Tan spot is a major fungal disease of wheat worldwide and a significant economic challenge facing growers. Here, we summarise common disease management strategies, including cultural practices, fungicide control and varietal resistance. We review the host–pathogen interaction and genetics of disease resistance, and discuss current tan spot research as well as future research trends towards a long-term solution. We include an example of tan spot management in Brazil and present a case study of the successful adoption of effector-assisted breeding in Australia.
Dr Dr Delia Grace
Detecting pathogens in milk on dairy farms: key issues for developing countries
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Testing for pathogens in cow’s milk on dairy farms has assumed importance these days. Pathogen testing is done to ensure milk quality and milk safety and on-farm pathogen testing is being explored. This chapter discusses this crucial issue, first by identifying the rationale for on-farm pathogen testing. Next, the most important pathogen detection tests are described. Two case studies from Tanzania and India are presented; one deals with controlling disease in cattle and the other looks into how on-farm pathogen detection will improve milk quality and enable market access to smallholders. Finally, this chapter discusses future trends in on-farm pathogen testing.
Eric R. Gallandt, University of Maine, USA; Daniel Brainard, Michigan State University, USA; and Bryan Brown, University of Maine, USA
Developments in physical weed control
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Physical weed control is the key method for reducing negative impacts of weeds in organic cropping systems, and remains important even on many conventional vegetable farms. Inter-row cultivation is generally effective, but controlling intra-row weeds remains a challenge. Well-timed use of torsion, finger and tine weeders can control intra-row weeds, with impressive efficacy observed when the tools are combined or ‘stacked’. However, selectivity of intra-row tools depends in part on maintenance of a size differential between crops and weeds, which is particularly challenging in slow-growing, direct-seeded crops. Recent advances in GPS and camera-based guidance system technologies permit high working rates, and increasingly precise, close-to-the-row tool adjustment. Innovative tool design, parameter-based values for adjustment and choice of tool, and advances in mechanistic understanding of weed seedling mortality and crop injury could elevate physical weed control to a level of performance farmers have grown to expect from modern herbicides.
Graeme W. Bourdôt and Michael G. Cripps, AgResearch Limited, New Zealand
Biological weed control in temperate grasslands
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This chapter provides a critical review of international research on biological weed control as it applies to weeds of temperate grasslands. The chapter outlines the ways in which ‘classical’ biocontrol agents, due to their natural ability to spread and find their host plant, are appropriate for the grassland on a steep terrain not readily accessible with farm machinery. ‘Bioherbicides’, by contrast, require the use of tractors, sprayers or spreaders and are therefore restricted to land accessible with farm machinery. Based on the published literature, including many historical reviews and the authors’ own research experience, the chapter identifies the constraints to, and opportunities for, the effective biological control of weeds in the world’s temperate grasslands.
John H. Sanders, Purdue University, USA; Botorou Ouendeba, former Director of the 3N Program, Niger; Ababacar Ndoye, former Director of the Institute of Food Technology, Senegal; and Niaba Témé, Institute of the Agricultural Economy (IER), Mali
Introducing new technologies and market strategies for sorghum producers in developing countries: the Sahel case
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Sorghum producers are faced with the simultaneous problems of low yields, difficult access to inputs, and are at the bottom of the marketing chain hence the lowest prices received. So a yield increasing strategy needs to confront all of these constraints. This chapter reports on the field research of a programme combining both agronomic and economic components. The programme initially included four Sahelian countries and then focused on Mali as it moved from the pilot to the scaling-up process. In this chapter, we focus particularly on the introduction of new sorghum technologies and the improvement of marketing strategies, as well as the ability of the system to respond to emerging problems.
John McNamara, Washington State University, USA
Biochemical and physiological determinants of feed efficiency in dairy cattle
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The energetic, physiological or metabolic efficiency of an animal depends on various factors, including the ingredients and physical form of the animal’s diet; the bacterial population in their digestive tract; and the interactions between their hormones, receptors, organs and metabolism patterns. In this chapter, we give a brief review of the physiology and biochemistry of the cow, and then offer an overview of the development of the biology of lactation as a research field, with particular emphasis on the growing role of genetics. Section 4 then discusses a case study on the biochemical determinants of feed efficiency in dairy cows, and finally Section 5 explores the effects of genetic variation on metabolism.
Dr Dr Erin N. Rosskopf
Bioherbicides: an overview
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Weed control is one of the greatest concerns in agriculture and land management. Chemical control methods are widespread, but there are many invasive species for which these are not economically feasible. In addition, there are social, economic and political drivers that work towards reducing the overall use of pesticides. This chapter considers the use of bioherbicides as an alternative method for weed control. We review the use of products based on natural compounds derived from plants or microbes, the classical approach to microbial bioherbicide application, and the use of an inundative approach which applies an endemic pathogen in much greater quantity than would be found naturally. Finally, we discuss how bioherbicides can be integrated into weed management programmes and the institutional changes needed for biological control adoption.
G. D. Sinniah, Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka
Diseases affecting tea plants
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Tea plantations are attacked by a number of pathogens which reduce yields and shorten the lifespan of tea bushes. This chapter reviews major diseases which pose a threat to tea production. It considers recent advances in disease diagnosis, understanding of host-pathogen interactions and management strategies. Finally, it aims to pinpoint gaps in our knowledge and provide guidelines for future research programmes.
Ranjith Ramanathan, Oklahoma State University, USA and Richard A. Mancini, University of Connecticut, USA
Beef colour development and variation
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Meat colour is a very important visual sensory attribute that influences purchasing decisions. Post-mortem muscle is biochemically active and any deviation from the ultimate post-mortem muscle pH can influence meat colour. More specifically, changes in pH can affect the key determinants of meat colour such as metmyoglobin reduction, oxygen consumption, and lipid oxidation. Recently, much research focus has been on the role of mitochondria in meat colour. The use of ‘omics’ technologies such as genomics, proteomics and metabolomics will help to better understand biochemical changes occurring during the conversion of muscle to meat. This chapter will discuss factors affecting beef colour, key biochemical reactions that influence beef colour and the role of mitochondria in beef colour.
P. Lava Kumar, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; James P. Legg, IITA, Tanzania; Maria Ayodele, IITA, Nigeria; George Mahuku, IITA, Tanzania; and Alejandro Ortega-Beltran and Ranajit Bandyopadhyay, IITA, Nigeria
Disease surveillance, diagnostics and germplasm health in crop protection
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Diseases caused by a range of established and emerging pathogens such as bacteria, fungi, oomycetes and viruses are among the persistent factors for the reduction in crop yields across sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Most damaging diseases are caused by introduced exotic pathogens and by locally evolved pathogens infecting introduced crop species. Expansion of the geographic range of established pathogens and introduced new pathogens has caused destructive epidemics and pandemics in large swaths of farmlands during the last three decades in SSA. Since establishment in 1967, IITA has prioritized disease control of its mandate crops and made remarkable progress during the past 50 years to negate their destructive impact through breeding for host resistance, integrated control tactics and preventive management. This chapter summarizes advances in disease control and ongoing efforts in disease diagnostics, surveillance and germplasm health protection.
Dr Susan A. O’Shaughnessy
Deficit irrigation and site-specific irrigation scheduling techniques to minimize water use
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Today, more than ever, efficient use of water by the agricultural sector is critical to sustaining national and global food security in both irrigated and rainfed regions. Implementing deficit irrigation (DI) strategies and site-specific irrigation management can improve crop water productivity without significantly reducing yield. Under some conditions, these management practices can also result in water conservation, while advanced technologies can facilitate environmental stewardship. This chapter describes the main DI strategies used in agriculture and reports on results from current studies using DI strategies, as well as the status for site-specific irrigation management and its role in minimizing agricultural water use.
Lynn Post, Food and Drug Administration, USA
Detecting antibiotic residues in animal feed: the case of distiller’s grains
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The purpose of this chapter is to review the methods for detection of antibiotic residues in animal feed, using the example of distillers’ grains. There is a growing concern about the use of antibiotics in the process of which distillers’ grains are a co-product. Antibiotic residues in distillers’ grains may contribute towards antimicrobial resistance in animals and humans. This chapter reviews the use of distillers’ grains as animal feed and provides an overview of multiresidue methods for analysing residues in feed, with particular attention to ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry and orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry. It also discusses the extent to which antibiotic residues have been found to survive in feed, and considers how the risk of antimicrobial resistance can be assessed
William James, formerly Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS)-USDA, USA
Beef carcass inspection systems
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This chapter provides an overview of the purposes and importance of meat inspection programmes in addressing hazards to both human and animal health. Subsequent sections cover the design, implementation and results of ante- and post-mortem inspection, and provide a review of some important procedures used by Veterinary Services to inspect cow heads, viscera and carcasses.
