep understanding of the basic molecular mechanisms of cereal-mildew interactions.
B. Kaur
Genetic engineering of tomato to improve nutritional quality, resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses, and for non-food applications
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Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is an excellent plant model for unravelling physiological processes, fruit quality and shelf-life determinants, such as stress-responsive signalling, pathogenicity and ripening in climacteric fruits. Consumer awareness of tomato as a phytonutrient source of lycopene, β-carotene, flavonoids and vitamin C has intensified tomato research. The genome of inbred tomato Heinz 1706 cultivar has already been deciphered, genetic linkages for fruit quality have been characterized and tomatoes have been genetically engineered to enhance fruit quality and abiotic/biotic stress tolerance. Furthermore, tomato is a model for vaccine production. This chapter shows how genetic dissection using fruit-ripening mutants, new transgenic plants and molecular breeding has created a road map for the further unravelling of the regulation of genes governing fruit quality attributes as well as fundamental metabolic processes. Precision in engineering plant genomes has enabled development of novel tomatoes with marketable traits beneficial to human health.
Jennie E. Pryce, Agriculture Victoria and La Trobe University, Australia; and Yvette de Haas, Wageningen UR, The Netherlands
Genetic selection for dairy cow welfare and resilience to climate change
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Narrow breeding goals focused on milk production traits have been detrimental to the reproductive performance and health of dairy cattle. There is, therefore, a need to develop breeding strategies that balances both production and non-production traits. In this chapter, we discuss the principles behind breeding goals and multi-trait selection. We review practices of selecting for milk production, energy balance and fertility, and then consider newer breeding objectives such as health traits, reducing the environment impact of dairy cattle and ensuring that cattle will be able to endure a changing climate. Finally, we discuss the use of modern genomic selection and gene-editing techniques.
Alejandro Ramirez, Iowa State University, USA
Diseases affecting pigs: an overview of common bacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens of pigs
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Recent events such as the 2009 pandemic influenza outbreak, the continuous spread of African swine fever virus in Eastern Europe and the introduction of several new pathogens into the United States and their spread to Canada, Mexico, Central and South America have emphasized the ability of pig diseases to cross borders rapidly and the importance of global cooperation to improve the health and welfare of pigs. This chapter summarizes recent research on the causes and epidemiology of major bacteria, viruses and parasites found in pig production, focusing on those with a particular impact on safety and global production.
Dr Anna L. Hale
Ensuring and exploiting the genetic diversity of sugarcane
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The majority of cultivars in current commercial sugarcane breeding programmes trace back to a few key interspecific hybrids that were developed during the early 1900s. Sugarcane breeders have expressed concerns about the narrow sampling of ancestral clones in modern sugarcane breeding programmes, and this concern has prompted periodic attempts at so-called ‘base-broadening’ programmes. This chapter begins by providing an overview of sugarcane germplasm collections and then describes introgression-related research and breeding efforts focused on the use of Saccharum spontaneum, Erianthus and other species. It emphasizes the difficulties and challenges that need to be overcome in order to achieve successful outcomes from introgression breeding. Finally, a few possible future directions are considered.
Simon R. Ellwood, Curtin University, Australia; and Hugh Wallwork, South Australian Research and Development Institute, Australia
Diseases affecting barley: net blotches
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This chapter reviews the current knowledge of spot form and net form of net blotch of barley with an emphasis on recent genetic studies and their contribution to our understanding of the range of host-pathogen genetic interactions. Principal differences between the two forms of the disease are explained together with common cultural control methods. An example of a practical approach in breeding for durable resistance in South Australia is provided, and we discuss what such experience and genetic studies imply for successful breeding strategies for stable resistance.
Peter Groves, University of Sydney, Australia
Disease management in poultry flocks
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Diseases in intensive poultry flocks may occur due to viral, bacterial, fungal, protozoal, metazoan or arthropod infections or infestations. This chapter describes disease preventative measures, health monitoring and disease investigation techniques, and the management of sick meat chicken flocks. This chapter covers dealing with the emergency of an outbreak of disease in the flock, including hygiene procedures and methods of disposing of dead birds. The chapter examines the challenges inherent in poultry disease control and looks forward to future trends in this area.
C. Jamie Newbold, Aberystwyth University, UK
Feed supplements for dairy cattle
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The manipulation of rumen fermentation to maximize the efficiency of feed utilization and increase ruminant productivity is of great commercial interest. This chapter reviews the beneficial effects sought through manipulating rumen fermentation in dairy cattle. It then considers a wide variety of approaches, including the use of dietary buffers, antibiotics, fat supplements and plant extracts, and summarizes the potential benefits and limitations of each.
