Julius van der Werf, University of New England, Australia and Jennie Pryce, Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources (Government of Victoria) and La Trobe University, Australia
Using genetic selection in the breeding of dairy cattle
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There has been a huge increase in the productivity of dairy cows over the last half a century, with the yield per cow more than doubling. This is substantially due to the use of genetic selection in dairy cattle breeding programmes. In this chapter, we review the use of artificial insemination (AI), progeny testing, embryo transfer and in vitro fertilization in breeding programmes. We then discuss how traditional progeny testing schemes are being replaced by genomic testing, resulting in a halving of the generation interval and a doubling of the rate of genetic gain. Finally, we review the objectives of breeding programmes, noting the move from focusing exclusively on production traits to an emphasis on other traits such as those related to health, fertility, functionality and feed efficiency.
Barry Allred, USDA-ARS – Soil Drainage Research Unit, USA; and Triven Koganti, Aarhus University, Denmark
Using ground-penetrating radar to map agricultural subsurface drainage systems for economic and environmental benefit
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Due to economic and environmental considerations, there exists a need for effective, efficient, and nondestructive methods for locating buried agricultural drainage pipes. Ground penetrating radar (GPR), a proximal soil sensing method, can potentially provide a means for drain line detection. This chapter details the evolution of research, through a series of studies conducted over the past twenty years, which focused on farm field mapping of subsurface drainage systems using GPR. The chapter first describes the evaluation of GPR against other proximal soil sensing methods. It then considers the factors potentially impacting GPR drainage pipe detection, goes on to examine GPR assessment of agricultural drainage pipe conditions and associated functionality implications, the effects of GPR antenna orientation relative to drain line directional trends and the integration of GPR with Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) technology. A section on drainage mapping with a multichannel, stepped-frequency, continuous wave 3D-GPR system is also provided which is then followed by a review of complementary employment of GPR and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery for drainage system characterization. The chapter concludes with a summary and recommendations for future research.
Matthias Meier, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Switzerland
Using life cycle assessment to compare intensive versus extensive agricultural systems
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The number of life cycle assessment (LCA) and LCA-based footprint studies comparing food products coming from different agricultural production systems, reflecting different production intensities, is rapidly growing providing an increasing amount of data for further analyses. This chapter examines the use of LCA to compare intensive with extensive agricultural systems. The chapter addresses the validity of LCA studies comparing intensive and extensive agricultural systems and looks at assessing validity at the inventory level (using the example of reactive nitrogen emission modeling and monitoring heavy metal emissions in different farming systems).
Megan Long, John Innes Centre, UK
Using machine learning to identify and diagnose crop diseases
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Crop diseases can cause major yield losses and the ability to detect and identify them in their early stages is important for disease control. Machine learning methods, in particular deep learning, have shown promise in classifying multiple diseases across many different crop types. In this chapter we give an introduction to how deep learning for image analysis and classification works and explain the requirements for collecting a dataset of plant disease images for use with deep learning networks. We discuss the results and successes of various previous studies and highlight pitfalls with individual methods. It is clear that deep learning is capable of handling complex disease classification problems where one disease is present. There is plenty of room for growth to work with the presence of multiple diseases in a single image or to quantify the amount of disease present.
Elisabeth Baéza and Cécile Berri, INRAE Nouzilly, France; and Edouard Coudert, Roullier, France
Using macroalgae/seaweed and microalgae in poultry feed
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This chapter describes the main nutritional characteristics of algae and the current knowledge on their effects in poultry production with consideration to their impacts on animal health, growth performance, and product quality (eggs and meat). The chemical and nutritional value of algae is explored, along with extraction methods and the benefits of algae to animals. The authors then describe their impacts on laying hen production, covering egg productivity, quality and composition, as well as hens' health. Finally algae's effect on broiler chicken production is reviewed, covering growth performance, meat production and quality, and broiler health.
R. M. Gous and C. Fisher, University of KwaZulu-Natal and EFG Software, South Africa
Using models to optimize poultry nutrition
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Today’s commercial poultry production is about making decisions and implementing them, the main objective being to maximize profit for the enterprise. Alternative courses of action should be thought of and the consequences of these actions need to be predicted. Animal nutritionists face various problems when formulating feeds for poultry. Advances in simulation modelling have made it possible to look into all aspects of production when formulating feeds for animals. This chapter deals with these issues and looks at the use of simulation models to optimize poultry production. The goal of nutritionists and modellers is to predict the responses of the poultry to nutrients. This chapter looks into this issue. The chapter also describes the methods used to predict the potential laying performance of hens and the environmental factors that affect the desired feed intake. Finally, this chapter also explains how models can be used to optimize feeding programmes.
Eva Rosenqvist, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
Using phenotyping techniques to analyse crop functionality and photosynthesis
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With climate change the occurrence of extreme weather events will increase, making stress resilience an essential trait for future crop breeding. Whilst we have a good understanding of the effect of single stress factors on photosynthesis, there is a knowledge gap on how combined stresses affect the photosynthesis. The combination of drought and heat is of special interest since they have opposing effects on stomatal regulation. Chlorophyll fluorescence can be applied in medium and high-throughput phenotyping and Fv/Fm can identify heat tolerant and sensitive genotypes, while low-throughput gas exchange can establish the mechanistic relationships that relate to harvest yield during stress. Most measurement of photosynthesis is done at steady state and saturating light after application of a single stress. Recent results indicate the importance of the way photosynthesis responds to combined stresses and fluctuating light. This chapter discusses how to perform analyses reflecting these more complex conditions.
Thomas Vatter and José L. Araus, University of Barcelona and AGROTECNIO (Center for Research in Agrotechnology), Spain
Using phenotyping techniques to predict and model grain yield: translating phenotyping into genetic gain
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Recent models predict population to peak in 2064 at around 9.7 billion, and then will likely decline to about 8.8 billion by 2100. This requires to increase crop production significantly. Precise phenotyping of the large breeding populations under diverse environments is required to harness the full potential of modern breeding techniques, and has become the new bottleneck in breeding programs. Development and application of advanced cost and time efficient phenotyping techniques on a large scale will have a major impact on achievable genetic gain in general and grain yield in specific. Traditional phenotyping techniques applied are generally time consuming and labor intense. This puts an upper limit on the size of the screening population. As such, the role of high-throughput phenotyping (HTP) techniques that allow fast and accurate phenotyping of large breeding populations in the field cannot be understated in its role for achieving higher grain yields.
Alain Tabbagh, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, EPHE, UMR7619, Métis, 4 place Jussieu 75252 Paris CEDEX 05, France; and Seger Maud and Cousin Isabelle, INRAE, Centre Val de Loire, UR0272 SOLS, 2163 Avenue de la Pomme de Pin, CS40001 Ardon, F-45075 Orléans Ce
Using proximal electromagnetic/electrical resistivity/electrical sensors to assess soil health
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Soil health assessment can be understood as a synthetic approach using complex indicators including a variety of soil physical and biological characteristics. The electrical/electromagnetic properties, whilst limited in number, are directly linked with some of the most relevant soil parameters characterizing soil health. Their measurement can be implemented through non-invasive techniques allowing to map with a fine mesh the whole surface in question and to recognize the vertical distribution of layers. They offer thus a 3D holistic approach. After a short summary of the soil health concern, the chapter recalls the definitions of the three relevant properties (conductivity, permittivity, magnetic susceptibility), and details the different electrical and electromagnetic techniques used in the soil domain. Two case studies in temperate and arid climates illustrate what can be obtained when using these techniques. A short discussion underlines the perspectives offered by a holistic approach to evaluate soil health characteristics from geophysical measurements.