Dr Dr D. R. Woodfield
Balancing pasture productivity with environmental and animal health requirements
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Plant breeders face the significant challenge of developing high-performing pasture and supplementary feed crops that maintain the profitability of temperate grassland farming systems while reducing the environmental footprint and animal health issues. This chapter provides examples of where new cultivars, new species and interspecific hybrids are being developed to meet these genetically challenging environmental targets. These strategies include efforts to reduce agricultural emissions through selection for soluble carbohydrate, lipids and condensed tannins. We also provide examples of where the limited genetic variation available for conventional selection has resulted in transgenic approaches for traits with dual productivity and environmental benefits. The ability of some plantain cultivars to reduce nitrate leaching in grazed systems suggests that exploration of newer species could be beneficial. We also highlight the need for further collection of scarce genetic resources. Lastly, we provide examples of where forage breeding can directly and indirectly improve animal health and welfare.
Paul H. Hemsworth, University of Melbourne, Australia
Defining and ensuring animal welfare in pig production: an overview
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Raising pigs for consumption involves the exercise of control over the quality and duration of their lives, and it is widely accepted that there is a duty to exercise this control humanely. This chapter begins by reviewing three conceptual frameworks which can be used to consider and assess animal welfare, and discusses the development of public opinion on the subject. It then concentrates on common welfare concerns raised by pig production practices, including those related to housing, stereotypies, injuries and surgical husbandry procedures. The chapter concludes by considering opportunities to safeguard pig welfare.
Y. Bai, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands
Developments in tomato breeding: conventional and biotechnology tools
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Plant breeding is defined as identifying and selecting desirable traits in plants and combining these into one individual plant. Since 1900, Mendel’s laws of genetics provided the scientific basis for plant breeding. This chapter presents ‘conventional’ breeding technologies that have been applied in tomato breeding. The term ‘conventional’ breeding is defined as the integrated application of classic genetics principles and genomics through visual and/or molecular selection with non-GM (genetic modification) tools. In tomato breeding four conventional methods have played important roles, namely, true breeding, tomato hybrid breeding, introgression breeding and mutagenesis. In the genomics era, the ‘conventional’ tomato breeding cycle was and is being challenged by novel tools of plant breeding resulting from the availability of genomic tools and resources. At the end of the chapter, an outlook on biotechnology tools that are revolutionizing tomato breeding is provided.
Francesca Chianini, Moredun Research Institute, UK
Bacterial and viral diseases affecting sheep
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Numerous infectious diseases are known to affect sheep. Some of these, known as zoonosis, are transmissible to humans, while some must be reported to government agencies in order to allow monitoring of potential outbreaks and ensure that appropriate action is taken to limit losses. This chapter aims to provide an overview of the main classical and emerging conditions that can cause damage to the sheep farming industry, and to review currently available diagnostic tools, treatments and vaccines.
Nikhil Ghosh Hajra, Organic Tea and Agri-horticultural Consulting, India
Cultivation, production and marketing of organic tea
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This chapter provides an overview of the development of organic and biodynamic tea production in different producing countries, exploring cultivation practices, the global market for, and trade in, organic tea, and research priorities. The chapter assesses the pattern of yield trend after conversion from conventional to organic production. It provides a discussion of the development of target markets for organic tea, distribution channels and the volume of organic tea traded in the world market.
Sadia Iqbal and Michael G. K. Jones, Western Australian State Agricultural Biotechnology Centre - Murdoch University, Australia
Developments in diagnostic techniques for cereal pathogens
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Cereal pests and diseases can significantly reduce potential crop yields. Correct and timely identification in-field is key to their control. This chapter summarizes and evaluates some of the many available methods for detection of pests and diseases, ranging from classical methods of plant pathology, such as visual or microscopic recognition, to new DNA sequencing technologies. We discuss how protein-based-diagnostics that rely on specificity of antibodies, such as variations on ELISA detection and dipstick or lateral flow devices, have been extended to protein profiling by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. However, nucleic-acid-based amplification techniques using various forms of polymerase chain reaction are now widely implemented, including isothermal amplification and in-field pathogen detection. The chapter shows how the molecular diagnostic techniques are being rapidly supplemented with image-based diagnostics, which rely on hyperspectral imaging, applied via satellites or drones for regional- or field-scale monitoring of disease incidence and progression.
Hardev S. Sandhu, University of Florida, USA
Cultivating sugarcane for use in bioenergy applications: key issues
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Sugarcane (a complex hybrid of Saccharum spp.) has high biomass and sucrose accumulation in its stem, making it a favourable feedstock for bioenergy production. This chapter reviews the key issues and challenges faced when expanding sugarcane cultivation for bioenergy, namely, competition with food crops, loss of biodiversity, potential increase in pest problems, water, air and soil pollution, yield maximization, susceptibility to drought and cold, and the issues posed by sugarcane’s complex genome. We discuss how these issues are being addressed through research into genetic improvement, improved understanding of agronomics and improved pest management practices. Case studies from Brazil and the United States offer a brief overview of sugarcane development for energy production in these two countries.
G. J. Thoma, University of Arkansas, USA
Assessing the environmental impact of swine production
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The swine production industry has reduced environmental impacts during the past 50 years due to productivity gains. However, there are increasing demands on our resource base, and we need robust tools to continue to support the best decisions in the face of environmental challenges. This chapter presents a review of the environmental sustainability impacts of swine production, focused at the farm level because the majority of environmental impacts occur by this stage of the supply chain. Two case studies comparing European and US swine production and the adoption of gestation pens to replace gestation stalls are presented demonstrate the application of life cycle assessments (LCA).
Jennifer Fleming
Controversies surrounding the impact of the fat content of beef on human health
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Whether ‘red’ or ‘processed meat’ intake is related to adverse health outcomes in the US population and other developed countries is an often-debated concept. Beef frequently is a focus of such discussions because of its contribution to saturated fat in the diet. This chapter examines the evidence for a connection between beef intake and cardiovascular disease, and beef intake and the development of diabetes. It also reviews the fatty acid composition of beef and outlines the dietary recommendations considered best supported by the evidence.
Dr D. R. Panthee
Developing disease-resistant tomato varieties
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Tomato is known to be afflicted by at least 200 different disease-causing organisms from most major pathogen classes – bacteria, fungi (including Oomycota), viruses and nematodes. Despite decades of conventional breeding and selection, there are still a large number of diseases caused by these pathogen classes that make tomato production challenging in various parts of the world. Current advances in tomato genetics and genomics can be combined with conventional plant-breeding methods to introgress the gene of interest and expedite the breeding process. This chapter summarizes the historical aspect of tomato variety development and describes in detail the current status of application of technology towards the development of disease-resistant varieties. The chapter covers tomato diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses and nematodes.
Roberto Roson, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, Italy
Assessing the cost of supplying water for agriculture: the food supply cost curve
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As part of a ‘Regional Initiative on Water Scarcity in the Near East and North Africa (NENA) Region’, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has been proposing a practical tool for the assessment of investment projects called the Food Supply Cost Curve (FSCC). This chapter describes the concept of the FSCC, and outlines what steps need to be taken to practically implement an FSCC-evaluation exercise. It concludes by commenting on some preliminary findings obtained at the FAO when the FSCC had been employed in some countries in the Near East and North Africa.
Amy-Lynn Hall, United States Food and Drug Administration, USA
Detecting and preventing chemical residues in pig meat
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The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) new animal drug approval process evaluates veterinary drugs intended for use in food-producing animals for safety and effectiveness. As part of the human food safety evaluation, new animal drugs are evaluated for microbial food safety, toxicology and residue chemistry. The chapter summarizes the evaluation process that includes the assignment of tolerance(s), withdrawal periods and milk discard times. It also establishes the criteria for violative residues, that is, residues above the established tolerance limits which may have potential adverse health effects in humans.