Dr Dr Bernhard Speiser
Direct plant protection in organic farming
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In organic farming, plant health is maintained primarily through preventive management practices. Nevertheless, there are crops and situations where such measures alone do not provide sufficient protection, and direct plant protection is therefore necessary. This chapter focuses on the substances which may be used for plant protection, as well as underlines the importance of indirect plant protection measures for organic farming systems. The chapter describes current practices in organic plant protection, identifies currently authorised materials and discusses the process of authorisation of materials in the European Union. It finally examines efforts to find replacements for copper fungicides and looks ahead to future trends in this area of research.
D. Luján-Rhenals
Energy and water use in poultry processing
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Increasing poultry production also means increasing energy and water use in poultry processing. Assessing these inputs is critical to develop more efficient systems and requires analysis of individual steps in processing. This chapter reviews way of measuring and reducing water and energy us at different stages in poultry processing.
Xiang Liu
Food safety control on poultry farms: effective control of Campylobacter
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The zoonotic pathogen, Campylobacter, is the leading cause of foodborne illness worldwide. It colonizes the intestinal tract of chickens, its primary host. In chickens, this pathogen is considered commensal and does not cause illness or have adverse impacts on production performance. A number of methods aim at controlling Campylobacter in the farm. This chapter discusses the general features and epidemiology of Campylobacter, improving biosecurity in the farm, antimicrobial therapy and increased host resistance, boosting the immune response, and DNA vaccines for preventing campylobacteriosis. It is concluded that, along with biosecurity, preventative treatments for the birds can act synergistically to significantly reduce the risk of contamination.
Taffa Tulu, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia
Developments in surface irrigation techniques
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Surface irrigation has long been an important tool for farmers. This chapter will review the development of surface irrigation techniques. Section 2 provides a brief historical overview, and then Sections 3 and 4 consider the development of furrow, basin and border irrigation in detail. Sections 5 and 6 cover irrigation scheduling and efficiency, Section 7 reviews the many factors which play into the choice of an irrigation system and, finally, Section 8 discusses modelling of surface irrigation systems.
Nicola M. Schreurs and Paul R. Kenyon, Massey University, New Zealand
Factors affecting sheep carcass characteristics
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This chapter describes the characteristics of a sheep’s carcass and explains the principles of carcass composition (the weight or proportion of muscle, fat and bone in the carcass). Understanding carcass characteristics and finding techniques for altering the characteristics are important for maximising returns to the producer, since carcass traits can both inform breeding objectives and moderate meat quality. This chapter examines the factors that influence a carcass’ dressing-out percentage (the relative proportions of carcass and non-carcass components in an animal’s body), carcass composition, distribution and partitioning of tissues within the carcass and carcass shape. The chapter evaluates the contribution that understanding carcass characteristics can make to meat production and considers directions for future research.
Glen W. Almond and Emily Mahan-Riggs, North Carolina State University, USA
Factors affecting the reproductive efficiency of pigs
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Solving problems associated with reproductive failure in sow herds can be a challenge. It is critical to meet breeding targets on a routine basis, and to achieve the appropriate farrowing rates and litter sizes. Reproductive failure interferes with the consistent production of pigs, which ultimately results in the suboptimal number of pigs for market. This chapter will highlight some of the factors affecting reproductive efficiency, including gilt development, litter size, control of the weaning to oestrus interval and seasonal infertility. Attention is given to various management strategies which help producers to continue to be profitable.
Dr Charles Stark
Developments in feed technology to improve poultry nutrition
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Systematic evaluation of each stage of the feed manufacturing has the potential to identify opportunities for improvement in manufacturing efficiency and reduced nutrient variation in finished feed, ultimately resulting in lower cost sustainable poultry production. This chapter examines the role of automation technology in composing and delivering feed, and addresses the issues of batching, mixing and pelleting feed as well as means of assessing feed quality. The chapter suggests some future developments in the use of technology in poultry nutrition and directs the reader to further reading in this area.
M. Causse, E. Albert and C. Sauvage, INRA, France
Developing tomato varieties with improved flavour
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Tomato fruit quality is a complex trait involving a number of components, including appearance, flavour, aroma and texture. There is a large range of genetic diversity in tomato for fruit quality components. Although a few major mutations may have a huge effect on fruit quality (notably the rin mutation), most of the components have a quantitative inheritance. Several Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) mapping experiments have been performed, mostly on interspecific progeny. Many loci and QTL have thus been detected, revealing some QTL cluster regions. Tomato is a model plant for fruit development and composition, and knowledge about its physiology is rapidly increasing. This chapter examines the use of QTL to identify and determine favourable sensory characteristics, exploring current technologies and suggesting future trends for research in this area.