Luciano S. Shiratsuchi and Franciele M. Carneiro, Louisiana State University, USA; Francielle M. Ferreira, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Brazil; Phillip Lanza and Fagner A. Rontani, Louisiana State University, USA; Armando L. Brito Filho, São Paul
Using remote and proximal sensor data in precision agriculture applications
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This chapter reviews key issues in using sensor data in precision agriculture (PA) and, in particular, their mode of deployment (proximal or remote). It assesses relative strengths and weaknesses of proximal sensing techniques, compared with imaging data typically acquired from remote sensing platforms, before assessing trade-offs in sensor data resolution, as well as sources of error in the way data is processed. The chapter concludes by looking at ways of integrating remote and proximal sensor data, to utilize the beneficial characteristics of each type of data to improve the impact precision agriculture in improving efficiency and sustainability.
John Kirkegaard and Julianne Lilley, CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Australia
Using systems agronomy to exploit deep roots in crops
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In this chapter we review strategies to capture benefits from deeper rooting, taking the example of the semi-arid southern Australian wheat belt. The chapter focusses on the theme of better capturing deep subsoil water with deeper and more effective root systems. The chapter looks at ways of increasing root depth, the role of agronomic techniques as well as genetic improvement methods.
Hilal Betul Kaya, Manisa Celal Bayar University, Turkey; Rhitu Rai, ICAR-National Institute for Plant Biotechnology, India; and Adam J. Bogdanove, Cornell University, USA
Using TALENs for genome editing in plants
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Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) are powerful tools for precise and efficient locus-specific editing. Among the various genome editing tools that were developed prior to the CRISPR/Cas system, TALENs have been the most widely used, and they remain worthy of consideration due to their unique targeting properties and the current intellectual property landscape, which give them distinct advantages over CRISPR/Cas for some applications. This chapter briefly reviews and discusses use of TALENs in plants including their important distinguishing features, as well as design principles and tools, methods for construct assembly, and other available resources to assist researchers using this technology.
Joeke Postma, Wageningen University & Research, The Netherlands
Using Verticillium albo-atrum WCS850 to control Dutch elm disease
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Approximately 100 years after the first introduction of Dutch elm disease (DED) in Europe, an effective commercial biocontrol product is available to protect susceptible elm trees against DED transmission by beetles. Injection of trees with conidiospores of the fungus Verticilium albo-atrum isolate WCS850, product name DutchTrig®, reduces infection to less than 0.2% of treated trees. This biocontrol agent, its mode of action, application, efficacy and limitations in controlling DED are described in this chapter.
N.J. Beausoleil and D.J. Mellor, Massey University, New Zealand
Validating indicators of sheep welfare
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Until recently, assessment of sheep welfare has received little attention, perhaps because sheep have traditionally been managed extensively and their relative behavioural freedom has led to perceptions of fewer or lower risks to their welfare. However, extensively managed sheep are still vulnerable to welfare challenges, and intensive systems and their attendant welfare impacts are becoming increasingly common. Regardless of the production system, practical and validated indicators of both negative and positive experiences that influence sheep welfare are required to facilitate the identification, prevention and mitigation of negative welfare impacts and to enhance welfare wherever possible. In this chapter, a process is outlined for identifying welfare indicators that are valid and practical for use on-farm, during transport or before slaughter. The chapter includes a case study on the validity of body condition score as an indicator of hunger and points to the need for research to validate indicators of specific states identified as posing risks to sheep welfare.
S.C. Ricke, V.A. Leone and A.A. Tarcin, University of Wisconsin- Madison, USA
Valorising byproducts from broiler processing: biologics and sustainability
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Poultry production and processing continue to expand globally. In addition to traditional poultry meat products, a wide range of byproducts are also produced which do not end up as human food. Poultry coproducts are generally classified as edible or nonedible, however, their downstream use depends on the type of byproduct generated during processing. Currently, many byproducts are rendered and used as animal or pet food protein supplements. However, some byproducts remain relatively unused, entering the environment as waste products. Ongoing research efforts are identifying opportunities to repurpose at least some of the waste byproducts into sources of potential biologic compounds for a variety of applications. Here, we describe current poultry processing practices along with the current outcomes for byproducts followed by future opportunities to enhance the value of these byproducts as sources of high-value biologic compounds and tissues.
George Marechera and Grace Muinga, African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF), Kenya
Value chain approaches to mechanization in cassava cultivation and harvesting in Africa
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Cassava is a basic staple food in sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. However, despite the use of improved varieties in some areas, yield levels have remained low due to inefficient production systems. Cassava production in SSA is mainly through manual labour, which is time consuming and inefficient, while cassava mechanization in Africa is almost non-existent. This is one of the key constraints to development of the sector. This chapter highlights mechanized production options. We begin by reviewing the benefits of mechanization, as well as the obstacles to mechanization on smallholder farms. We then review the valuable experience of the African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF) in promoting mechanization in SSA, the various mechanized production options and the business models which could give smallholder farmers access to the necessary machinery.
Melinda Smale, Michigan State University, USA; and Nelissa Jamora and Luigi Guarino, Global Crop Diversity Trust, Germany
Valuing plant genetic resources in genebanks: Past, present and future
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Though the intrinsic value to society of plant genetic resources conserved in genebanks may be recognized, assigning a cardinal value to them remains elusive. This chapter summarises the main messages from applied economics literature on genebank values that began in the late 1990s, a recent set of studies undertaken by the CGIAR Genebank Platform and Crop Diversity Trust, and assessments of national genebanks. Three points are salient: the value of information; the demand for a diversity of approaches to document the diversity of ways that genebanks benefit society; and the need to establish priorities for collecting and conservation based on cost-effectiveness. Cost-effectiveness will require a) carefully targeted investments in characterization, evaluation, and genotyping, along with management of the resulting data, and its use to develop packages of breeder- and researcher-oriented materials, and b) investment in supportive research and various organizational optimization procedures, including automation.
Kenneth A. Sudduth, USDA-ARS, USA; Aaron J. Franzen, South Dakota State University, USA; and Heping Zhu and Scott T. Drummond, USDA-ARS, USA
Variable-rate application technologies in precision agriculture
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The approach of precision agriculture (PA) can be viewed as cyclical in nature, involving data collection, development of management plans, implementation of those plans in the field and evaluation of the effort. This chapter examines the characteristics of variable-rate application (VRA) control systems, before going on to consider the implementation of both liquid and dry VRA systems. The chapter reviews a number of detailed VRA case studies and summarizes the current status of research in this field. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in the area.