Dr Dr Steven C. Ricke
Alternatives to antibiotics in preventing zoonoses and other pathogens in poultry: prebiotics and related compounds
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Despite efforts to develop control measures to reduce the contamination of poultry products, food-borne illness remains a major concern to processors and consumers. Various interventions have been applied in both postharvest settings and preharvest live bird production. Prebiotics are compounds that, when consumed by birds, favour microorganisms in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract that are considered beneficial to the host and also limit food-borne pathogen colonization. This chapter reviews the groups of prebiotic and related compounds currently in use, as well as potential candidates for future application. In addition to traditional prebiotic compounds such as fructooligosaccharides, other less conventional sources such as guar gum will be discussed together with combinations of prebiotics and probiotics (synbiotics). Finally, opportunities exist to structurally refine prebiotic compounds to enhance their activities and improve their delivery to target sites in the GI tract.
Dr N. M. Schreurs
Animal and on-farm factors affecting sheep and lamb meat quality
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Ensuring meat quality is key returning value from sheep production around the world. Meat quality attributes inform customers’ purchasing decisions and define the eating experience of the consumer. Meat quality incorporates appearance traits such as the meat or fat colour and palatability characteristics such as tenderness, juiciness and flavour. This chapter examines possible on-farm factors that may affect meat quality of mutton and lamb. The chapter includes a discussion of future trends in research on sheep meat quality.
Diogenes L. Antille, National Centre for Engineering in Agriculture, University of Southern Queensland, Australia; Tim Chamen, Controlled Traffic Farming Europe Ltd, UK; Jeff N. Tullberg, National Centre for Engineering in Agriculture, University of South
Controlled traffic farming in precision agriculture
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In the past few decades, there has been a continuous drive towards the development and adoption of larger, and more powerful, agricultural machinery. Larger machinery is often related with timeliness, higher work rates and lower labour requirements, which has led to significant improvements both in efficiency and productivity, but a drawback of this trend has been the associated increase in machinery weight. This chapter defines and outlines the requirements of controlled traffic farming systems, examines the sustainability of controlled traffic farming and examines the feasibility of coupling controlled traffic farming with precision agriculture.
Vijesh Krishna, Georg-August University of Göttingen, Germany; Alwin Keil, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), India; Sreejith Aravindakshan, Wageningen University, The Netherlands; and Mukesh Meena, Indian Institute of Soil and Wa
Conservation tillage for sustainable wheat intensification: the example of South Asia
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Conservation tillage (CT) is one among the prominent agronomic innovations proposed to address stagnant wheat yields in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia. A review of recent literature and an analysis of farm household datasets indicate that the magnitude of economic impact of CT wheat, albeit being generally positive, varies widely across the region. The technology is yet to become popular among the smallholders, the diffusion constraints being system- and location-specific. This chapter highlights the relevance of locally adapted CT practices and related scaling pathways to address the prevailing diffusion constraints in the diverse agro-climatic and socio-economic settings of the heterogeneous farming community.
Chenghai Yang, USDA-ARS, USA
Airborne and satellite remote sensors for precision agriculture
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Remote sensing provides an important source of information to characterize soil and crop variability for both within-season and after-season management despite the availability of numerous ground-based soil and crop sensors. Remote sensing applications in precision agriculture have been steadily increasing in the last two decades due to improvements in spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions of airborne and satellite remote sensors. This chapter will provide an overview of manned aircraft–based airborne imaging systems and high-resolution satellite remote sensors that have been used for precision agriculture. Numerous airborne multispectral and hyperspectral imaging systems and high-resolution satellite sensors are discussed, and application examples are provided to illustrate how remote sensing imagery has been used in precision agricultural applications. Some challenges and future trends on the use of airborne and high-resolution satellite sensors for precision agriculture are discussed.
Dr Frederick Schreurs
Commercial products promoting plant health in African agriculture
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The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) usually delivers its products free of charge to national programmes and farmers, but in two projects described in this chapter, most costs were transferred to users through commercialization. This chapter explores the development and application of the biorational insecticide Green Muscle®, based on an entomopathogenic fungus against African locusts and grasshoppers and Aflasafe®, a registered product based on a non-toxigenic fungus that replaces aflatoxin-producing fungi in the soil biome and protects crops and users from aflatoxin poisoning. The chapter describes commercialization principles for these products, presenting a model user benefits and cost analysis of a biopesticide. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this field.
Jonathan Statham, Bishopton Veterinary Group and RAFT Solutions Ltd, UK
Dairy herd health management: an overview
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The importance of ensuring animal welfare and food security, of combating antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and of increasing food production, all contribute to the need for preventative medicine. Herd health management (HHM) involves the delivery of a more coordinated approach, where management interventions are prioritized and the veterinary surgeon acts as a central hub for the farm team. This chapter reviews the development of the HHM strategy and the reasons for implementing it in dairy herds. This chapter also discusses the three key stages of measurement, monitoring and management, before emphasizing the potential benefits of the system.
P. Moroni, Cornell University, USA and Universit à degli Studi di Milano, Italy; F. Welcome, Cornell University, USA; and M.F. Addis, Porto Conte Ricerche, Italy
Aetiology, diagnosis and control of mastitis in dairy herds
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Mastitis is one of the most economically important diseases in dairy production. Associated costs include treatment, culling, death and decreased milk production, and cow welfare is also compromised. This chapter reviews the indicators of mastitis and the contagious and environmental pathogens which cause it. It then discusses how mastitis can be managed and controlled on dairy farms, including consideration of dry cow therapy and the use of antibiotics.
M.B. Zhang
Advances in understanding soybean physiology and growth
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Soybean is one of the world’s most widely grown and economically significant crops, having an extensive range of end uses. Understanding soybean growth and physiology is paramount to maximising its productivity and optimising its yield. This chapter highlights recent advances in understanding soybean development, and the genetic factors underpinning the molecular mechanisms that drive it. The main physiological, molecular and bioinformatic approaches used to progress this rapidly growing research area are also outlined. Outcomes that improve the understanding of soybean growth and development could aid in the targeted selection of superior varieties, helping to maximise yields in an array of environmental conditions. Moreover, using soybean as a model species can assist in improving food security, soil health and agricultural sustainability via the enhanced understanding of legume nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Optimising these processes can help in reducing the use of expensive, often polluting, nitrogen-based fertilisers in agriculture.
Michael Abberton, Badara Gueye, Tchamba Marimagne and Folarin Soyode, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria
Conservation and distribution of cassava
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Significant germplasm collections of cassava (Manihot esculenta) have been established in international and regional genebanks and have been used extensively by plant breeders. This chapter describes both ex situ and in situ techniques of conserving cassava genetic material. The chapter demonstrates in detail that approaches to conservation are only rarely through true (botanical) seed but rather as a field collection which is regenerated every two years, as in vitro plantlets or, in the future, cryopreservation. The chapter analyses techniques of data collection and management in genebanks and germplasm distribution. It presents the case having a large potential for in situ conservation approaches with respect to wild relatives of cassava which have hitherto been unrealised.
Dr Dr R. J. Bryson
Challenges and prospects for fungicidal control of wheat diseases
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As one of the world’s ‘big three’ cereal crops, wheat has a highly significant role to play in global food security, and therefore the prevention and management of diseases affecting wheat is of paramount importance. In this chapter, we consider the current status of global wheat production, the impact of crop loss on food security and the emergence of the current regulatory environment surrounding pesticides. We then discuss the current status of the global fungicide market, and some of the major issues in its future longevity: the development of resistance to active ingredients, the impact of legislation that may restrict or remove active ingredients from the market and the rising costs of developing new active ingredients. As a result, the highly risk-averse European regulatory environment is in danger of severely limiting innovation, and an integrated agronomic approach is necessary if we are to achieve global food security.
M. Djanaguiraman, P. V. V. Prasad and I. A. Ciampitti, Kansas State University, USA
Crop management practices for grain sorghum: an overview
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Sorghum is a versatile crop, produced in more than 100 countries. However, the productivity of sorghum in developing countries is much lower than that in developed countries, due to their non-adoption of improved crop management practices. Improving the production potential of sorghum in developing countries is of critical importance due to its implications for food security. This chapter presents a variety of standard crop management techniques, including discussion of optimum planting conditions and the management of nutrients and water, and considers how practices may differ across major sorghum-producing areas such as India, West Africa, Australia and the United States. It is concluded that greatly improved yields can be obtained by matching genotype with environment and using best management practices.
