New technologies to improve the ex situ conservation of plant genetic resources
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Access to plant genetic resources is fundamental to the development of more resilient and nutritious crops. The efficient and effective conservation of plant genetic resources is therefore key to ensuring global food security. There are more than 1750 genebanks around the world, storing various types of plant germplasm including tissue cultures, seeds, embryos and pollen. The method of conservation depends on the seed storage behaviour and propagation requirements of the species. The germplasm of most major crops is conserved as seeds under ‘conventional’ genebank storage conditions, because the seeds tolerate drying to low moisture content and survive storage, perhaps for many decades, at low temperature. Other species are typically conserved as tissue cultures and/or as cryopreserved explants. New technologies for the routine conservation of seeds in genebanks includes evidence-based refining of procedures and the introduction of automation. Similarly, in vitro culture and cryopreservation techniques continue to be developed and improved.
Jegatheswaran Ratnasingam, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
New types of products from tropical wood
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This chapter discusses the Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) practices in the tropics and highlights the main wood and biomass resources available. It then elaborates the types of products developed from these resources, both traditional and new products developed. It provides an insight into the current trends in terms of development, possible application and also the challenges faced in the development of these new products, in light of the global needs to mitigate the climate change phenomenon and low-carbon products.
Dr Keith Tomlins
New uses and processes for cassava
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Cassava’s versatility, resilience to climate stress and huge potential for yield increase make it increasingly popular for both food security and industrial applications. This chapter investigates current uses of cassava and considers new processes which might be introduced to promote greater utilisation of cassava. We use the example of High Quality Cassava Flour (HQCF) in Africa to discuss a framework of enabling factors to help promoters of new technologies achieve sustainability. From this we highlight the key drivers of new uses and processes. Finally, we consider what new opportunities might arise from current research.
Andrew P. Robinson, North Dakota State University and University of Minnesota, USA
Non-infectious disorders affecting potatoes
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There are a wide range of non-infectious disorders that can affect potatoes, generally as a result of imbalances within the plant caused by environmental stresses. Such disorders make tubers unappealing to consumers, and therefore have significant economic consequences. However, non-infectious disorders are often poorly understood and characterized, limiting the extent to which they can be prevented and detected. This chapter describes a range of disorders of potato tubers, categorizing them as external, superficial or internal. In each case, a description of symptoms is given, followed by information about the causes of the disorder and ways of preventing and minimizing its symptoms.
Dr Dr Andreas Hund
Non-invasive field phenotyping of cereal development
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High throughput field phenotyping (HTFP) allows the selection of crops with unprecedented precision, and plays an important role to understand genotype-by-environment interaction. This chapter describes carrier systems for non-invasive field phenotyping, outlines the principles of envirotyping, and examines the challenge of physiological breeding by means of high-throughput phenotyping of plant development. The chapter describes the importance of the different phases of cereal development and how to phenotype them, and analyses genetic crop models. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Alida O’Connor, University of British Columbia, Canada; and Terry C. H. Sunderland, University of British Columbia, Canada and Centre for International Forestry Research, Indonesia
Non-timber forest products from tropical forests
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Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) were hailed as a “silver bullet” to provide the economic incentives to conserve standing forests, while contributing to local livelihoods. While the livelihood benefits of NTFPs have been widely acknowledged, the contribution of the NTFP sector to biodiversity conservation is less certain. Despite increasing skepticism of the ability of NTFPs to contribute to conservation, their promotion and development remains a readily implemented tool for many site level conservation projects. However, this chapter dispels certain assumptions related to NTFP sustainability and the links between NTFP extraction systems and conservation. We conclude that the links are generally tenuous to say the least and suggest that, despite the value of NTFP-based systems to rural livelihoods, our perceptions of the relative value of NTFPs in terms of biodiversity conservation need to be revised.
Dr Hoon H. Sunwoo
Nutraceutical benefits of eggs
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Hen eggs are nature’s perfect source for the everyday diet worldwide. Several components of hen eggs have biofunctional properties in humans beyond normal nutrition and have the potential for being used as active ingredients for nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products. Consequently, extensive studies have been conducted over the past decades to extract these products and to determine their biological functions. There are various biological functions of egg substances reported in the literature including anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive, anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, blood cholesterol/lipid-lowering, immune modulatory, anti-toxin/allergen, and skin/cartilage/bone strengthening. The new generation of hen nutrition formula and immune-modulating technology may be employed to develop fortified eggs with enhanced chemical compositions and biological features, such as omega-3 fatty acids and egg yolk IgY antibodies. Owing to numerous bioactive compounds present in eggs, they may be one of the best natural sources for the production of novel value-added nutraceutical preparations.