John Fulton, The Ohio State University, USA
Variable-rate seeding systems for precision agriculture
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Variable-rate seeding (VRS) is the practice of adjusting the seeding rate or amount across a field in order to maximize yield and profit. This method of precision agriculture relies on site-specific data such as soil type, landscape position and yield maps. In the last decade, adoption of this method has dramatically increased as new planter technologies have emerged. This chapter summarizes current practices in VRS, reviewing the available technology and discussing the key strategies in its implementation. It also discusses the economic value of VRS, and the environments in which it could produce the greatest economic return.
Jean Claude Rubyogo, Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA), International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Tanzania; and Wilfred Odhiambo, Seed Systems Consultant, Kenya
Variety selection and seed quality management in grain legume cultivation
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A key aspect of grain legume crop cultivation is selecting and being able to access the seed of the right type and quality. This is becoming more challenging as grain legumes become cash crops and smallholder farmers transition from subsistence farming to market-oriented production. This chapter discusses the challenges of legume variety selection and seed quality management as well as how they can be addressed, for example through participatory varietal selection (PVS). It includes case studies on improving seed selection and quality management in practice in sub-Saharan Africa.
Arun Kumar Joshi, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT); Vinod Kumar Mishra, Banaras Hindu University, India; and Simanchal Sahu, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, India
Variety selection in wheat cultivation
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Variation among wheat plants serves as the raw material for varietal development or plant breeding, allowing the selection of plants which are suited to particular environments, management methods or markets. The superiority of an identified line is normally validated through a series of trials, and once established the new variety is registered and released for cultivation by a competent authority. In this chapter, we review the methods used to develop new varieties of wheat, including both traditional breeding and modern molecular breeding using marker-assisted selection, genomic selection and next-generation phenotyping. We also consider the criteria used by both plant breeders and farmers to select between available varieties.
Dickson Despommier, Columbia University, USA
Vertical farming systems for urban agriculture
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Judging by the rapid growth of the vertical farm industry over recent years, vertical farming is projected to become a common feature of the built environment on a global scale within the next 10–20 years. This chapter describes and evaluates technologies and methods for growing edible plants indoors and presents a survey of selected commercial vertical farms currently operating that employ them. The chapter also focuses on advanced technologies that have led to the current state of progress in the vertical farming sector of urban agriculture, starting with two growing strategies that have become widely adopted for the indoor production of edible plants: hydroponics and aeroponics. A third hybrid method, aquaponics, which incorporates fish production into the hydroponic growing scheme, is likewise described. Lighting and nutrient management in vertical farms are also covered. The chapter concludes with discussions on both the challenges and future of vertical farming.
Philippe Roumagnac, CIRAD, France; Dimitre Mollov, USDA-ARS, USA; and Jean-Heinrich Daugrois and Denis Filloux, CIRAD, France
Viral metagenomics and sugarcane pathogens
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Plant viral metagenomics has recently proved effective for studying the collection of plant viruses. The advent of metagenomics-based approaches has led to the discovery and characterization of new plant viruses. This chapter describes the plant virus metagenomics methods developed during the last decade and their application in sugarcane pathology. The chapter includes recent studies that have used viral metagenomics-based approaches both to detect existing viruses and identify new viruses. It also looks at the use of these techniques to study the genetic diversity of viruses such as the sugarcane yellow leaf virus.
Wade Casey, Loyola University Chicago, USA
Virtue ethics, Wendell Berry and agriculture
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This chapter begins by detailing the major aspects of the virtue ethics tradition, particularly as they are understood by Aristotle. I then turn to Wendell Berry’s thought and argue that Berry embodies well many of the facets of this tradition. I consider three virtues in Berry’s thought: humility, generosity, and love. I reveal that by taking these virtues seriously, Berry offers to the agricultural community a more sustainable path forward for agriculture. Berry’s advocacy of virtues in agriculture offers a wisdom to researchers and practitioners alike which, I argue, can ameliorate many present ecological and economic concerns.
James P. Legg, IITA, Tanzania; P. Lava Kumar, IITA, Nigeria; George Mahuku, IITA, Tanzania; Everlyne Wosula, IITA, Tanzania; Livia Stavolone, IITA, Nigeria; Eugene Terry, New Markets Lab, USA; and Nilsa Bosque-Pérez, University of Idaho, USA
Viruses affecting African crops and their vectors
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Plant viruses are one of the major constraints to crop production in Africa. Consequently, research into understanding and managing viruses has been a major theme of IITA’s work over its 50-year history. This chapter reviews the progress made in characterizing the major viruses affecting bananas, cassava, maize, cowpeas, soybeans and yams, and in developing management options. The viruses covered include cassava mosaic and cassava brown streak diseases, maize streak disease, maize lethal necrosis and banana bunchy top disease. The chapter identifies virus vectors and discusses emerging techniques and future perspectives for plant virus management in Africa. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Colin Jeffries and Christophe Lacomme, Science and Advice for Scottish Agriculture (SASA), UK
Viruses affecting potatoes
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The impact of viruses on potato production can be devastating in many areas worldwide. Breeding for agronomic and resistance traits, knowledge of virus species and their epidemiology, together with the development of accurate diagnostic methods have been essential for the development of crop management strategies, and helped certification programmes worldwide in maintaining high health standards. However, in developing countries, there are still major challenges in achieving these goals and, in particular, obtaining: high-quality seed potatoes, appropriate agronomic skills and cultivars that are adapted to a specific environment. In developed countries the challenge resides in increasing further harvestable yields for seed and ware potatoes to compensate for a decreasing arable surface area. There are more than forty virus species that infect potato, and their differing epidemiology poses a challenge for their management and control worldwide. Amongst these virus species, insect-transmitted viruses are the major cause of crop degeneration worldwide. The chapter addresses in detail the challenges posed by viruses in potato production and the challenges of managing and controlling potato-infecting viruses. It includes a case study on the transmission and distribution of aphid-transmitted viruses in field conditions, and looks ahead to future trends in this area, providing guidance on further reading.
Venugopal Nair, Pirbright Institute, UK
Viruses affecting poultry
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Infectious diseases, particularly those caused by viral pathogens, pose one of the most serious threats to the growth and sustainability of the global poultry industry. The industry relies heavily on vaccination-based control strategies, but there are important challenges for this approach, such as the immunosuppressive effects of some viral pathogens and the increasing diversity of pathogens. This chapter reviews viral diseases affecting poultry, including the four most significant viral diseases in terms of their widespread distribution, effect on avian health and role in producing economic losses. For each disease, symptoms, diagnosis and control measures are discussed. The major threats to vaccination-based strategies are reviewed, and some potential responses are considered.
Evan E. Ellison, James C. Chamness and Daniel F. Voytas, University of Minnesota, USA
Viruses as vectors for the delivery of gene-editing reagents
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A significant challenge for plant gene editing is the delivery of editing reagents to germline or regenerable cells to recover heritable genetic modifications. Reagent delivery using biolistics or Agrobacterium is only possible with a limited range of species and genotypes, and inefficient editing or lengthy tissue culture steps further limit throughput. Viruses are natural vectors for nucleic acids, and both DNA and RNA plant viruses have been engineered to extend or replace conventional vectors for delivery of gene editing reagents. Here, we review aspects of viral biology essential for engineering vectors, highlight landmark studies using viruses to overcome traditional limitations in gene editing, and outline important considerations for the use of viral vectors in new systems or for new targets. Motivated by fundamental differences in both their infection modes and utility as vectors, DNA and RNA viruses are treated separately.