Dr Virgilio Gavicho Uarrota
Advances in understanding cassava growth and development
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Understanding the physiological basis for cassava growth and development supports key strategies for the crop’s sustainable management and its genetic improvement. Key components to consider are leaf area index, plant architecture, total biomass yield, photosynthetic rate, root bulking and root quality. This chapter aims to highlight advances in understanding cassava’s fundamental physiological traits. It offers a detailed review of the growth and development of the plant’s main structural components as well as the physiology and control of carbon partitioning between source (leaves) and sink (roots) for optimizing yields. The factors which make cassava well adapted to coping with climate change are discussed, and attention is also given to understanding of the rapid post-harvest physiological deterioration of cassava’s roots, a feature that has profoundly influenced the ways that cassava is managed before and after harvest.
Frederik C. Botha, Sugar Research Australia and the University of Queensland, Australia
Advances in understanding of sugarcane plant growth and physiology
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Crop yield in sugarcane is the result of how well the source leaves can supply the assimilates needed for the growth and filling of the harvestable plant. This is the source–sink relationship, which in sugarcane is still poorly understood. This chapter discusses the significant advances made in this area in the past few decades, as well as suggesting future trends in research such as high-throughput genomic, metabolomic and phenotypic analyses that could allow refinement in crop and metabolic modelling, as well as improved breeding and production strategies.
Adebayo Abass, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Tanzania; Wasiu Awoyale, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Liberia and Kwara State University Malete, Nigeria; and Lateef Sanni and Taofik Shittu, Federal Univers
Breeding cassava to meet consumer preferences for product quality
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New, high-yielding varieties have transformed cassava from a low-yielding, famine-reserve crop to a high-yielding cash crop for both rural and urban consumers in Africa. The opportunity provided by this high yield in terms of lower production cost per hectare has made cassava a potential crop for large-scale or commercial-scale production. This chapter looks at the range of uses of cassava and what this means for target properties in breeding new varieties. It reviews the range of quality preferences amongst farmers, and a range of nutritional, sensory, processing and product properties that could be used in setting future breeding priorities for cassava.
Luis Garrote, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Climate change and water resources for agriculture
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Population growth and climate change increasingly challenge water supply systems, and population dynamics, growing demands, pollution, land use changes and other factors frequently produce the failure of some water supply systems. Climate change is believed to augment the existing pressure on water resources. This chapter presents an introduction to the effects of climate change on water resources and analyses their impacts on agriculture. The chapter focuses on several major challenges: the estimation of climate change impacts on rainfed agriculture and water resources, the analysis of current and future water availability, guidelines for climate change adaptation policies in agriculture and water resources and the selection of climate change adaptation options. The chapter also includes a detailed case study analysing water availability for several Southern European basins. The chapter looks ahead to future research topics and provides some suggestions for further reading.
Georg Goergen and Peter Neuenschwander, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Benin; and Danny Coyne, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Kenya
Conserving and exploiting biodiversity in crop cultivation in sub-Saharan Africa
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Under relentless global population growth the key challenge is to increase agricultural production while preserving biodiversity and reducing the pressure on ecosystems and natural resources. As a first step, the development of sustainable agricultural practices requires thorough understanding of all biodiversity components and their interlinkages in agricultural and natural environments. This chapter outlines how the application of taxonomic expertise can successfully resolve important agricultural pest problems. The chapter describes the development of the insect collection at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and offers specific examples to demonstrate the importance of an accurate diagnosis. The chapter considers how best to exploit scientific collections, reviewing new challenges and opportunities and the importance of protecting as well as using biodiversity.
Dr William A. Dozier
Advances in understanding and improving the role of amino acids in poultry nutrition
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Dietary amino acids are central to optimizing growth performance, meat yield, and egg production of poultry. This chapter addresses amino acid digestibility coefficients for feed ingredients, digestible amino acid requirements of poultry based on production efficiency, and the role of supplementation of crystalline amino acids on nitrogen balance and ammonia output of poultry. In addition, knowledge gaps in the scientific literature related to amino acid responses of poultry will be discussed.
Jean-Louis Chopart, AGERconsult, France (Section 3.2 contributed by M. T. Sall, B. Ahondokpe, and G. Walter, Senegalese Sugar Company, Senegal)
Advances in sugarcane irrigation for optimisation of water supply
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A long-standing water deficit outside the pre-harvest stage may reduce sugarcane yield and, as climate changes, irrigation presents a major challenge to improving sugarcane crop performance and extending cultivated areas. This chapter describes the water requirements of sugarcane and current irrigation practices, as well as suggesting ways of adjusting and optimising sugarcane irrigation that can make it more sustainable, including decision-making tools. The chapter includes detailed case studies of irrigation practices in Réunion Island (France) and Sénégal as examples of contrasting environments. It looks ahead to future developments and brings forward proposals for improving irrigation efficiency and sustainability for smallholders.
M. A. Price, University of Alberta, Canada
Biological types of cattle: carcass and meat quality
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This chapter describes the domestication of cattle and the origins of many breeds found in the world today. The breeds are grouped into biological types, based on their size, muscularity and propensity to fatten, and the commercial role of each type is discussed. The relationships between biological types and carcass and meat quality are examined, and the breeds are identified as repositories for specific traits of value to the beef industry. Traditional methods of improving carcass quality through phenotypic trait selection and opportunities to improve meat quality through the application of genomics are discussed.
Alexander C. O. Evans, University College Dublin, Ireland; and Shenming Zeng, China Agriculture University, China
Causes, prevention and management of infertility in dairy cows
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Reproduction and fertility are central components to successful dairy enterprises, and an appropriate management and understanding of the physiological events needed for fertility is crucial to sustainable dairy farming. This chapter discusses the physiology of the main impediments to fertility and management issues that need to be addressed in order to ensure good fertility of dairy cows. It deals with parturition and uterine health, the importance of the post-partum environment and the role of oestrus, as well as methods of establishing pregnancy and the effect of heat stress on cows’ fertility. The chapter also examines fertility of heifers and the impact of genetics on fertility, and provides suggestions for further reading in this area.
Kaustav Majumder, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, USA and Yoshinori Mine, University of Guelph, Canada
Composition and properties of egg white
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Eggs are the most economical and abundant source of high-quality dietary protein, and are noteworthy for both their nutritional and functional properties. This chapter provides detailed information about the structure, chemical composition and functionality of egg white. Section 2 reviews the structure of egg white, and Section3 offers an overview of the proteins in egg white. Sections 4–9 then provide a detailed review of nine important proteins. Finally, Section 10 covers carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins as minor components of egg white.
Michael Wachendorf, University of Kassel, Germany
Advances in remote sensing for monitoring grassland and forage production
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Obtaining cheap, appropriate and timely information on vegetation will be essential for sustainable and economically viable management of grassland and forage swards in the future. Remote sensing (RS) offers new possibilities to monitor vegetation repeatedly and at large scale, but so far, only a few applications exist. This chapter describes the most important sensor types, reviews the developments in sensor performance over recent decades and identifies significant advances for grassland research and practice. The development of systems with complementary sensors is presented as a promising research area, which will help to overcome the limitations of single sensors and provide better information about grassland composition, yield and quality. Thematic maps of farm fields are suggested as the central outcome of RS and data analysis. These maps could represent the relevant grassland features and constitute the basis for various farm management decisions at the strategic, tactical and operational levels.