Dr Dr Ella O'Grady
Nutraceutical potential of glucosinolates
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Glucosinolates (GLs) are secondary metabolites of plants that are primarily synthesized in the Brassica genus. They are classified into three categories: aliphatics, aromatics or indoles. Isothiocyanates are organosulfur compounds which are typically formed by the enzymatic conversion of indole GLs. Sulforaphane (SFN) is the most widely studied isothiocyanate with several nutraceutical benefits. GLs and in particular SFN mechanism of action is linked to the upregulation of Nrf2 protein, which present beneficial effects in the brain, pancreatin, and skin cancer, management of cardiovascular disease and diabetes, and neuroprotective effects. GLs and their breakdown products, specifically the sulphur-containing compounds, are known for their fungicidal, bactericidal, nematocidal, and allelopathic properties, as well as their use as cancer chemo-preventive and chemotherapeutic agents. Dietary supplements containing broccoli and other cruciferous vegetable extracts are commonly seen in the nutraceutical market.
E. A. Stockdale, Head of Farming Systems Research, NIAB, UK
Nutrient cycling in soils
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Sustainable agricultural systems must enable profitable production of sufficient high-quality crops to meet human demands while simultaneously minimising off-site impacts. Though simple chemical equilibrium plays a part, nutrient cycling processes in soil are largely the outcome of biochemical processes resulting from the activity and interactions of a huge diversity of soil organisms. Hence soil health is central to nutrient cycling. Decomposition and cycling of C are the central processes driving almost all soil nutrient cycles. The size, diversity and activity of the soil community are affected by complex interactions between physical, chemical and plant community factors within the soil, as well as farm management practices and local climate. New research methods continue to provide increasing insight into the biological and geochemical interactions within soil nutrient cycles. But this research must be conducted in partnership with farmers and agronomists to develop effective site-specific nutrient management approaches and increase the sustainability of farming systems, whilst maintaining soil health.
Stephane Boulakia, Florent Tivet and Olivier Husson, Centre de coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), France; and Lucien Séguy, AgroécoRiz, France
Nutrient management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Nutrient cycling is considered as a key agroecosystem service of Conservation Agriculture (CA). CA brings together major nutrients and organic matter fluxes within the soil-micro-organism-plant system. It also generates organic and inorganic nutrient pools accessible through new biological pathways. This chapter addresses nutrient management practices and benefits in CA systems. Current trends in CA systems design are discussed, as is integrated nutrient management. The concept of the “forest model” is introduced and discussed in detail. Sections on nutrient pools, bioavailability of elements, and mineral use efficiency in CA systems are also included. The chapter concludes with two case studies from contrasting agroecosystems: one from a Brazilian Fazenda transitioning from “generic” CA to CA based on multifunctional mix species cover, and one from a French dairy farm, illustrating how CA, associated with important and diversified organic matter inputs from cover crops and crop residues, impacts and modifies plant nutrition management.
Emeritus Professor Emeritus Professor Gonzalo Mateos
Nutrient requirements of broilers: an overview of factors affecting feed formulation
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The information available on the nutrient requirements of broilers to maximize production or economics returns, is abundant but the data are often inconsistent because of factors such as the methodology used to estimate bird requirements and the differences in the nutritional value attributed to each ingredient. This chapter reviews some of the key factors affecting feed formulation, recent trends and current feed programs as well as options for improvement.
Nutrient sources and their application in cassava cultivation
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This chapter discusses various sources of nutrients to be applied to prevent soil nutrient depletion, as well as the optimum rates, times and methods of their application. It also describes how computer models can predict site-specific nutrient requirements and balanced fertilizer rates to maximize nutrient use efficiency, increase farmers’ profits and prevent waste and potential pollution of the environment. It ends by considering the variation among cassava genetic resources in nutrient use efficiency in order to breed new varieties with greater tolerance to low soil fertility.
Jetse J. Stoorvogel, Wageningen University, The Netherlands; and Rafael A. Segura, CORBANA S.A., Costa Rica
Nutrition and soil management in banana cultivation
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There is significant variation in banana production systems across the world, particularly at the level of soil management. However, research on plant nutrition and soil management in relation to bananas has been limited for a number of reasons: bananas are unusual in their physiology and management, and the characteristics of the crop make it difficult to carry out standard fertilizer response experiments. Given the considerable investment in soil management, the scarcity of fertilization studies in bananas is surprising. This chapter provides an overview of general aspects of crop nutrition in the broader context of soil management. Focusing mostly on intensively managed systems where fertilizer use is the highest, the chapter discusses a number of strategies for soil nutrition as well as advantages and disadvantages of each approach.