Dr K. Rajkai
Dynamics of water storage and retention in soil
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Water storage and retention is one of the most important ecological and agricultural properties of soil, since soil is the main water source for most plants. The present chapter discusses different ways of defining, measuring and modelling soil water retention capability, which varies according to the physical features of the soil. A detailed case study is presented, demonstrating how territorial patterns of soil water retention can be mapped and analysed. Given the time- and labour-consuming nature of such methods, we also show how readily available soil data can be used to estimate the water retention characteristics of large areas such as catchments. Finally, we review the main types of water loss and factors affecting water retention, with consideration of evapotranspiration, runoff and various soil properties.
C. R. Little and A. Y. Bandara, Kansas State University, USA; and R. Perumal, Agricultural Research Center – Hays, USA
Sorghum diseases and their management in cultivation: seedling, seed, panicle and foliar diseases
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As sorghum continues to grow in significance in large parts of the world, attention is given to the many different types of disease that can affect this crop, and how they might be successfully avoided or managed. All physical structures and tissues of the sorghum plant may become diseased with one pathogen or another, and different diseases can damage the plant at virtually every stage of growth. The present chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the main diseases affecting sorghum, describing the different conditions in which they proliferate, their common symptoms and their impact on crop yield. In each case, the potential for host resistance is discussed, and information is provided regarding effective disease management.
Tesfaye T. Tesso, Dereje D. Gobena, Dechassa O. Duressa, Kraig Roozeboom and Krishna Jagadish, Kansas State University, USA; Ramasamy Perumal, Agricultural Research Center – Hays, USA; and Desalegn D. Serba and Dilooshi Weerasooriya, Kansas State Univer
Harnessing genetic and genomic resources to transform the production and productivity of sorghum
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Despite sorghum’s inherent yield potential, its remarkable adaptation to marginal environments and its extensive use in various food applications by smallholders in developing countries, sorghum has never received the attention it deserves and thus its productivity has remained low. This chapter highlights the opportunities for sorghum as food, feed and industrial feedstock and discusses potential focus areas where investment and coordinated research may be needed to transform sorghum productivity. The chapter also examines the major hurdles undermining sorghum productivity including the chronic shortage of financial support to bring about technological breakthroughs, the mistaken public perception of the crop as inferior and the effect that poverty has on the ability of smallholder farmers to benefit from technology. The chapter also provides perspectives on bridging the gap in yield potential to maximize productivity.
Chris R. Kerth, Texas A&M University, USA
Factors affecting flavour development in beef
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Many attributes of the eating quality, especially tenderness, of beef have received much attention in research over the years. However, it has been widely accepted that one of the major attributes that make beef unique is its flavour; in fact, recent research has shown that it is flavour that is the quality attribute that drives consumer demand for beef. This chapter will explain the basic science of assessing flavour along with the factors that impact the development of beef flavour. This will include animal nutrition and genetics, product storage and processing, cookery, and research methods commonly used to assess beef flavour.
C. Hamelin, CCPA, France and F. Cisneros, DSM, Switzerland
Determinants of egg appearance and colour
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It is essential for the consumer to select those types of eggs that are safe, nutritious and tasty. In this chapter, we begin by giving an overview of consumer decisions about whether to eat eggs and if so, which eggs to purchase. This includes reviewing regional differences in preferences and purchasing decisions, and the significance of packaging. Subsequent sections focus on the three key parts of the egg: the shell, the albumen and the yolk. We discuss consumer preferences for each, and then review the factors that determine the appearance and colour of these parts of the egg.
Robert L. Zimdahl, Colorado State University, USA
Ethical issues in integrated weed management
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This chapter surveys the potential ethical issues and problems that surround weed science as a subdivision of agriculture. These include the implications of herbicide resistance, invasive species, the introduction of biotech/Genetically Modified Organisms and concerns about sustainability. This chapter focuses particularly on sustainability as an ethical goal of weed science, arguing that truly integrated weed management requires engagement with the broader ethical issues raised by the implementation of new technologies.
Dr Carmen Gallo
Ensuring the welfare of culled dairy cows during transport and slaughter
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Every year, some cows are culled from dairy herds and sold through livestock markets and livestock dealers or sent directly to a slaughterhouse. Most of these cows are culled due to sickness or lameness, meaning that they are likely to experience pain and distress during marketing, transport and slaughter. This chapter reviews strategies for ensuring the welfare of these cows before and during transport and slaughter. We review the legislation and codes of practice surrounding the transport and slaughter of cows, consider important pre-transport conditions which can affect the welfare of cows during transport and at the slaughterhouse, and discuss the causes and signs of distress as well as strategies to avoid welfare problems.