R. Srinivasan, AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center, Taiwan
Bio-ecology of major insect and mite pests of tomato crops in the tropics
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In tropical climates, tomato production is severely constrained by insect and mite pests. The use of broad-spectrum chemical pesticides can make this problem worse, since it can eliminate the natural enemies of these pests. Changes in cropping system and the impacts of a warming climate can also alterthe damage potential of pest infestations. Understanding the bio-ecology of these pests is therefore essential to developing effective strategies to manage them. In this chapter, we review recent research on the bio-ecology of the major insect and mite pests affecting tomato crops, including aphids, thrips, whitefly, various Lepidopteran species and spider mites. In each case, we consider how the pest affects the tomato plant, the natural enemies of the pest and how global warming could impact each pest
Per McCord, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in marker-assisted breeding of sugarcane
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Sugarcane breeding has until very recently been based solely on phenotype, and marker-assisted breeding of sugarcane remains in its infancy compared with that of row crops such as maize and soybean. A major reason for this is the complex genetics of sugarcane. This chapter reviews the uses of DNA marker technology in fingerprinting and diversity analysis of sugarcane. This is followed by a review of the development of linkage maps and initial trait/QTL mapping, including the Bru1 locus for resistance to brown rust (Puccinia melanocephala). Finally, the chapter reviews the use of newer next-generation sequencing–based technologies in sugarcane, including genome-wide association analysis and genomic selection.
Dr Dr Bernadette O'Brien
Chemical contaminants in milk
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Developments in analytical technology now allow the identification of some contaminants in milk that were not previously considered. It is critically important that mechanisms are devised to eliminate or reduce these contaminants below the maximum limit allowed by food safety regulations. Thus, the development, metabolization, measurement and reduction process of contaminants in milk must be understood and addressed. These processes are examined in this chapter through three case studies involving dietary iodine, veterinary medicines (specifically flukicides) and cleaning and disinfection agents containing chlorine as the active ingredient.
Dr Rianto van Antwerpen
Advances in harvesting and transport of sugarcane
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The chapter describes preparation of sugarcane for harvesting, harvesting options, in-field loading and transport. It considers two harvesting systems: manual and mechanical harvesting, each of which is affected by whether the crop is burnt or not burnt immediately before harvest. The chapter explores the advantages and disadvantages of each method and suggests directions for future development in this field.
Michael E. Dikeman, Kansas State University, USA
Beef carcass grading and classification
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This chapter reviews the three main beef carcass grading or classification systems used across three continents. These are used for a large proportion of beef production and processing in the world. One is the ‘EUROP’ system for EU countries, another is the USDA Beef Carcass Grading system in the United States and the third is the Meat Standards Australia system in Australia. The chapter also discusses grading in Japan.
Dr Chengjun Wu
Advances in flood-tolerant varieties of soybean
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Flooding is a serious abiotic stress that drastically causes soybean yield loss around the world. As a result, a large number of studies have been conducted to understand soybean responses to flooding on agronomic, morphological, physiological and molecular levels. This chapter summarizes current understanding of flooding impact and the natural adaptation of soybean to flooding. The chapter also evaluates current and future flooding survival strategies, including the use of genetic engineering to improve flooding tolerance, and various agronomic techniques for the management of flooding stress. It is concluded that an integrated approach is likely to prove most effective in preventing and mitigating the effects of flooding on soybean growth and yield.
Ingrid C. de Jong and Rick A. van Emous, Wageningen Livestock Research, The Netherlands
Broiler breeding flocks: management and animal welfare
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Broiler breeders are the parent stock of broiler chickens. Appropriate management in the rearing and the production period is essential to produce a high number of fertile eggs and high-quality broiler chickens. However, research has shown that current management practices may affect the welfare state of broiler breeders, during both the rearing and the production period. This chapter describes the housing and management of broiler breeders. It then reviews the major welfare issues related to the management of broiler breeders, including feed and water restriction, excisions and the potential for management strategies to have transgenerational effects.
Jacqueline Jacob and Anthony Pescatore, University of Kentucky, USA
Assessing the sustainability of organic egg production
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Organic food production has increased in popularity in the last few decades, although it still remains a small portion of global food production. As questions arise about the sustainability of conventional egg production systems with regard to environmental protection and animal welfare, there has been a push to move away for the caged-rearing systems used in conventional egg production. The question arises: Do organic production systems increase the welfare of the birds and, at the same time, reduce environmental impact. Comparisons of the two broad definitions of egg production systems show that neither system is ideal. Any poultry production system has scope for improvement and thus has the potential to reduce its environmental impact and improve animal welfare.
James Anderson, University of Minnesota, USA
Advances in disease-resistant wheat varieties
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The strategies used in breeding disease-resistant wheat are informed by the importance and frequency of the disease, availability of resistant germplasm, genetics of resistance and means of selecting for resistance. Gene mapping to identify regions of the genome controlling important traits has been an important tool for plant geneticists and breeders. This chapter includes a case study of breeding for FHB resistance, illustrating the challenges and opportunities with an episodic disease, introgression of resistance genes from non-adapted germplasm and utilization of DNA marker technology. The use of quantitative trait locus mapping and breeding programme to develop rust-resistant germplasm are also described.
Dr Piya Kittipadakul
Breeding cassava for higher yield
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Cassava is a root crop that adapts well to a wide range of environments. A key factor for grower decisions regarding when to plant cassava is whether a profit can be expected from the crop; increasingly, only cassava growers with high productivity can survive in the volatile price environment. This chapter reviews the strategies and factors for success in cassava breeding for higher yield, including the importance of genetic diversity and breeding schemes. There is a particular focus on Thailand, which has hosted some of the most successful breeding programmes involved in improving cassava varieties over a period of more than 40 years.
E.E. Large, E. Beche, D. Mutoni and A. Scaboo, University of Missouri, USA
Advances in conventional soybean breeding techniques
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Soybean cultivar selection techniques and advances in variety development continue to evolve. The planning that goes into selecting superior soybean varieties is currently complicated by changing environments, a growing global population and decreasing productive farmland. In this chapter, the most recent developments in modern conventional soybean breeding techniques are described in relation to sustainable soybean production.
Thushari Lakmini Wijeratne, Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka
Assessing and reducing the environmental impact of tea cultivation
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Tea is one of the most popular beverages in the world. Consequently it has become an important plantation crop in many countries. As a perennial crop occupying a large proportion of arable land, assessing its environmental impact would benefit the economy of tea growing countries immensely. This chapter reviews the impact of the tea industry on the environment and human activity. It covers the life cycle assessment methodology tailored to tea production, covering cultivation to final waste disposal, its carbon footprint as well as all the other different on- and off-farm impacts caused by the tea industry. Further possible measures to minimize these impacts are also discussed. Two case studies address the CO2 sink/source nature of tea plantations as the cultivation stage is one of the most significant contributors to the carbon footprint of tea. There is a growing awareness of the environmental impact of any commodity on the market. Therefore, the future trends in research requirements for the sustainability of the tea industry are also briefly explained.
B. N. Harsh and D. D. Boler, University of Illinois, USA
Branded beef programmes
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The emergence of branded beef programmes has had tremendous impact on the beef industry worldwide. As a means to ensure consumer satisfaction and as a tool for differentiation, branding strategies have changed over the years, yet the basic principles of a successful beef brand have not. This chapter will discuss the factors that define successful brands, history and growth of branded beef programmes, the effects of brands on consumer perception, changing consumer demands, including natural and organic beef, international beef branding trends and the role of technology in improving the position of branded beef programmes.
Hermann Buerstmayr, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Austria; Volker Mohler, Bavarian State Research Center for Agriculture, Germany; and Mohan Kohli, Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology, Paraguay
Advances in control of wheat diseases: Fusarium head blight, wheat blast and powdery mildew
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Fusarium head blight, wheat blast and powdery mildew are among the serious damaging diseases of wheat, which are caused by fungi of Ascomycota phylum. Integrated approaches are mandatory for efficient control of all three diseases. Control measures may either contribute to reducing the abundance of inoculum (particularly ascospores or conidia) or hamper infection and/or disease development should inoculum be present. This chapter provides insight into agronomic control measures of all three diseases, including adoption of resistant cultivars. Case studies of genomics-assisted resistance breeding are also discussed. For all three diseases, in addition to genetic control, designing optimal integrated control strategies and refining real-time, site-specific decision support systems are essential.
David S. Buchanan, North Dakota State University, USA
Advances and constraints in conventional breeding of pigs
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Traditional methods of genetic improvement, both through selection programmes and proper use of breed differences and heterosis, have been effective in improving production efficiency. This improvement has been realized primarily in reproductive performance, growth rate and carcass composition. This chapter begins with a historical overview of advances in pig breeding from the end of Second World War. There remain needs for improvement in traits associated with efficiency, disease resistance, behaviour and longevity, and the next two sections review new approaches to genetic improvement with a focus on these traits.