J. R. Roche, DairyNZ, New Zealand
Nutrition management of grazing dairy cows in temperate environments
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Temperate grass-legume mixes (i.e. pasture) are nutritionally well-balanced and can sustain moderate levels of milk production in dairy cattle. However, pasture is perishable, and if not consumed by cow, it is wasted and the feed quality of the re-growth declines. Moreover, increased use of supplementary feed also increases production costs. This means that cows should only be fed non-pasture feeds when there is insufficient pasture and supplements will have a significant effect on milk production. For good nutrition management in grazing systems, it is therefore essential to identify genuine feed deficits, so as to ensure that the marginal milk production response to providing a supplementary feed is sufficiently large to return a profit to the farmer. This chapter offers a review of the considerations that must be taken into account when deciding whether and how to supplement pasture with additional feed.
Deepak Pandey, Nord University, Norway; Morteza Mansouryar, University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Margarita Novoa-Garrido, Geir Næss and Viswanath Kiron, Nord University, Norway; Hanne Helene Hansen, University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Mette Olaf Nielsen, Aa
Nutritional and anti-methanogenic potentials of macroalgae for ruminants
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The livestock production sector is facing challenges to find alternative feed resources and nutritional strategies to mitigate enteric methane (CH4) emissions from ruminants. Recently, marine macroalgae have emerged as potential anti-methanogenic feed ingredients due to their ability to suppress enteric CH4 production in ruminants. The anti-methanogenic properties of macroalgae have been ascribed to the contents of secondary metabolites, such as halogenated compounds e.g., bromoform in red species, and polyphenols or isoprenoids in brown species. These compounds may suppress methanogenesis by inhibiting the growth and activity of methanogens or by altering rumen fermentation pathways and the patterns of volatile fatty acids production. On the other hand, the anti-methanogenic macroalgae, particularly when added to diets in large amounts, are known to reduce animal performance, due to the presence of special and poorly degradable carbohydrates. Thus, finding a proper balance between the abilities to reduce CH4 emissions and sustain animal performance is important.
Nancy Ames, Joanne Storsley, Lovemore Malunga and Sijo Joseph Thandapilly, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada
Nutritional and bioactive compounds in barley
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Whole grain barley has been widely recognized as a valuable source of a number of biologically active compounds with unique health benefits. The great number of bioactive nutrients and their pleiotropic physiological effects make barley an ideal grain, raw material, and ingredient for the development of functional foods. This chapter discusses key issues and challenges currently faced by barley growers and manufacturers in producing high-quality products. It also reviews the known and potential bioactive compounds in barley, as well as research that has been carried out on barley and its health benefits. It concludes by discussing research that examines potential influences of barley bioactivity, future trends in research for barley and also highlights several sources for further information.
Adriana Farah, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Nutritional and health effects of coffee
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An increasing number of studies have shown that, in spite of its nutritional limitations, coffee is a complex mixture of bioactive substances that may act together to help prevent diseases when consumed in a proper way. This chapter reviews the literature on the nutritional and health-related aspects of regular coffee consumption, then examines the potential side effects, and looks ahead to future research in this area.
Dharam Paul Chaudhary, Indian Institute of Maize Research (IIMR), India
Nutritional and nutraceutical/functional properties of maize
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Maize is the most widely grown crop, which is primarily used for animal feed and food. It is a staple food for a large segment of the world’s population, and it is also used as an industrial raw material. This chapter - reviews the nutritional quality of maize by considering various quality components including protein quality, carbohydrate profile, oil concentration and carotenoids composition. The discovery and association of opaque-2 gene with the enhancement of protein quality in maize has been discussed in detail. Subsequent sections review the carbohydrate profile of maize, the qualities and uses of corn oil, and the micronutrients present in maize.
Lauren E. O’Connor and Wayne W. Campbell, Purdue University, USA
Nutritional composition and the value of pig meat
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Pork is a commonly consumed protein source which contributes various macro- and micronutrients to the diet of people living in the United States, some positively and negatively influencing indices of human health. This book chapter provides data about the nutritional content and current intakes of pork and pork products by people living in the United States as well as the effects of consuming pork on weight control, body composition, cardiometabolic health, cancer and sleep health. Pork, as part of a higher protein diet, can aid in weight control, have a favourable effect on body composition, and may improve sleep health. Cardiometabolic risk is not influenced by the consumption of pork as part of total red meat in human clinical trials, inconsistent with the observational evidence. Strong associations exist between processed red meats, inclusive of pork, and cardiometabolic morbidities and mortalities as well as cancer. More research is needed pertaining to the consumption of processed pork products on indices of human health.