Stéphane Compant, Günter Brader and Angela Sessitsch, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Austria
Visualising plant colonisation by beneficial bacteria: a key step to improve the understanding of plant–microbe interactions
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Plants contain diverse microorganisms that interact with their hosts and with each other. Beneficial bacteria can be utilised on crops to protect plants against biotic and abiotic stresses and to stimulate plant growth. However, the behaviour of specific microorganisms on and within plants is still underexplored. Knowledge of bacterial colonisation behaviour and the precise ecological niches in a natural environment of a target strain can lead to better application and utilisation of these microorganisms for crop enhancement, in different plant soil environments, and for both biocontrol and biofertilisation approaches in organic and integrated protection systems. Understanding colonisation characteristics will also provide information on putative new strategies for maximising inoculation efficiency and thus crop enhancement. In this chapter, we set out how beneficial bacteria can colonise their host plants under various conditions and demonstrate how an understanding of plant colonisation can be used to improve bacterial application approaches.
D. Luján-Rhenals, University of Arkansas Fayetteville, USA and Universidad de Córdoba, Columbia, R. Morawicki, University of Arkansas Fayetteville, USA, E. J. Van Loo, University of Arkansas Fayetteville, USA and Ghent University, Belgium and S. C. Rick
Waste management and emissions in poultry processing
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A major contributor to emissions and to waste generation in food production is the poultry slaughter-processing plants, especially because one of the greatest sources of indirect emissions from food consumption in the European Union and the United States is the consumption of meat. Quantifying the effects of these emissions is crucial to the successful initiation of strategies to reduce the poultry-processing plant’s environmental footprint. Approximately 15% of poultry greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are generated from multiple sources during post-harvest operations. Operations such as bleed out, scalding and evisceration have the most significant impact on the poultry processing waste stream. The aim of this chapter is to review and analyse what is currently known about the environmental impact of conventional and non-conventional poultry production and processing and discuss where data limitations exist.
Salman Zafar, BioEnergy Consult, India
Waste management and recycling in oil palm cultivation
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In a typical palm plantation, almost 70% of the fresh fruit bunches are turned into wastes in the form of empty fruit bunches, fibres and shells, as well as liquid effluent. Until recently, most of the wastes from palm oil mills were either burnt in the open or thrown away in waste ponds or open areas. This contributed enormously to global climate change by emitting carbon dioxide and methane. This chapter reviews the technological advancements which now make it possible to convert palm oil waste products into useful energy or recycle them into value-added products to generate additional profits for the industry.
Ruihong Zhang, University of California-Davies, USA and Hamed M. El-Mashad, Mansoura University, Egypt
Waste management in egg production
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Waste management is an essential component of an egg production system, affecting the environmental impact of production, food safety, worker safety, and animal health and safety. Manure, animal mortalities , and egg washing and processing wastewater are the major types of waste generated in an egg production facility. In this chapter, the characteristics of manure, poultry mortality and egg washing wastewater are discussed. Various methods and technologies for treating and managing these waste streams are then presented, including anaerobic digestion, aerobic treatments and thermochemical processes. The application of poultry waste products as fertilizer is also considered.
Christoph Studer, Bern University of Applied Sciences (BFH), Switzerland
Water management for rainfed smallholder farming
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This chapter aims to show how small-scale farmers can use water more efficiently, productively and sustainably in rainfed production. We will first discuss general aspects of how water use in crop and livestock production may be improved – measures that are important and useful in both rainfed as well as in irrigated agricultural production. Then we will focus specifically on rainfed agriculture and describe numerous practical options to help smallholder farmers use precipitation water more efficiently and productively. We will discuss ways of upgrading rainfed agricultural production and important broader issues regarding water and agriculture that have to be considered to assure that we will have enough water to feed the world in future.
Prof. Prof. T. Oweis
Water management for sustainable agriculture
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There is increasing competition for water resources in the face of declining aquifer reserves and increasing risk in many areas of drought related to climate change. At the same time poor water management is damaging agriculture with problems such as salinization, waterlogging, erosion and run-off. This volume summarises the wealth of research on understanding and better management of water resources for agriculture.
Part 1 reviews fundamental issues such as plant water use and soil water retention. Part 2 discusses ways of mapping and monitoring groundwater and surface water resources whilst Part 3 covers other sources such as rain and floodwater, waste and brackish water. Part 4 surveys developments in irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and fertigation. The final sections in the book discuss ways of using water resources more efficiently such as site-specific and deficit irrigation techniques.
With its distinguished editor and international team of expert authors, this wlll be a standard reference for agronomists, scientists involved in water and irrigation science as well as government and non-governmental organisations responsible for agriculture and water resource management.
Edited by: Theib Oweis, International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Jordan
Water management for sustainable agriculture
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There is increasing competition for water resources in the face of declining aquifer reserves and increasing risk in many areas of drought related to climate change. At the same time poor water management is damaging agriculture with problems such as salinization, waterlogging, erosion and run-off. This volume summarises the wealth of research on understanding and better management of water resources for agriculture.
Part 1 reviews fundamental issues such as plant water use and soil water retention. Part 2 discusses ways of mapping and monitoring groundwater and surface water resources whilst Part 3 covers other sources such as rain and floodwater, waste and brackish water. Part 4 surveys developments in irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and fertigation. The final sections in the book discuss ways of using water resources more efficiently such as site-specific and deficit irrigation techniques.
With its distinguished editor and international team of expert authors, this wlll be a standard reference for agronomists, scientists involved in water and irrigation science as well as government and non-governmental organisations responsible for agriculture and water resource management.
S. Hauser and F. Ekeleme, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria
Weed control in cassava cropping systems
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Weed control in cassava fields appears to have received highly variable levels of attention on the different continents where cassava is grown, despite clear messages from farming communities on its importance. Moreover, although grasses and broadleaved weeds are perceived as a major problem in cassava cultivation, the crop is one of the few without concrete chemical and mechanical weed control options. This chapter will discuss the effects of weeds on cassava root yields, farmers’ perceptions of the importance of weed control and the control methods used in different cropping systems. The focus is primarily on Africa, due to the fact that the continent accounts for the largest portion of global cassava production, weed control is not as well developed there and weeds pose a larger threat to livelihoods in Africa than in South America or Asia.
Adam S. Davis, USDA-ARS, USA
Weed ecology and population dynamics
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Agricultural trends, including a global rise in herbicide-resistant weed genotypes and a growing demand for food produced with minimal external synthetic inputs, are driving producer interest in reducing reliance on herbicides for weed management. An improved understanding of weed ecology can support the design of weed-suppressive agroecosystems. This chapter explores current scientific knowledge of ecological levels of organizations, including populations, communities and agroecosystems, relevant to the study and management of agricultural weeds. A population dynamics framework for targeting management tactics to specific weed life stages is presented, and its applicability to solving real-world weed management problems is demonstrated in a case study of mitigating the invasive potential of an exotic bioenergy crop species.