Young W. Park. Fort Valley State University, USA
Bioactive components in cow’s milk
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Milk contains many bioactive compounds with health benefits beyond simple nutrition. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of bioactives in milk and research on their nutraceutical properties. These include bioactive proteins such as caseins, whey proteins such as α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin and enzymes such as lactoperoxidase and lysozyme. The chapter then reviews bioactive peptides with antihypertensive, antioxidative peptides, antithrombotic and other therapeutic properties before going on to cover bioactive lipids such as conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), phospholipids and cholesterol. It concludes by discussing bioactive arbohydrates such as lactose and oligosaccharides, other bioactive compounds such as growth factors, cytokines, polyamines, nucleosides and nucleotides as well as bioactive minerals and vitamins.
Lukas Pfiffner and Laura Armengot, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Switzerland
Biodiversity as a prerequisite of sustainable organic farming
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Over the last century, the intensification of agriculture with high inputs of synthetic pesticides and fertilisers combined with monocrop specialisation has been detrimental to the diversity of genetic resources of crop varieties and livestock breeds, to the wild flora and fauna species and to the diversity of ecosystems. Higher levels of biodiversity can strengthen farming systems and its resilience under changing environmental conditions. This chapter gives an overview of the impact of organic farming on biodiversity. The chapter considers land-use intensity, the impact of organic farming on biodiversity, biodiversity at different spatial scales and the impact of organic farming on selected functional groups. Finally, the chapter discusses some examples of the application of functional agro-biodiversity to boost key ecosystem services on organic farms, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Paul A. Iji, Mehdi Toghyani, Emmanuel U. Ahiwe and Apeh A. Omede, University of New England, Australia
Alternative sources of protein for poultry nutrition
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Soya bean and canola meal are the conventional ingredients used to provide protein in poultry feed. However, they are relatively expensive and must be imported to many poultry-producing areas. Developing alternative protein sources for poultry nutrition will reduce the pressure on these key protein sources, as well as promote the development and sustainability of the poultry industry. In this chapter, we first review the supply of conventional protein sources for poultry, and then consider the range of alternative protein sources that might be developed, including grain by-products, oil seed and fruit by-products, pulses, algae, duckweed and certain animal protein sources. We consider how birds respond to diets containing alternative protein sources, and provide recommendations for improving the nutritive value of these alternative sources.
Joseph E. Knoll, USDA-ARS, USA
Advanced technologies to accelerate sorghum breeding
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Sorghum is a critically important crop, yet advanced technologies for its improvement have lagged behind other crops like rice and maize. This chapter first summarizes some of the current technologies beyond conventional breeding methods that can be utilized for crop improvement in sorghum. Some of these techniques have been around for many years, while others, such as marker-assisted breeding, have only recently become widely adopted by sorghum breeders. This chapter then explores some newer technologies, some of which are already common practice in other crops, that have potential applications in sorghum, including doubled haploid breeding and transgenic technology.
Addressing nutritional disorders in cassava cultivation
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Cassava is drought-tolerant and grows reasonably well in relatively infertile soils where other crops would fail. However, production could be further increased if important soil-related constraints are addressed. In order to supply cassava plants with the nutrients required for optimal production, it is important to know about their nutritional requirements, diagnose correctly any deficiency or toxicity, and use adequate measures to correct these problems. This chapter describes these points for each nutrient. It also provides detailed discussion of the soil and nutrient management strategies most suitable for the three main cassava-growing regions: Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.
Dr Christopher J. Richards
Beef cattle nutrition and its effects on beef quality
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Previous dogmas suggested that body composition and subsequent carcass characteristics of beef cattle are primarily tied to mature body weight and fat thickness. Subsequent research suggests that marbling can occur at different stages of growth when sufficient nutrition is provided and that the relationship between total fat and marbling is not constant. Combined with increasing consumer demands and coordination within beef systems, opportunities exist to develop systems that capitalize on marbling and overall palatability at points throughout the production system to provide consumers with a high-quality, consistent beef product.
Alison R. Bentley and Ian Mackay, NIAB, United Kingdom
Advances in wheat breeding techniques
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Wheat production must be increased to meet growing demand, making it critical to increase the rate of genetic gain in wheat breeding. This chapter reviews the suit of core breeding methodologies currently applied, including methods proposed and employed for their advancement. It also discusses technologies, including genomic selection, F1 hybrids, genetic engineering, gene editing and mutation breeding, which, although not all new, offer exciting opportunities to advance wheat breeding.
Jehangir H. Bhadha, University of Florida, USA; and Bernard L. Schroeder, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Best management practices for maintaining water quality in sugarcane cultivation
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Best Management Practices (BMPs) in agricultural crops are farming methods that assure optimum plant growth, profitable yields and minimized adverse environmental effects. This chapter focusses on the achievement of BMPs in maintaining water quality for sugarcane cultivation, drawing on evidence from two well-established long-term BMP programs providing a measure of water quality management: the BMP program (SmartCane) adopted by the Australian Sugar Industry, and the BMP program adapted by growers in the Everglades Agricultural Area in South Florida, USA. The chapter addresses the importance of understanding nitrogen cycling to maintaining water quality and thereby sustainability of sugarcane production.
E. A. Heinrichs, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA; F. Nwilene, The Africa Rice Center, Nigeria; M. Stout, Louisiana State University, USA; B. Hadi, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), The Philippines; and T. Freitas, Universidade Federal Rio
Management of rice insect pests
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Rice farmers face many abiotic and biotic constraints in their quest to increase rice production. In conjunction with the introduction of new high yielding drought and flood tolerant rice varieties, increasing yields will require a reduction in losses to insect pests. This chapter discusses current strategies for managing rice insect pests in an environmentally sustainable manner. It reviews integrated pest management (IPM) as it applies to rice cultivation, and includes discussions of the impacts of cultural practices, conservation biological control and augmentative biological control, and the selective use of insecticides. Finally, dissemination mechanisms for rice IPM are considered.
S. Ivemeyer, University of Kassel, Germany; and A. Bieber and A. Spengler Neff, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Switzerland
Organic dairy farming: key characteristics, opportunities, advantages and challenges
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As the organic dairy farming sector grows across Europe, it is necessary to continuously review its various merits and challenges within the organic sector and in comparison with conventional farming methods. Drawing together empirical findings from across the Europe, this chapter summarises some of the major issues surrounding organic dairy farming, such as the effects on herd health, regulations around pasture access and different methods of calf rearing. It then considers a number of current ‘hot topics’ in this area, including the self-sufficiency of concentrated feeds and the effect of organic methods on udder health. The chapter concludes that organic dairy farming presents many potential benefits, but notes that improvements are necessary, particularly in the area of animal health. It emphasises that solutions to current problems must be site-specific, while observing that particularly successful strategies could serve as helpful models in both organic and conventional dairy farms.
Glen Hartman, ARS-USDA and University of Illinois, USA
Bacterial and viral diseases affecting soybean production
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Pathogens of soybean include bacteria, fungi, nematodes, oomycetes, parasitic plants and viruses. Losses due to diseases are estimated to be about 14% of total soybean production. In this chapter, we review bacterial blight, pustule, tan spot and wilt, as well as a few other bacterial diseases affecting soybean. We then discuss a few of the viral diseases of soybean, namely alfalfa mosaic virus, bean pod mottle virus, soybean mosaic virus, soybean vein necrosis virus, tobacco ringspot virus and tobacco streak virus. We also consider how the impact of bacterial and viral pathogens can be decreased through management practices such as crop rotation, utilization of pathogen-free seed, better use of synthetic and non-synthetic pesticides for vector control and deployment of cultivars with resistance.
Nicola Bradbear, Bees for Development, UK
Organic and natural beekeeping, and caring for insect pollinators
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The pollination of flowering plants is crucial for the maintenance of earth’s biodiversity, and most food crops depend upon insect pollinators. Unfortunately, conventional agricultural practices tend to diminish the numbers of wild insect pollinators while increasing our need for them. This chapter introduces the numerous ways in which some bee species are managed for optimal pollination of crops, as well as for harvest of honey, beeswax and other bee products. The chapter discusses conventional, natural and organic beekeeping practices, as well as possible ways to encourage biodiversity and abundance of indigenous pollinating insects.