Justin Fowler, University of Georgia, USA
Nutritional considerations for soybean meal use in poultry diets
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The poultry feed industry uses about 50% of the soybean meal (SBM) produced in the United States each year. The meal is valuable to the animal feed industry because it is an excellent source of amino acids that would otherwise be lost to the human food chain after the oil has been removed from the bean. This chapter assesses the nutritional content of SBM, as well as its anti-nutritive compounds, and considers the effects of genetic modification on SBM. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area of research.
Stephanie A. Terry, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada and University of Sydney, Australia; Carlos M. Romero, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada and University of Lethbridge, Canada; and Alex V. Chaves and Tim A. McAllister, Agriculture and Agri-Food
Nutritional factors affecting greenhouse gas production from ruminants: implications for enteric and manure emissions
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Ruminants are significant contributors to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Mitigating enteric and manure methane (CH4) production have been explored, but often in isolation of other GHG. Lowering enteric CH4 emissions can cause unintended increases in GHG from manure. Considering the complexity of rumen and the impact that it can have on manure composition, a whole systems approach is required to assess the value of additives that mitigate enteric CH4 emissions. This chapter summarizes a range of nutritional strategies available for enteric- and manure-CH4 abatement. Dietary additives including alternative electron acceptors, inhibitors, plant secondary compounds, and carbon (C) derived materials will be reviewed for their efficacy as mitigants of overall GHG emissions and evaluated for how they alter rumen and manure microbiomes. A compilation of current research will identify gaps in knowledge and reinforce the need to further examine dietary mitigation strategies in ruminant production systems at a whole farm level.
Michael Gänzle, University of Alberta, Canada
Nutritional properties and biological activity of lactose and other dairy carbohydrates
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Lactose is the main carbohydrate in the milk of dairy animals; it is also the only dairy carbohydrate that is digested in the human small intestine. While lactose is digested by all human infants, it is conditionally digestible in human adults and its nutritional properties depend on the genetic background of the individual, the capacity of intestinal microbiota to ferment lactose without adverse effects for the host, and the presence of other components of the diet. In addition to lactose, milk of dairy animals contains glycoproteins and a low concentration free oligosaccharides. These dairy carbohydrates are indigestible but have multiple biological activities related to infant nutrition, the modulation of the composition and activity of intestinal microbiota, and the inhibition of pathogen or toxin adhesion to intestinal epithelia. This chapter provides an overview on carbohydrates and glycoproteins in milk, focusing on bovine milk, and their nutritional properties and biological activity.
Prof. Duroy A. Navarre
Nutritional properties and enhancement/biofortification of potatoes
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There are a number of factors that make potatoes a logical focus for nutritional breeding efforts. As one of the world’s staple foods, they have a key role to play in improving global food security, largely due to their nutritional value, storability, affordability and high yield. Recent years have also witnessed greatly increased consumer concern for healthy food choices, leading to high demand for an increase in the nutritional value of foods that have previously been subject to negative health publicity. This chapter reviews the nutritional composition of potatoes from diverse germplasm including vitamin C, B vitamins, potassium, carotenoids, phenylpropanoids and glycoalkaloids. In each case, we discuss the feasibility and health benefits of increasing these nutrients through traditional and precision breeding efforts. We conclude that the time is ripe for intensifying such efforts, and that some potential targets may have merit beyond health benefits, such as improving flavour, taste and environmental resistance.
Dr Dr Marco Zampiga
Nutritional strategies and management practices to improve poultry meat quality
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The concept of meat quality is of primary relevance for both producers, due to the implications for fresh retail and value-added meat products, and consumers, which are increasingly aware of the nutritional quality of food. Beside the genetic background, many environmental factors are able to influence meat quality traits in poultry. For instance, nutrition is considered as one of the most important determinants of poultry meat quality due to its effects on proximate composition, technological properties, oxidative stability and sensory traits. Furthermore, nutritional strategies can also play a role in limiting the negative consequences exerted on meat quality by certain conditions to which modern broiler lines are particularly susceptible, such as muscle abnormalities and heat stress. From another perspective, some management practices can also provide relevant benefits in terms of meat quality. In this context, the ancient practice known as “caponization” (i.e. castration) can deeply modify meat and carcass quality by changing the animal metabolism, providing to the consumers a high-quality alternative to conventional chicken meat. The aim of this chapter is, therefore, to summarize the most relevant findings concerning the effects of nutrition and feeding strategies on the different facets of the meat quality concept as well as to discuss the consequences of some environmental and management factors, such as heat stress and caponization, on this crucial topic for the modern poultry industry.