Edited by: Professor Gottlieb Basch, Professor Emilio González-Sanchez, Mr John Geraghty, Dr Seyed Vahid Eslami, Professor Sjoerd Willem Duiker, Dr Saidi Mkomwa and Dr Marie Bartz
Weed management in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Considers how weed management can be optimised in an array of different production systems, including perennial Conservation Agriculture (CA) systems and organic CA systems
Provides a comprehensive overview of the recent research on the use of cultural and physical weed management techniques in CA systems, such as the use of allelopathy and thermal weed control
Reviews the range of chemical and biological weed management techniques available to CA farmers, including the use of bioherbicides and other emerging methods of biological control
Edited by: Professor Gottlieb Basch, Professor Emilio González-Sanchez, Mr John Geraghty, Dr Seyed Vahid Eslami, Professor Sjoerd Willem Duiker, Dr Saidi Mkomwa and Dr Marie Bartz
Weed management in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Considers how weed management can be optimised in an array of different production systems, including perennial Conservation Agriculture (CA) systems and organic CA systems
Provides a comprehensive overview of the recent research on the use of cultural and physical weed management techniques in CA systems, such as the use of allelopathy and thermal weed control
Reviews the range of chemical and biological weed management techniques available to CA farmers, including the use of bioherbicides and other emerging methods of biological control
Don W. Morishita, University of Idaho, USA
Weed management in grain legume cultivation
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The importance of managing weeds in a grain legume crop is critical for obtaining optimum yield. All grain legumes are relatively poor competitors with weeds and thus are prone to yield reductions when grown in the presence of weeds. This chapter outlines the nature and challenges of weed interference and methods of weed control, as well as offering two detailed case studies. The chapter demonstrates that a combination of practices, such as cultivar selection, planting date, tillage system, in-crop tillage or cultivation, and/or herbicides are needed to increase the likelihood of successful weed control.
Greta Gramig, North Dakota State University, USA
Weed management in organic crop cultivation
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Managing weeds in organic production systems is critical to the economic success of organic farmers, as well as long-term ecological sustainability. Problems with weeds are a major reason why organic operations fail, or never get started. This chapter provides an overview of the range of tools and tactics that can be used to contend with weeds in organic systems and describes the integration of several tools and tactics. The chapter presents several organic farmer case studies to illustrate different types of weed management plans. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in scientific research that will help organic farmers manage weeds while conserving and building soil resources.
M. Bagavathiannan, Texas A&M University, USA; W. Everman, North Carolina State University, USA; P. Govindasamy, Texas A&M University, USA; A. Dille and M. Jugulam, Kansas State University, USA; and J. Norsworthy, University of Arkansas, USA
Weed management in sorghum cultivation
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Sorghum is, and will remain, an important crop in the USA, especially in marginal environments due to its low input requirements and high resilience. Weed management is a key production challenge for sorghum, and the herbicide tools available are very limited, particularly for post-emergence (POST) control of grass weeds. The weedy relatives such as shattercane and johnsongrass present challenges for selective control in sorghum due to genetic similarities. This chapter presents a number of weed management options and considerations for sorghum, and discusses the critical period for weed control, placing an emphasis on pre-emergence (PRE) control of grasses and other tough-to-control annual weeds. It is concluded that an integrated weed management approach, encompassing a strategic application of PRE and POST herbicides used in combination with non-chemical tactics, will be critical to achieving sustainable weed management in sorghum.
Vasileios P. Vasileiadis and Maurizio Sattin, National Research Council (CNR), Institute of Agro-Environmental and Forest Biology, Italy; and Per Kudsk, Aarhus University, Denmark
Weed management of maize grown under temperate conditions: the case of Europe and the United States
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This chapter reviews the impact of weeds on maize grown under temperate conditions, with a particular focus on the situation in the United States and Europe. It discusses current weed management systems and the herbicide resistance issues that have developed through the continuous use of herbicides. Integrated weed management techniques are recommended for achieving more sustainable maize production.
Gottlieb Basch and Fernando Teixeira, University of Évora, Portugal; and Sjoerd W. Duiker, Penn State University, USA
Weed management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Conservation Agriculture (CA) systems are often perceived as relying heavily on herbicides for weed management with no margin for herbicide input reduction. This perception results from production systems that are focussed mainly on the minimum soil disturbance component or no-till, but neglecting crop diversity and permanent soil cover components. This chapter analyses chemical and non-chemical methods of weed control, identifying the opportunities and challenges posed by CA. The chapter discusses soil seedbank dynamics, the mechanisms governing weed soil seedbank depletion and the need to prevent a weed or group of weeds becoming prevalent. The chapter also examines the importance of introducing crop diversity through crop rotation and/or intercropping, the resulting varying pressure on weeds, both spatially and temporally, and the benefits in weed management associated with mulching and cover crops. The chapter provides an analytical review of the adoption of CA in Sub-Saharan Africa by smallholder farmers, focusing on the challenges posed by weed management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Bruce Maxwell, Montana State University, USA
Weed-plant interactions
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Crops or desired plant species co-occur with undesired species, and the co-occurring species thereby come to be classed as weeds. This human-imposed classification is based on the perception that there is an interaction that results in some negative effect of the weed on the crop or desired species. This chapter offers an evolutionary perspective on crop–weed interactions and examines the nature of shared resource pools between desired crops and weeds. The chapter addresses the effects of direct competition between weeds and crops for resources, the indirect effects of competition and the spatial and temporal dynamics of crop–weed interaction.
David Chikoye, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Zambia; Friday Ekeleme, Stefan Hauser, Abebe Menkir and Alpha Y. Kamara, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; Peter Neuenschwander and Obinna Ajuonu, Intern
Weeds affecting field crops and water bodies in sub-Saharan Africa
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In sub-Saharan Africa, weeds are a serious challenge, undermining food security and economic development. Weeds interfere with various human activities. Despite the different classes of weeds based on habitat (terrestrial or aquatic), life cycle (annual or perennial) or morphology (dicots or monocots), they possess common characteristics such as competitiveness, persistence and cause economic losses. This chapter considers integrated management techniques for a range of weeds, including spear grass (Imperata cylindrica), Striga hermonthica and floating aquatic weeds. The chapter examines the role of Chromolaena odorata in the humid tropics and control measures against it, as well as considering weed control in plantain and cassava systems. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Björn Forkman, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
Welfare assessment of pigs
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If the aim of a welfare assessment is to describe the welfare on-farm, not only here and now but for a longer time period, then the measures to be used have to be chosen with this in mind. It is by choosing relevant but common indicators that the assessment is representative of the farm over time. There are two types of animal welfare protocols, those that require the farms to comply with a set of criteria and those that attempt to assess the welfare of the animals on the farm. The advantage of the first approach is that it is transparent and easy to understand, the advantage of the second that it is more flexible and can give a better understanding of what is happening on the farm.