Dr Dr Frédéric Normand
Advances in understanding mango tree growth and canopy development
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The mango tree canopy acts not only as a carbohydrate factory, through photosynthesis, and as a support for reproduction; it is also the place where vegetative growth occurs and the tree develops. The spatial and temporal proximity of vegetative and reproductive growth in the mango tree canopy leads to complex interactions. This chapter reviews the current state of knowledge on vegetative growth and deciphers these interactions, in order to inform more efficiently cultivation practices and future research. It presents the architectural model of the mango tree. The basic structural entity, the growth unit, is then defined and its morphology, growth and development are reviewed. The chapter then discusses the relationships between the growth unit and canopy development, along with the effects of environmental and endogenous factors on tree phenology. Finally, the interactions between vegetative and reproductive growth are described, leading to a complex picture of the mango tree canopy.
Dorothy McKeegan, University of Glasgow, UK
Beak trimming of laying hens: welfare costs and benefits
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Beak trimming is a procedure routinely applied in the egg industry to prevent feather pecking and cannibalism. The traditional method of trimming by application of a hot blade (HB) has been superseded by infrared (IR) beak trimming. Both methods are associated with acute pain, but there is evidence that IR trimming has welfare advantages over HB trimming. Injurious pecking in laying hens remains a complex and intractable problem and unpredictable pecking outbreaks are more likely and more severe in intact beak flocks. Beak trimming is still the most effective preventative strategy available and, while it remains the case that we cannot reliably control injurious pecking under commercial conditions, the welfare costs imposed by IR beak trimming are probably justified.
Georgios Arsenos, Angeliki Argyriadou, Sotiria Vouraki and Athanasios Gelasakis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Organic sheep and goat farming: opportunities and challenges
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Organic goat and sheep farming is a highly diverse type of production throughout Europe and other continents. Current practices are geared to achieve a number of objectives, including sustainability and high standards of animal welfare. This chapter aims to characterize organic goat and sheep farming and illustrate the diversity of systems, with a special focus on European countries. The chapter discusses a range of challenges faced by organic sheep and goat production together with some of the ways in which these challenges can be addressed. Challenges examined include nutrient deficiencies, parasitic diseases, udder diseases, lameness, claw and leg problems. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
S. F. Ledgard, AgResearch Ruakura Research Centre, New Zealand
Assessing the environmental impact of sheep production
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Sheep production may impact locally on water, air and soil quality, as well as globally, for example contributing to greenhouse gas emissions. Sheep production can also impact biodiversity, human health via various pollutants, and community and cultural well-being. This chapter examines how life cycle assessment (LCA) can be used as a tool to quantify multiple resource use and environmental impacts. A detailed comparative case study of sheep production in France and New Zealand using LCA examines how potentially harmful emissions can be assessed and measured at each stage in the life cycle of sheep products, so that the most damaging stages can be identified and steps can be taken to mitigate them. The chapter offers indications of future trends in research in this area.
Wensheng Hou, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China
Advances in the genetic modification of soybeans
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Transgenic soybean holds a significant share of the soybean market. However, the traits improved by genetic modification of soybean so far remain limited, with herbicide tolerance being the primary trait exhibited by genetically modified (GM) soybean. Several other agronomic traits could be usefully improved, such as insect resistance, oil composition and amino acid composition. Valuable genes and efficient transformation systems are the key requirements for the improvement of GM soybean. In this chapter, we describe recent advances in the genetic modification of important agronomic traits of soybean, and review the genome editing technology available.
J. P. Hill, Fonterra Cooperative Group, New Zealand
Assessing the overall impact of the dairy sector
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Dairy is the number one agricultural commodity by value, provides livelihoods for 1 billion people and is key to enriching diets the world over. Yet, global consumption of dairy falls short of national dietary guidelines. Increasing dairy consumption to match dietary guidelines could save billions of dollars in health budgets and help reduce the incidence of non-communicable diseases. Dairy is responsible for 2.7% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, but farming practices can reduce this figure. Milk production uses 1 billion Ha of the Earth’s land, but headline statements about land use or GHG mask a level of detail crucial to understanding debates about diet and sustainability. This chapter examines the socio-economic impact of dairy on livelihoods and nutrition as well as its ecological impact, arguing that a balance must be struck between reducing dairy’s environmental impact and increasing milk consumption. The chapter explores global frameworks for sustainable production.
Charley Richard, Sugar Processing Research Institute and the New York Sugar Trade Laboratory, USA
Analysing the processing quality of sugarcane
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Sugarcane, belonging to the genus Saccharum, is a grass grown in many tropical and subtropical areas of the world. As industries attempt to achieve sustainability in sugar production and in the production of current and potential by-products from sugarcane, knowledge about its compositional traits will become increasingly important. In this chapter, we discuss the composition of the whole sugarcane plant, the sugarcane juice and sugarcane fibre and bagasse. We review how composition varies among and within species of sugarcane, and among commercial varieties. We then cover sucrose extraction methods, sustainable production and harvesting practices, quality parameters and grower payment schemes.
Shichen Zhang
Advances in pest-resistant varieties of soybean
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A number of insect pests have been threatening soybean production in North America, including lepidopteran defoliators, coleopteran defoliators and hemipteran sapsuckers. Among various control methods, host-plant resistance has been of the greatest interest as it is economically and environmentally friendly. This chapter will review recent advances in research on improving soybean with host-plant resistance in North America, and discuss challenges of developing highly insect-resistant cultivars with competitive yield performance. The chapter will cover attempts to genetically engineer soybean with Bt insecticidal protein genes as well as gene pyramiding in order to gain broad and durable resistances against multiple insects. The chapter includes a review of future trends and points the reader towards further reading in this area.
Dr Dr Alfredo J. Escribano
Integrated crop-livestock systems with agroforestry to improve organic animal farming
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The International Federation of Organic Movements (IFOAM) has established four fundamental principles which underpin organic farming. One way of achieving these principles is the use of integrated crop-livestock systems, which is very common for well-balanced organic systems with animals. This chapter reviews types of such systems, with a focus on agroforestry systems, their potential environmental and economic benefits, their contributions to animal health and welfare, as well as challenges in implementing and managing such systems whilst ensuring a high animal health and welfare level.
L. G. Smith, The Organic Research Centre and Cranfield University, UK; and A. G. Williams, Cranfield University, UK
The effects of organic management on greenhouse gas emissions and energy efficiency in livestock production
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The central objectives of organic farming are reducing external inputs and increasing long-term sustainability. Whilst there may be local improvements in resource efficiency, the extent to which organic livestock systems contribute to net greenhouse gas mitigation and fossil energy efficiency gains depends on the livestock type, the unit of comparison and the system boundaries in time and space. This chapter explores these factors and gives examples of where organic systems could be improved. It also considers soil carbon sequestration in organic livestock systems. Three individual case studies are presented to show how organic producers are implementing measures to improve environmental efficiency in practice. Challenges and opportunities for the sector are discussed from research, farm practice and regulatory perspectives.
Christopher Preston, University of Adelaide, Australia
Assessing and minimizing the environmental effects of herbicides
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Herbicides are widely used to control weeds; however, they can have other effects on the environment. Herbicides can move from the site of application through spray drift, volatilization from surfaces, surface run-off or leaching to groundwater. This chapter examines the sources and fate of herbicides in the environment and the environmental effects of herbicides. It also addresses the ways in which the environmental effects of herbicides may be managed and reduced, including the use of herbicide substitutes and mitigation of herbicide effects, and looks ahead to future trends in this area of research.
D. L. Hopkins, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Centre for Red Meat and Sheep Development, Australia
Ageing, physical and chemical methods for improving tenderness and palatability of beef
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The biochemical understanding of tenderization has helped in the design of more targeted approaches to improve beef tenderness through the utilization of specific enzymes. There has also been development of technologies such as SmartStretch™ and the Pi-Vac Elasto-Pack System®, which offer industry scope to improve the tenderness of specific muscles, and there is scope to combine technologies as these techniques have the potential to reduce the time required to age beef to reach acceptability thresholds. Other technologies such as pulse electric field and high-pressure processing may have specific application in the future, but scaling up the technology is a significant challenge. To meet consumer demands, grading systems that go to the cut and even muscle level are required so that the inherent variation within and between carcasses can be accounted for and value maximized.