Dr Dr Delia Grace
Detecting and preventing contamination of dairy cattle feed
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Dairy feed has direct and indirect impacts on the safety of milk and milk products; feed also has implications for animal health and welfare, and the profitability of the dairy sector. This chapter starts with a brief outline of the role of feed in dairy cattle diets, emphasizing the common hazards associated with different feed ingredients. We outline the impacts, diagnosis, governance and management of feed contaminates in general. We then review identification, diagnosis and prevention of some of the most important dairy feed hazards, namely aflatoxins, Salmonella bacteria, persistent organic pollutants, veterinary drug residues and heavy metals.
R. F. Park, University of Sydney, Australia
Diseases affecting wheat and barley: rusts
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Farmers using conventional fungicides for disease control face a number of challenges such as increased regulatory measures and the spread of fungicide resistance. This chapter sums up the wealth of research addressing this challenge, that has targeted understanding rust pathogens better, the deployment of conventional, genetically modified and gene-edited resistance, the use of agronomic factors and the management of fungicide resistance. The key to sustainable disease control appears to be the integrated use of all these methods.
D. Reynolds, Mississippi State University, USA
Defining and implementing best management practices in soybean production
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In order to optimize the profitability of soybean production while minimizing adverse effects on the environment, it is important to define and implement the most effective management, agronomic and technological practices. The present chapter considers the following components of soybean production: tillage systems, soil fertility, variety selection, agronomic practices and pest management. Such practices will, of course, vary between geographic regions; for instance, best tillage practice may be determined by soil type and environmental conditions. However, in each case, general practices that transcend geographic areas are described, with consideration given to how these practices might be adjusted to accommodate region-specific factors. The chapter concludes with recommendations for how these practices could be implemented within an overall management plan.
Jian-Qiang Ma
Ensuring the genetic diversity of tea plants
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Long-term cross-pollination has produced considerable heritable variation within and between populations of the tea plant and related species, resulting in a high level of genetic diversity. A good understanding and management of this pool of genetic resource diversity is of vital importance to tea plant improvement, since it directly affects the potential for genetic gain through selection. This chapter provides an overview of genetic diversity of tea plant, and its characterization and utilization. The chapter examines the origins and global distribution of tea cultivars, assessing the current status of tea genetic resources. The chapter explains the processes of tea germplasm evaluation and characterization and examines the exploitation and utilization of genetic diversity, looking ahead to future research trends in the area of ensuring tea’s genetic diversity.
Wolfgang Knogge, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Germany
Diseases affecting barley: scald
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Scald (leaf blotch), caused by the hemibiotrophic pathogen Rhynchosporium commune, is one of the major diseases of barley worldwide. Typical disease symptoms consist of necrotic areas on the leaf blades. Yield losses are manifested as reduced kernel quality, size and number per ear. This chapter reviews the origins, epidemiology and other characteristic features of scald, and considers the agricultural consequences of the pathogen’s biology. It then considers resistance breeding programmes in which more than a dozen major resistance genes as well as quantitative trait loci have been identified, and discusses strategies to minimize the damage caused by the disease comprising agricultural practices and different fungicides.
Paul D. Ebner and Yingying Hong, Purdue University, USA
Dealing with the challenge of antibiotic resistance in pig production
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This chapter describes the practice of antibiotic use in food animal production, with a particular focus on pigs, and the various questions this practice raises. The chapter begins with a brief history of antibiotic use in livestock production before examining the current state of research focused on developing non-antibiotic means of controlling bacterial infections in livestock. Finally, the chapter provides a case study of research in phage therapy as a case study of a (re)emerging technology that could be utilized in biocontrol of bacterial pathogens in agriculture.
Emily Miller-Cushon, University of Florida, USA; Ken Leslie and Trevor DeVries, University of Guelph, Canada
Ensuring the health and welfare of dairy calves and heifers
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Pre-weaning morbidity and mortality rates in dairy calves remain a challenge for dairy producers worldwide. Health challenges, along with housing and management, all have an impact on calf productivity and welfare. This chapter will review strategies for managing calving, improving calf vitality, successful colostrum feeding, prevention of neonatal disease, alleviation of pain during common procedures, provision of optimal housing, execution of accelerated feeding programmes, stress-free weaning, and maintenance of efficient rearing by optimal nutrition and housing of post-weaned dairy heifers. In each of these areas of emphasis, numerous recent advances will be presented. However, hurdles and bottlenecks to achieving meaningful improvements in the success of heifer-rearing programmes, particularly as they relate to calf welfare, will also be described and discussed.