Anja Brinch Riber, Aarhus University, Denmark
Welfare issues affecting broiler breeders
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The demand for broiler meat has been growing for decades, and broiler meat represents the major animal protein source in many countries around the world. To meet the demand for cheap and increasing amounts of broiler meat, a consistent selection for fast growth is employed in the broiler industry. However, this comes at the expense of impaired welfare of the parent stock, i.e. the broiler breeders. Among the significant welfare challenges are the severe feed restriction and the associated welfare problems in terms of physiological stress and development of abnormal behaviour, indicative of frustration and hunger. Furthermore, welfare issues associated with the high level of aggression, particularly sexual aggression, exist, causing increased levels of fear, pain and mortality. Linked to this is the mutilation of broiler breeders, which is used as a preventive measure to reduce damage inflicted to flock mates, but the mutilation is a welfare problem in itself.
Dana L.M. Campbell, University of New England and CSIRO, Australia, Sarah L, Lambton, University of Bristol, UK, Isabelle Ruhnke, University of New England, Australia and Claire A. Weeks, University of Bristol, UK
Welfare issues affecting free-range laying hens
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Free-range laying hen production systems involve providing flocks of hens with the chance to use minimally controlled outdoor areas, rather than keeping them in intensive, environmentally controlled, indoor housing. Such systems are considered more natural and ethical. However, highly productive modern genotypes, selected for cage production, are harder to manage in large flocks and outdoor environments. To sustainably improve free-range housing and management, we must understand how hens behave in these systems, the welfare challenges they face and what modifications will, in practice, adequately address hens’ needs. This chapter reviews the following areas of significance and concern: individual differences in range use, behavioural expression on the range, correlations between ranging and health variables, parasite loads, adequate nutrition, grass impaction, feather pecking and cannibalism.
Ingrid C. de Jong, Wageningen Livestock Research, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands
Welfare issues in poultry housing and management: broilers
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More than 60 billion of broilers are reared and slaughtered for meat production yearly. The majority of broilers worldwide is housed indoors in floor systems and is of a fast-growing breed. Welfare problems have been associated with their efficient growth, the rearing environment and flock management. Examples are impaired leg health and behavioural restriction (the inability to perform their species-specific behaviour). Breed (fast- or slow-growing), hatching environment, stocking density, light, litter, air quality and environmental enrichment all affect broiler welfare, although their interactive effects are often unclear. Prevalence of welfare problems is generally lower in ‘higher-welfare’ systems, involving a slower growing broiler strain, lower stocking density and environmental enrichment. There seems to be a trend towards implementation of these higher-welfare systems in Europe and the US, although there is currently little information on needs and preferences of slower-growing strains and welfare of broilers in different production systems.
Victoria Sandilands, Scotland’s Rural College (SRUC), UK
Welfare issues in poultry housing and management: laying hens
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Laying hens produce a large number of eggs on an annual basis. In recent years, permitted housing methods in the EU have changed to enriched cages and cage-free systems (i.e. barn, free-range and organic production methods), but worldwide hens are still also housed in conventional cages. The various characteristics of these systems are discussed. Different systems have various pros and cons with regards to bird welfare. Conventionally-caged hens have weaker bones and lack behavioural freedom, whereas hens from enriched cages benefit from some improvements such as nest boxes, perches, greater space, and litter for pecking and scratching. Cage-free hens have the most behavioural freedom and better bone strength, but they are also at risk of greater keel bone damage (particularly with multi-tier structures), exposure to pathogens (particularly with free-range and organic), and greater mortality. Improvements to reduce keel bone damage in particular are considered.
Sandra Edwards, University of Newcastle, UK
Welfare of gilts and pregnant sows
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Mismatches between the evolutionary biology of the sow and current commercial production systems give rise to welfare challenges of stereotyped behaviour development in confined systems and aggression in group housing systems. This chapter describes the welfare issues associated with individual confinement systems and examines the nature and significance of stereotyped behaviour in gestating sows. The chapter addresses the issue of hunger in the pregnant sow and drivers to adopt group housing systems for pregnant sows. The chapter has a particular focus on the importance of social organisation in sows and looks in detail at the relationship between aggression in stable groups and the method of feed provision available. Finally, the chapter examines sows in extensive systems and looks ahead to future research trends in this area, providing extensive suggestions for further reading.
Tina Widowski, Teresa Casey-Trott, Michelle Hunniford and Krysta Morrissey, University of Guelph, Canada
Welfare of laying hens: an overview
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Although the majority of the world’s laying hens are still housed in conventional (‘battery’) cages, public concern for the welfare of laying hens is rapidly changing the methods by which eggs are being produced and marketed in many regions of the world. However, alternative housing systems have their own costs and associated welfare problems, as well as benefits. There are also various welfare concerns for laying hens which are not based solely on how adult laying hens are housed. In this chapter we provide an overview of the current state of knowledge on the major welfare issues for laying hens, including the welfare trade-offs involved with different housing systems, the behavioural requirements of laying hens, the issue of injurious pecking and skeletal health concerns. We also identify new and emerging issues that are directing future research in the area.
Jonathan Amory, Writtle University College, UK; and Nina Wainwright, British Pig Executive (BPEX), UK
Welfare of pigs during finishing
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Finisher pigs, those of a post-weaning age kept for slaughter, make up the majority of the world pig population of approximately 1 billion. The intensive production system for post-weaned pigs is characterised by higher animal density, larger farms, use of concentrated foods and control of the production environment, particularly temperature, humidity and lighting. This chapter explores the relationship between nutrition management and the welfare of finishing pigs and the links between physical and social environment and welfare of finisher pigs. The chapter addresses the importance of environmental enrichment and ways to avoid tail-biting behaviour. Finally, the chapter describes methods of practical welfare assessment of finisher pigs and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Arlene Garcia and John J. McGlone, Texas Tech University, USA
Welfare of weaned piglets
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Demands for improved animal welfare and animal handling systems from governments, non-government organizations and consumers are increasing. The weaning period in pork production has particular potential to positively impact animals. This chapter focuses on current practices that can be detrimental to piglet well-being, improvements to these practices, and advances in technology that could improve animal well-being, profitability and sustainability.
Andy Butterworth, University of Bristol, UK
Welfare standards for laying hens
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Consumers regard animal welfare as an important attribute of the food they eat. Sellers have to pay due attention to animal welfare before selling food like eggs or poultry to people. There are many welfare standards for laying hens and this chapter looks into some of these standards like commercial welfare standards and global standards. The way in which these standards are implemented is important to ensure quality in production and this chapter looks into this important aspect.
Paul B. Thompson, Michigan State University, USA
What is agricultural ethics and why does it matter?
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This chapter begins by first providing an overview of the key concepts of ethics and common morality, then moves on to review common morality in agriculture and food systems. The chapter also highlights some of the topics involved agricultural ethics, before reviewing the various social science research methods currently involved in analysing relevant agricultural ethics data. A section on why agricultural ethics matters is also included, focusing on how the outcome of agricultural ethics debates affect the work of those involved and why it is important for these people to strive to do what is ethical. A discussion on whether agricultural ethics can be taught is also provided.
Seanne Clemente and Lynn Adler, University of Massachusetts, USA
What is pollination and what are pollinators in agriculture?