Dr Mainaak Mukhopadhaya
Advances in genetic modification of tea
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Due to its botanical characteristics, genetic improvement of tea is slow. Its high gestation period, the difficulty of producing homozygous lines, and the non-availability of mutant genotypes and a mapping population are all hindrances to development. This chapter describes and evaluates the potential of genetic transformation as an alternative for varietal improvement of tea, via the deployment of agrobacterium and particle bombardment. The chapter describes in detail progress global progress on research into transgenic tea.
Mette Vaarst, Aarhus University, Denmark
Rethinking and engaging with animal health in organic farming
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The organic principle of health highlights ‘the wholeness and integrity of living systems’. It is not simply the absence of illness, but the maintenance of physical, mental, social and ecological well-being. We often articulate health as simply ‘disease freedom’. However, this chapter argues that if we see ‘resilience’ as a key component of health, we focus more on how we can meet the species-specific needs and challenges of each animal species, both as individuals (physical and mental well-being), as groups (social well-being), and in their surroundings and their landscapes in many different contexts (ecological well-being). The human responsibility towards animals is to understand their natural needs, organize the surroundings to allow the animals to meet them and at the same time be ready to intervene to prevent or stop suffering. The chapter gives practical and research-based examples of how to support the different aspects of animal health.
Mette Vaarst, Aarhus University, Denmark; and Stephen Roderick, Duchy College, UK
Setting the scene: the continued drive to improve organic animal farming
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All the elements of current global development – urbanization, industrialization, population growth, food insecurity, environmental degradation, climate change and other universal issues – call for more equitable and balanced agricultural systems, including new and innovative ways of keeping and integrating animals into our food production systems. This chapter is ‘only’ the introductory chapter which explains the ‘logic’ behind the composition of this book and highlights the key issues which the various authors described, analysed and discussed in their chapters. The chapter highlights important points made in the book Improving organic animal farming, addressing both key farm animal species as well as species less frequently discussed until now, such as fish and bees. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Eliot M. Herman, University of Arizona, USA
Allergens in soybean
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Soybean protein is one of the most significant sources of food allergens and intolerance, causing both IgE-mediated allergy and food protein-induced endocolitis syndrome (FPIES). This chapter first discusses the mechanisms causing allergies and infantile food intolerance. It reviews what we know about adverse food responses, the gut’s response to food and the individual soybean proteins that elicit an immunological response. The chapter also discusses how to reduce allergens in soybean plants as well as the particular problem of intolerance in salmonids with implications for aquaculture.
Professor Professor Robert van Barneveld
Advances in understanding pig nutritional requirements
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Linking advances in our understanding to sustainable production of pig meat requires a more lateral perspective centred on the primary drivers of sustainability. This chapter considers advances in nutritional requirements and metabolism and how these contribute to sustainable production of pig meat, including the need to maintain sow body condition throughout gestation and lactation and ways of reducing variation in pork production systems. The chapter examines strategic use of metabolic modifiers and the importance of matching nutrient requirements to pig diet specifications and optimising gut health and nutrient utilisation capacity. The chapter provides a useful overview of understanding the interaction between nutrition and pig health.
David R. Walker, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in disease-resistant varieties of soybean
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Soybean yields worldwide are reduced by a variety of diseases. Advances in breeding techniques have facilitated the development of soybean cultivars with broader and more durable resistance, but continued reliance on a small number of major resistance genes remains a concern. Introgression of resistance genes from unadapted germplasm sources with a reduced risk of linkage drag has become more efficient with marker-assisted selection. Advances in DNA sequencing and other technologies have made it possible to identify novel resistance loci and candidate genes. This chapter summarizes what is currently known about resistance to some of the major diseases affecting soybean production, particularly in North America, and genes that condition resistance to those diseases.
Yinglong Chen, The University of Western Australia, Australia; Northwest A&F University, China; Ivica Djalovic, Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Serbia; and Kadambot Siddique, The University of Western Australia, Australia
Advances in understanding grain legume physiology: understanding root architecture, nutrient uptake and response to abiotic stress
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Root system architecture (RSA) influences root foraging and resource uptake from the soil and thus determines plant growth and productivity in grain legumes. Understanding RSA, nutrient uptake and its response to drought and other abiotic stresses is vital for breeding super genotypes for efficient water and nutrient acquisition and with enhanced adaptation to edaphic stresses. This chapter describes the role of root architecture in plant health, available approaches for measuring root architecture, variability of RSA traits across genotypes and its implications for breeding drought-resistant varieties. The chapter explains how combined root phenotyping, non-destructive imaging, root model simulations and molecular techniques can serve as tools in breeding legume genotypes with optimised root system for enhanced adaptation to target environments.
K. R. Latha and L. Vimalendran, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India
Improving the cultivation of pigeonpea
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Production of pigeonpea is constrained by agronomic management techniques such as improper methods of sowing, incorrect sowing time, inadequate seed rate, insufficient weeding, imbalance of fertilization, inadequate intercultural operations, insufficient irrigation and inadequate use of fertilizers. Low plant densities, low soil fertility, insufficient weeding and insufficient/ inappropriate use of fungicides and herbicides may also be constraints. This chapter analyses integrated crop management techniques for pigeonpea with an emphasis on efficient fertilizer and water use to maximize sustainable yields. The chapter examines the role of weed management and the potential contributions of pigeonpea hybrid cultivars, early maturing pigeonpea varieties, as well as rabi and summer pigeonpea. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Markus Rodehutscord, University of Hohenheim, Germany
Advances in understanding the role of phytate in phosphorus and calcium nutrition of poultry
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In plant seeds, the primary storage form of phosphorus (P) is phytic acid (InsP6), which is usually present in salt form (phytate). Utilization of P from InsP6 and lower forms of InsPx by animals requires stepwise cleavage of P from the inositol ring by phytases. In broiler chickens, the potential to utilize InsP6-P is very high. However, degradation of InsP6 in the gastrointestinal tract is variable and affected by supplements of calcium, P, and other dietary factors. Fine adjustment of feed ingredients and supplements of P, calcium, and phytase are crucial for practical feed formulation to be sustainable through high utilization of InsP6-P and low inclusion of feed phosphates. The potential of turkeys to utilize InsP6-P is lower compared to broiler chickens.
Dr Fouad Maalouf
Developing improved varieties of faba bean
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The faba bean is an important cool-season food legume crop grown under different cropping systems for dry grain and green pods, animal feed and a green manure worldwide. This chapter presents the major research achievements in producing new varieties of faba bean tolerant of heat, drought and herbicides and resistant to broomrape, disease and high nitrogen fixation. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in research in this area.
D.Z. Skinner, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in cold-resistant wheat varieties
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Winter wheat is planted in the autumn and must survive the winter months before being harvested the following summer. Winterhardiness is therefore of paramount importance to the survival of the crop. This chapter reviews recent advances in our understanding of the transcriptomic and genetic basis of the wheat plants’ response to low, above-freezing temperatures and to sub-freezing temperatures. We show that wheat plants enact numerous transcriptomic and metabolic networks in response to low temperatures, and that the response is exquisitely tied to the nature of the cold stress, the developmental status of the plant, the part of the plant and the time of day of the onset of low temperature.
Bogdan A. Slominski, University of Manitoba, Canada
Advances in understanding and improving the role of enzymes in poultry nutrition
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This chapter reviews the current status of research on feed enzymes with an emphasis on identifying the key challenges researchers face in terms of current trends in enzyme development, mechanism(s) of action and enzyme efficacy. It also addresses new research directions and the development of consensus protocol and/or research approaches to prevent potential duplication of effort and to aid coordinated research and collaboration. Sections cover the key drawbacks and opportunities in the application of phytase, non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) and NSP enzymes, β-mannanase, supplemental α-amylase and protease, with a focus on achieving effective use of feed ingredients and more sustainable production of poultry meat.
B. B. Singh, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, India
Breeding improved varieties of cowpea
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Cowpea is an important source of nutritious food and fodder and it is grown as an integral component of various cropping systems in the semi-arid tropics and sub-tropics covering over 65 countries. This chapter describes existing cowpea programs and past challenges, with a particular focus on cowpea breeding at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA). The chapter gives an account of the most important examples of progress made to date, including cowpea international trials, and suggests future lines of research for the future.