Matt Liebman, Iowa State University, USA
Cultural techniques to manage weeds
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Widespread problems with herbicide-resistant weeds, environmental contamination by herbicides, and soil degradation due to excessive cultivation have led to an increasing need for integrated weed management strategies that make use of a wide array of cultural techniques to reduce weed population densities, biomass production, and competition against crops. Cultural techniques with demonstrated efficacy in particular farming systems include increases in crop population density; increases in crop spatial uniformity; alterations of planting date; use of transplanting rather than direct seeding; choice of highly competitive and allelopathic cultivars; mulching; and soil fertility and moisture management. These techniques are generally weaker than herbicides and mechanical control practices when evaluated individually. Nonetheless, when used in particular combinations, the cumulative effects of cultural tactics may be substantial and can lessen the burden of crop protection placed on chemical and mechanical controls.
Janet M. Riley, North American Meat Institute, USA
Ensuring beef safety through consumer education
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For food safety in the US beef industry, 1993 was a watershed year because of the large outbreak of food-borne illnesses that were linked to ground beef. More than two decades later, microbial issues persist as areas of concern. While the industry has made great strides in reducing bacteria on raw beef products impacting consumer, safe beef handling behaviours remain a significant challenge. In this chapter, we review the history of consumer beef preparation practices and food safety advice, including the significance of the 1993 E. coli outbreak, the research determining the best advice to give to consumers and how awareness of food safety issues and food preparation behaviour has changed over time. We focus primarily on the situation in the United States, but global food safety education, awareness and behaviours are also considered.
Abraham Singels, University of Kwazulu-Natal and University of Pretoria, South Africa
Crop modelling to support sustainable sugarcane cultivation
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The chapter describes the use of crop simulation models to support research and management of sustainable cultivation of sugarcane. It supplies case studies of strategic applications, including benchmarking of crop productivity and resource use and assessing environmental impacts of current operations, new developments and future scenarios. The chapter describes the use of crop modelling support for operational management, including irrigation scheduling and yield forecasting. The chapter discusses strengths and weaknesses of different modelling approaches and their relevance for a variety of applications. The chapter looks ahead to opportunities for integrating crop modelling with new crop monitoring technologies and improved weather forecasts.
Peter Von Fragstein und Niemsdorff, Universität Kassel, Germany
Cover crops in organic crop cultivation
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Cover crops (CCs) are close-growing crops providing protection for soil and seeding between periods of normal crop production. They are positioned in rotation between two main or cash crops, and not primarily grown for harvest. Although traditionally CCs have been terminated and incorporated into the soil, the emergence of conservation agriculture and no-till systems has led to greater emphasis on retaining CC residues as a precrop mulch for the following crop. This chapter considers recent research on the benefits of CCs in areas such as erosion and soil structure, nutrient cycling and control of weeds, diseases and pests. It then looks at the broader role of CCs in promoting biodiversity, and their role in carbon sequestration and reducing GHGs. Finally, it discusses some of the challenges in using CCs to optimize crop yields, and presents a number of key questions for the future of this practice.
Dr Iksoon Kang
Enhancing texture and tenderness in poultry meat
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The texture and tenderness of poultry meat are key factors in ensuring consumer satisfaction, and these qualities are significantly affected by how birds are treated before, during and after slaughter. This chapter begins by explaining how, after slaughter, the decline of muscle pH and the development of rigor mortis affect meat tenderness. We then examine the effect of the important process of chilling on meat tenderness. The problem of pale, soft and exudative (PSE) meat is considered, and the crust-freeze-air-chilling (CFAC) technique is given particular emphasis as a means of minimizing the occurrence of this defect. We then consider various processing techniques for improving the tenderness of poultry meat, including mechanical tenderization, muscle tensioning, electrical stimulation and marination.
Prof. Prof. M. R. Finckh
Disease and pest management in organic farming: a case for applied agroecology
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Disease and pest management in organic agriculture are based on a whole set of interlinked system management methods, including in certain cases, the use of organic pesticides and biocontrol organisms. In order to achieve the greatest possible natural biological control within a growing system, there is a need to apply a holistic biological systems management approach. Two case studies working towards these aims are presented in detail: a systems approach aiming at a soil regenerative potato cropping system (RePCRO) and evolutionary breeding for diversity in wheat. Both systems greatly increase overall resilience to unpredictable biotic and abiotic environmental challenges. We conclude that soil quality and health on the one hand and biodiversity on the other hand are inseparably connected to plant health management in organic agriculture. Addressing the whole production system starting with breeding for diversity and soil management for enhanced soil health will result in innovative plant health management options within highly resilient and sustainable agricultural systems.