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This chapter provides an overview of the history of pollination biology, it begins by discussing the basics of pollination and goes on to discuss pollinators and their diversity. Sections also cover the ecology and evolution of floral traits, domestication and its impact on plant-pollinator relationships and how pollinators can impact agriculture. A section on modern agriculture and pollinators is also provided.
Thomas R. Sinclair, North Carolina State University, USA; and Michel E. Ghanem, Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement (CIRAD), France and Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Morocco
What is ‘drought stress’ and what are options to increase crop yield?
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‘Drought’ is vague and ill-defined term that fails to account for the temporal dynamics through the growing seasons due to variable weather conditions, soil water status, plant development stage, and crop growth conditions. These variables all lead to an infinity of responses to water deficit. Instead of the common ‘static’ perspective of drought, it is proposed that a temporally dynamic framework is required within and across growing seasons at a given location. Yield changes in response to trait modification need to be expressed as probabilities obtained from either simulation study or extensive field observations. Such results allow important insight about yield changes that can occur under the economically challenging growing seasons when yields are especially low. Plant traits that result in water conservation early in the growing season in favor of increased availability of water during reproductive development tend to result in high probabilities of yield increase under water-deficit conditions.
J. R. Guarin and S. Asseng, University of Florida, USA
Wheat crop modelling to improve yields
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Crop simulation models are robust tools for scientists, farmers and policymakers that can be used to develop practices and strategies to increase agricultural productivity and sustainability on a local, regional or global scale under conditions and treatments difficult or impossible to test using solely field experimentation. Crop models are increasingly being used to explore solutions to issues such as global food security, climate change impact assessment and adaptation, nitrogen fertilization, irrigation and seasonal variability management. This chapter examines the experimental data sets, dynamic modelling processes and fundamental applications of current wheat (Triticum spp.) crop models, as well as future trends and challenges of wheat crop modelling.
Gary L. Hein, Anthony J. McMechan and Lindsay Overmyer, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
Wheat curl mite ecology and epidemiology of its associated wheat viruses
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The focus of this chapter will be to provide a review and update from recent literature on mite ecology and virus epidemiology that is most relevant to the management of the wheat curl mite and its associated viruses.
Albrecht Serfl ing, Doris Kopahnke, Antje Habekuss, Flutur ë Novakazi and Frank Ordon, Julius K ü hn-Institute (JKI), Institute for Resistance Research and Stress Tolerance, Germany
Wheat diseases: an overview
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Fungal and viral pathogens lead to significant yield losses in wheat crops worldwide. This chapter reviews the important fungal and viral diseases of wheat, considering their mode of infection, symptoms, distribution and effect on wheat yield. Responses to each pathogen are discussed, including adaptations to wheat production systems, the use of fungicides and insecticides, and improvement of the resistance of wheat to pathogens. Particular emphasis is placed on resistance of wheat as the most cost-effective and environmentally friendly form of plant protection.
Helena Pachón, Food Fortification Initiative and Emory University, USA
Wheat flour fortification and human health
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Using varied study designs (none of which can confirm causality), investigators assessed the health impact of wheat flour fortification after it was implemented at large scale in countries. Folic acid was the most studied nutrient and the most studied outcomes were neural tube defects, cancer, folate status, folate deficiency, anemia, iron deficiency, iron status, hemoglobin and iron-deficiency anemia (IDA). For all of these outcomes except IDA, the majority of studies showed improvements after fortification. For some of the outcomes (cancer, anemia, hemoglobin, folate deficiency), there were studies that indicated health outcomes worsened after fortification. The discrepant results for cancer may be due to years since fortification initiated and sample size differences. The preponderance of the evidence suggests that wheat flour fortification improves many health outcomes. Because fortification may also be associated with negative health outcomes such as cancer, health monitoring should continue to assess these outcomes in countries with fortification.
P. Bramel, Global Crop Diversity Trust, Germany
Wheat genetic resources: global conservation and use for the future
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The importance of wheat to the global food supply means that many institutions across the world hold collections of wheat germplasm to study and preserve wheat genetic material. This chapter describes a global ex situ conservation strategy to assess the status of wheat genetic resources held by institutions, identifying major germplasm collections from existing public databases and targeting institutions holding unique accessions of wild relatives. Drawing on information from the surveys, the chapter identifies areas for global action. These include regeneration of old accessions, safety duplication of collections, a comprehensive global information system to enhance the use of conserved germplasm, global rationalization of accessions and filling gaps. The chapter concludes that ex situ collections, currently underutilized, represent significant pools for the future improvement of wheat. With new tools from genomics, exploitation of these collections is likely to increase, but there is an urgent need to better secure their conservation.
Govinda Shrestha, Oregon State University, USA; and Gadi V. P. Reddy, Southern Insect Management Research Unit, USA
Wheat midge (Sitodiplosis mosellana): management in the Northern Great Plains of the United States and Canada
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This chapter examines wheat midge and its management in the Northern Great Plains of the United States and Canada. The chapter first provides an overview of the morphology of wheat midge at each stage of its life cycle. It then moves on to discuss the life cycle of the pest in more depth. The damage that wheat midge causes to crops is also reviewed, which is then followed by an examination of the different pest management methods for the the pest, such as monitoring and economic thresholds, cultural control, host plant resistance and biological and chemical control.
Marion O. Harris and Kirk Anderson, North Dakota State University, USA; Mustapha El-Bouhssini, ICARDA, Morocco; Frank Peairs, Colorado State University, USA; Gary Hein, University of Nebraska, USA; and Steven Xu, USDA-ARS Northern Crops Institute, USA
Wheat pests: insects, mites, and prospects for the future
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Wheat pests are the subject of this chapter and the previous one. There are four major taxa of wheat pests. Rodents and nematodes were discussed in the previous chapter. Insects and mites are discussed in this chapter. Case studies are presented for eight species: Hessian fly, orange wheat blossom midge, bird cherry oat aphid, greenbug, Russian wheat aphid, Sunn Pest, wheat stem sawfly and wheat curl mite. We end with a discussion on future prospects for genetically based wheat resistance and new pest management technologies.
Marion O. Harris, North Dakota State University, USA; Jens Jacob, Julius K ü hn-Institut, Germany; Peter Brown, CSIRO, Australia; and Guiping Yan, North Dakota State University, USA
Wheat pests: introduction, rodents and nematodes
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Three major groups of organisms cause biotic stress in wheat: pests, diseases and weeds. This chapter and the chapter that follows are about wheat pests. Three major pest taxa affect wheat: rodents, nematodes and arthropods. Rodents and nematodes are introduced in this first chapter, along with unique features of pests and wheat pest management. Insect and mite arthropod pests are introduced in the second chapter.
David Weaver, Montana State University, USA
Wheat stem sawfly (Cephus cinctus)
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This chapter reviews wheat stem sawfly and its effect on wheat production. The chapter first reviews the pest's historical distribution, then moves on to examine how it damages crops, focusing specifically on life cycle driven losses and yield losses. A section on ways to manage the pest is also included, drawing specific attention to the use of insecticides, cultural tactics and various methods of biological control. The chapter also reviews host plant resistance then concludes by analysing future directions for wheat stem sawfly research.
Alison M. Laing, Cam K. McDonald, Andrew J. Ash and Diane B. Prestwidge, CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Australia; and Holger Meinke, University of Tasmania, Australia
Whole-farm system models in practice: diverse applications
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The challenges of contemporary agriculture are causing farmers to seek models of whole-farm goals, which requires mathematically-based modeling grounded in the latest scientific understanding of animal growth and reproduction, crop physiology, soil and environmental sciences, as well as economics and human relations. Such models are often invaluable tools in the process of undertaking nuanced, multifaceted management decisions at the farm system level. This chapter explores model selection and, through a series of case studies, whole farm modelling in both smallholder systems and single enterprise farm businesses. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Cheryl Doss, Oxford University, UK
Women and maize cultivation: increasing productivity through gender analysis
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Gender analysis is essential in guiding the design and focus of research to ensure that women participate in and benefit from growth in the maize sector. This chapter begins by situating farmers within households and discussing why the conceptualization of households matters for agricultural research. The following section analyses the ways in which gender impacts agricultural production systems, including access to resources and decisions about inputs. The next three sections offer a detailed analysis of the impact of gender on three vital aspects of maize production: labour, processing and storage and varietal choice. The preferences of women as urban consumers are also considered. Finally, a brief discussion of the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index highlights one tool for monitoring the impact of research and agricultural change on women’s empowerment.
Emerita Professor Emerita Professor Carolyn Sachs
Women and smallholder farming
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Provides a comprehensive overview of the key challenges encountered by women smallholder farmers, such as restricted access to markets and technical training programmes
Addresses the critical role of women smallholder farmers to the success of global agricultural production
Includes a selection of case studies which highlight the development of programmes to aid women smallholder farmers in crop and livestock production
Edited by: Emerita Professor Carolyn E. Sachs, Pennsylvania State University, USA and Dr Paige Castellanos, Oxfam America (OUS), USA
Women and smallholder farming
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Provides a comprehensive overview of the key challenges encountered by women smallholder farmers, such as restricted access to markets and technical training programmes
Addresses the critical role of women smallholder farmers to the success of global agricultural production
Includes a selection of case studies which highlight the development of programmes to aid women smallholder farmers in crop and livestock production
Guy Blomme, The Alliance of Bioversity International and The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Ethiopia; Elizabeth Kearsley, BlueGreen Labs, Belgium; and Walter Ocimati, The Alliance of Bioversity International and The International Ce
Xanthomonas wilt of banana
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Xanthomonas wilt (BXW) is a major banana disease affecting small-holder farms in East and Central Africa. While BXW management practices have been introduced across extensive regions, achieving high levels of disease control and/or eradication has proven difficult. Resurgence of BXW in managed sites and the transmission to new regions are ongoing problems. In this chapter we present an overview of the disease epidemiology followed by the state-of-the-art of BXW control and prevention measures. We address management practices that have shown variable adoption successes, and present innovations recently introduced (including Single Diseased Stem Removal and improved tool sterilization options) or underway (including the development of resistant cultivars, and risk mitigation through early warning systems). Next, we discuss lessons learned from problems that have arisen during phases of implementation of management, the constraints that local farmers face and the shift towards sustainable management through integrated participatory extension services.
Kazuki Saito, Pepijn van Oort, Ibnou Dieng, Jean-Martial Johnson, Abibou Niang, Kokou Ahouanton and Amakoe Delali Alognon, Africa Rice Center, Benin; Atsuko Tanaka, JICA and Africa Rice Center, Benin; Kalimuthu Senthilkumar and Elke Vandamme, Africa Rice
Yield gap analysis towards meeting future rice demand
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Rice provides 20% of the world’s food energy, and increased rice production owing to growing demand needs to be derived mainly from existing agricultural land. This requires reducing the ‘yield gap’, which is defined as the difference between potential yield and average on-farm yield obtained by farmers. In this chapter, we provide case studies of yield gap analyses using different benchmarks (potential yield, experimental yield and best farmers’ yield) for estimating yield gaps. We start with studies focusing on the quantification of yield gaps and then describe studies with a focus on identification of the causes of yield gaps. We conclude with a discussion of the challenges to achieving better quantification of yield gaps and their causes, and the implications of yield gap studies for sustainable agricultural development to meet future rice demand.
Wade E. Thomason, Bee Khim Chim and Mark S. Reiter, Virginia Tech University, USA
Zero-tillage cultivation of maize
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Zero-till cultivation of maize (Zea mays L.) is a relatively widely used production system whereby the only soil disturbance occurs with the seeding operation. The system aims to reduce erosion, improve soil physical attributes, decrease costs, and improve long-term sustainability of maize cultivation. However, positive impacts from zero-till maize cultivation do not always occur and it is important to understand which factors favour this system and which do not. This chapter will also discuss suggestions for best management of zero-till maize systems.
Tom J. Humphrey and Lisa K Williams, Swansea University, UK
Zoonoses affecting poultry: the case of Campylobacter
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Campylobacter has been associated with poultry for many years. It is the leading cause of bacterial foodborne illness in developed countries, with C. jejuni and C. coli being identified in most cases in humans. These two species are also found in poultry. Campylobacter is ideally suited to the poultry niche, and can grow at the higher body temperature (42C) of birds. Campylobacter has been shown to have a negative effect on the health and welfare of the birds; evidence of host adaptation and host-specific species leads us to believe that Campylobacter is more than a commensal of chickens.
Sabrina Vandeplas, Adisseo France SAS, France
Zoonoses affecting poultry: the case of Salmonella
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Salmonella is a major causative organism of gastroenteritis in humans worldwide, and most cases are caused by the consumption of raw or undercooked poultry products. In response to public concern, many countries have introduced survey and control programmes for Salmonella in poultry. However, it remains an economic burden in many areas, and there are emerging risks associated with new serovars. In this chapter, we describe the invasion and transmission mechanisms of Salmonella, review the currently available detection methods and then provide a detailed overview of the strategies available for controlling Salmonella in poultry, with a particular focus on those employed before the meat is harvested.
Peter R. Davies, University of Minnesota, USA
Zoonoses associated with pigs
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Zoonoses are defined as diseases and infections that are transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans. Major food animal species occupy a special position within the framework of zoonotic disease. This is particularly the case in developed societies, where direct livestock contact has become relatively rare, and where for much of the population the food supply has become the predominant route of exposure to livestock associated pathogens. This chapter provides a broad overview of the zoonotic hazards associated with pigs. Emphasis is given to the agents and pathways which most contribute to zoonotic risk, and to how these risks may be modulated by changing conditions at the human-swine interface.
Norman R. Scott and Curt Gooch, Cornell University, USA
‘Towards’ sustainability of dairy farming: an overview
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There are many challenges to be faced in making dairy farming sustainable for feeding 9–10 billion people by 2050. This chapter defines what sustainability may mean for the dairy industry and assesses the current sustainability of dairy farming today, before going on to consider visions for a sustainable short-term future. These include emerging technologies such as integrating an ethanol producing plant with a dairy and making use of fuel cells. The chapter speculates on the longer term future of the industry up to 2050 and beyond.