Nicole Thompson, Sugar Research Australia, Australia
Ensuring biosecurity in sugarcane cultivation
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Biosecurity in sugarcane cultivation is an important factor in maintaining and improving yields. It can refer to the day-to-day management of established pests, diseases and weeds, as well as preparing for unusual threats to the industry, and safeguarding agriculture and natural resources. This chapter focusses on the sugarcane industry’s preparedness for exotic pathogens, describing techniques such as pest risk analysis, quarantine control and surveys. The chapter discusses emerging technologies and examines and compares current guidelines. Finally, the chapter presents a case study of the 2006 sugarcane smut incursion in Australia.
Dr Maike Krauss
Conservation tillage in organic farming
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Conservation tillage in organic farming combines the principles of organic farming with the benefits of soil erosion control achieved by the conversion from ploughing to either reduced tillage or no-tillage/direct-seeding. This chapter reviews more than two decades of on-station and on-farm research. The chapter outlines the main benefits of conservation tillage before considering its main challenges. The chapter also contains a number of specific case studies from the field. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and offers detailed guidance on where to find further information about this subject.
Wendela Wapenaar, Simon Archer and John Remnant, University of Nottingham, UK; and Alan Murphy, Minster Veterinary Practice, UK
Control of infectious diseases in dairy cattle
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This chapter describes the developments to control infectious diseases in the dairy cattle industry, and outlines recent research in this area. A risk analysis approach is presented as a framework for managing infectious diseases at global and farm level. Disease hazards, and the release and exposure of these, are also discussed. The importance of disease detection, the use of diagnostic tests, their appropriate interpretation and surveillance are highlighted. The range of impacts of infectious diseases on the dairy industry is described and guidelines to estimate and evaluate risks of infectious diseases are provided. In addition, the challenges around successful implementation and effective communication of risk management on dairy farms are reviewed.
Thomas F. Döring, University of Bonn, Germany
Eco-functional intensification of organic farming
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Organic farming aims to increase productivity while maintaining a positive impact on biodiversity and using minimal resources. An urgent question of global importance is how organic agricultural systems can be improved with regard to the various functions of producing food, saving biodiversity and reducing resource use – in short, how organic farming can increase its multifunctional performance. This chapter offers a discussion of opportunities for and measures of eco-functional intensification (EFI) in organic farming, including material and energy flows, ecological regulation and technical developments. The chapter also summarizes and discusses general challenges of EFI.
Maureen Bain, University of Glasgow, UK
Composition and properties of eggshell
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The eggshell provides convenient packaging for the transportation of the egg contents. Since the shell is fragile, it must be handled and transported with care. Cracked and damaged eggs lead to financial losses and pose a food safety risk. A greater understanding of the eggshell and its formation will allow breeders to select for hens that produce eggs with high-quality shells. This chapter describes the structure of the eggshell and introduces to our knowledge some of the advances about its composition and properties, which have resulted from the application of new molecular techniques, including proteomic and transcriptomic approaches. Where possible it suggests how these advances may allow us to address the major challenges in this area and contribute to sustainable egg production.
Dr Chris Little
Sorghum diseases and their management in cultivation: stalk, root and other diseases
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Of all the diseases affecting sorghum, root and stalk diseases are among the most damaging and difficult to control. This is due to their hidden nature and the fact that their symptoms often resemble abiotic stressors such as drought or freeze damage. This chapter presents an overview of some of the main bacterial, viral and parasitic diseases affecting sorghum root and stalk, describing their common symptoms, environments and typical effects on yield. In each case, recommendations for effective management of the disease are given, including information regarding tillage practices, fertilizer rates, crop rotation and use of fungicides.
Andy Butterworth, University of Bristol, UK
Developments in humane slaughtering techniques for poultry
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Stunning of animals before slaughtering is now gaining global acceptance. It is being recognized as a humane slaughtering technique. This chapter discovers that cruelty to animals can be prevented and animals can be well protected by induction of unconsciousness as the first and enduring stage of the process of killing. Loss of consciousness will occur without pain. Most permitted killing methods comprise a set of effective stunning methods and this chapter describes the various stunning methods like electrical stunning, gas stunning, maceration, concussive stunning, to name a few.
Dr Carita Schneitz
Competitive exclusion treatment to control pathogens in poultry
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Competitive Exclusion (CE) describes the protective effect of the intestinal microflora against colonization of pathogenic bacteria. This review presents the background and current use of the CE concept to prevent Salmonella infections in poultry, by administration of cultures of intestinal origin to day-old chickens. This approach is a well-documented tool for effective mitigation of the risk for Salmonella infections in newly hatched chickens from being further spread horizontally in a flock or vertically in case of breeding animals. The administrated cultures compensate for the delayed development of the protective intestinal microflora in chickens hatched under hygienic conditions in modern poultry production.
Erin M. Goldberg
Enhancing the nutritional profile of eggs
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The nutrients contained within the table egg can be easily modified or enhanced through the hen’s diet. As such, the egg represents an economically viable functional food that can be utilized to deliver potent bio-active components into the human diet. In this chapter, we review the major targets of enrichment, with a particular focus on omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. We also discuss some of the potential downsides of such enrichment, including the impact on bird health and performance, increased the cost of ingredients and impact on the sensory profile, which affects consumer acceptability.
Ivar Vågsholm, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden
Case studies on food safety control in the production of fresh poultry meat: effective control of Salmonella in Sweden
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Swedish control of Salmonella in poultry is very successful, with rare findings of Salmonella in meat and almost no human cases linked to Swedish poultry meat. This chapter presents the Swedish system for controlling Salmonella in poultry, with the aim of highlighting insights which may be helpful for the development of Salmonella control programmes in other countries. The chapter begins by reviewing of the history of Salmonella control in Sweden, from the Alvesta Salmonella outbreak of 1953 through to the national Salmonella control programme introduced in 2010. It then turns to the current Salmonella control program, which aims to deliver Salmonella-free food using the following measures: preventing and eliminating Salmonella contamination in poultry feed; preventing infection of the breeding pyramid; surveillance of the production chain at critical control points; biosecurity on the production site and, whenever Salmonella is found, taking action to remove it from the food chain.
Dr Dr A. K. Ruud
Diseases affecting wheat: Septoria nodorum blotch
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Septoria nodorum blotch (SNB) is an important disease affecting wheat in many of its production areas around the world, and is caused by the ascomycete fungal pathogen Parastagonospora nodorum. Breeding for SNB resistance has been hampered by the polygenic and quantitative nature of the resistance, and the farmers often have to rely on fungicides to control the disease. In recent years, substantial progress has been made in understanding the P. nodorum–wheat pathosystem. Several host-specific interactions between necrotrophic effectors (NEs) and host sensitivity (Snn) genes have been identified and play major roles in SNB seedling resistance. Some of the NEs have been cloned and can be used to screen breeding material at the seedling stage. This chapter provides an overview of the molecular understanding of host–pathogen interactions, progress in understanding the genetics of host resistance and use of molecular markers and effector screening as promising tools in resistance breeding for this challenging disease.
J. A. Dahlberg, Kearney Agricultural Research and Extension Center – University of California, USA; and D. T. Rosenow, formerly Agricultural Research and Extension Center – Texas A&M University, USA
Classifying the genetic diversity of sorghum: a revised classification of sorghum
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This chapter provides a revised classification of sorghum. It sets out a generalized classification of cultivated sorghum from which a more precise working group can be defined to explain the variation within the chosen race. The classification is presented in a format that would be useful in breeding programmes as breeders look to incorporate exotic germplasm into their breeding lines and hybrids.
Carla Correia-Gomes, Scotland’s Rural College, UK
Changing patterns of disease affecting pigs: Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS) and Porcine Epidemic Diarrhoea (PED)
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Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome virus (PRRSv) and Porcine Epidemic Diarrhoea virus (PEDv) are two of the major viruses that affect pigs worldwide. This chapter focuses on the transmission, clinical presentation, evolution and spread of these two agents (PRRSv and PEDv), due to their importance in pig production worldwide and their evolution over the years. The chapter discusses in detail the agent, transmission, clinical presentation and evolution and spread of these two viruses in the pig population both worldwide, and more specifically, the United Kingdom. The chapter provides readers with an overview of the complexity of these two agents and how this influences their clinical presentation and evolution over time and space.
Hernán Ceballos, Nelson Morante, Fernando Calle, Jorge Lenis and Sandra Salazar, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Colombia
Developing new cassava varieties: tools, techniques and strategies
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The significance of cassava as a crop in tropical countries means that developing improved varieties is key to the sustainability of cassava production. This chapter examines how understanding the utilization of cassava can inform breeding objectives for developing improved varieties of cassava. It addresses the ways through which cassava can be bred and selected to resist common pests and diseases and examines the selection criteria used for breeding. The chapter analyses in detail the correlation between phenotypic characteristics and traits of cassava, as well as including a discussion of the relevance of breeding value. The chapter suggests a number of potential future trends in research in this area.
Dr Dr Bart De Ketelaere
Egg quality: consumer preferences and measurement techniques
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This chapter addresses consumer perceptions of egg quality and how the quality characteristics of eggs can be measured by using a variety of instrumental techniques. First, we consider what features consumers connect with egg quality. Fast, non-destructive techniques for providing an objective assessment are then discussed. Such techniques are reviewed for the determination of eggshell quality (with a focus on the presence of cracks and/or dirt, strength and shell colour) and then for the determination of internal egg quality (with particular emphasis on freshness). Methods for detecting anomalies in eggs are also discussed. The chapter concludes by mapping consumer preferences to current state-of-the-art sensing technologies and then defining some future perspectives for research.
Dr Dr James P. Legg
Diseases affecting cassava
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Cassava diseases are major production constraints wherever the crop is grown. Although diseases will continue to pose a challenge to cassava producers in the immediate future, tremendous progress is being made in developing control tactics. These range from biotechnological approaches for enhancing disease resistance to viruses to the application of biocontrol suppressors that help cassava plants resist infection from soil-dwelling fungal pathogens, and initiatives to enhance global cooperation in the implementation of robust phytosanitary measures preventing the spread of pathogens to previously unaffected territories. In this chapter, we describe the characteristics of some of the key diseases of cassava, highlight methods that are currently being applied to control them and discuss some of the promising new areas for research on cassava disease control.
Elizabeth Parkes and Olufemi Aina, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria
Breeding, delivery, use and benefits of bio-fortified cassava
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Cassava’s high caloric value, as well as its ability to tolerate dry conditions and poor soils, makes it a key food security crop in developing countries, particularly in Africa. It serves as a rich source of carbohydrates, and also contains appreciable amounts of calcium and vitamin C. However, heavy reliance on cassava as the main source of food without additional intake of protein and vitamin-mineral rich food sources can lead to nutrient deficiencies. In particular, vitamin A deficiency is a serious nutritional problem in areas with heavy reliance on cassava as a food. In this chapter, we review the HarvestPlus breeding programme for increasing the nutrient density of cassava. We then consider strategies for promoting the use of pro-vitamin A varieties by farmers and consumers. Finally, we discuss the levels and bioavailability of carotenoids in yellow-fleshed cassava after processing operations.
Dominiek Maes, Jeroen Dewulf, Filip Boyen and Freddy Haesebrouck, Ghent University, Belgium
Disease identification and management on the pig farm
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Endemic diseases constitute a major threat for a profitable and sustainable pig production worldwide. This chapter reviews the diagnosis and monitoring of pig diseases, and control measures that can be implemented on the farm. The most important issues to establish a diagnosis are discussed. Monitoring of pig diseases should focus on different parameters such as clinical signs and antibiotic usage, animal responses to infection and detection of pathogens, lesions in slaughter pigs, and feed and drinking water intake. Advantages and disadvantages of different levels of disease control are discussed. The importance of management and biosecurity is illustrated, with an overview of the components of external and internal biosecurity. The role of vaccination and antimicrobial medication is discussed, followed by future trends for improving diagnosis and disease control. Future research is warranted to better understand host–pathogen interactions and to develop better diagnostics, vaccines and control measures against infectious pig diseases.
Henk Ritzema, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Drainage systems to support sustainable water use
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In arid and semi-arid regions of the world, rainfall is supplemented by irrigation, and drainage is needed to prevent irrigation-induced waterlogging and soil salinization. Drainage systems are man-made systems that are only implemented when natural drainage is insufficient for a satisfactory form of agriculture. This chapter provides an overview of agricultural drainage systems, explains in detail the need for drainage and its benefits, and explores in some depth the challenges of making drainage work, including the construction of drainage infrastructure and ways of dealing with drainage effluent. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area of research and provides detailed guidance on further sources of information.
D. J. Ambrose, University of Alberta, Canada and J. P. Kastelic, University of Calgary, Canada
Breeding and management strategies to improve reproductive efficiency in dairy cattle
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Although high reproductive efficiency is critical to sustainable dairy farming, reproductive failure is the primary reason for culling dairy cows in many countries. Yet, high milk production and high first-service conception rates often co-exist in well-managed dairy herds. The use of artificial insemination (AI) to improve the genetic merit of dairy cows started as early as the 1930s, and because of the widespread use of AI in the dairy industry, accurate oestrus detection and timely and skilful performance of AI are of paramount importance to optimize reproductive efficiency if cattle are bred following detection of oestrus. This chapter presents various strategies to improve fertility in cows from simple methods of increasing oestrus detection efficiency to cross-breeding. It suggests ways to improve reproductive efficiency and manage both cow nutrition and the production environment to ensure the best reproductive results.