Professor Professor Glen Almond
Nutritional strategies to boost immune function in pigs
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Our understanding of porcine nutrition and immunity has increased dramatically over the last two decades. For the vast majority of nutrients, researchers attempted to demonstrate the potential to improve immunity in pigs. The use of lipopolysaccharide to stimulate the immune system often was used to evaluate the influence of nutrition; however, all pathogens are not created equal and there is considerable variation within a single pathogen, let alone within a disease category. We need to learn more about how each antigen interferes with metabolism, and disease challenges are likely multi-factorial, which makes it challenging to plan for each disease-related scenario. Environmental regulations are becoming stricter and these regulations vary from country to country. Hence, some of the nutrients, which provided alternatives to antibiotic therapies, face more obstacles for practical, on-farm use. This chapter is not intended to review all nutrients, nor the complete immune response, but rather to provide select examples of nutrient strategies to boost immune function.
Professor Professor Michael Kidd
Nutritional strategies to boost immune response in poultry
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In this chapter nutritional modulation of immune function, with specific focus on research work from the year 2000 to present, is outlined with respect to immune responsiveness and disease resistance. In order to assess immune enhancement, suppression, and balance, independent sections for vitamins (i.e., carotenoids and vitamin E), minerals (i.e., selenium and zinc), and amino acids (i.e., arginine and threonine) are presented. Further, consideration of other nutrients is given (e.g., vitamin D, manganese, and copper). In addition to nutrients, sections in this chapter also are concerned with the ingredients on immune modulation (i.e., fats, oils, wheat, rye, insect meal, algae meal, and alternatively processed oilseeds). A section on in ovo manipulation of embryo and subsequent chick immunity is presented. Studies assessing few immune parameters versus those assessing overall immune balance in the presence of challenges are discussed.
James D. Ferguson, University of Pennsylvania, USA
Nutritional strategies to improve nitrogen efficiency and milk protein synthesis in dairy cows
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Dairy production is associated with significant losses of nitrogen to the environment, contributing to the degradation of air and water systems. These losses must be decreased to make dairy farming sustainable, and a primary means of doing this is to increase the conversion of feed protein into milk protein. This chapter considers the two nitrogen-utilising systems in the cow: the rumen microbiota and ruminant tissues. The more efficient both the rumen and tissue systems are, the lower the urinary nitrogen excretion. We review approaches to estimating rumen microbial protein synthesis, the protein and energy requirements of dairy cows and the use of milk urea nitrogen (MUN) to assess the nitrogen efficiency of dairy cows. We then consider the development of nutritional systems which account for rumen microbial synthesis, rumen-degradable and undegradable feed protein and endogenous protein supplies of amino acids based on utilisation of feed inputs.
C. Jamie Newbold, Eli R. Saetnan and Kenton J. Hart, Aberystwyth University, UK
Nutritional strategies to minimize emissions from sheep
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Agricultural production accounts for 10–12% of global annual greenhouse gas emissions, with livestock production (including sheep) being the most important contributing factor within this sector. The largest single contributor to agricultural greenhouse gas emissions is methane produced during enteric fermentation. This chapter describes the various approaches available to minimizing enteric emissions from sheep, including plant-based approaches and the use of additives in grazing sheep. The chapter also examines host-driven effects on the rumen and suggests future lines of development and research in this area.
Dr Dr Laura L. Greiner
Nutritional strategies to optimize reproductive performance of the highly prolific sow
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The feeding of a prolific sow is a complex process that involves proper nutrient formulation, feed delivery, and an understanding of the biological challenges that she will undergo within her lifetime. In addition, the timeframe in which a sow within the herd is productive is spent predominantly as pregnant or nursing which diverts nutrients away from her to her offspring. Therefore, the changes in nutrition need to be addressed starting before the female becomes sexually mature once the gilt is weaned. This chapter will highlight important considerations concerning sow nutrition and nutrient recommendations by reproductive phase. In addition, information concerning common management practices will be discussed with scientific literature.
Phung Lê Đình, Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue University, Vietnam; and André J. A. Aarnink, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands
Nutritional strategies to reduce emissions from waste in pig production
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Emissions of ammonia, odour and greenhouse gases (GHGs) from livestock housing and storage and application of manure are major concerns in the environmental sustainability of pig production. This chapter addresses dietary strategies to reduce these emissions. It examines in detail the relationship between nutrition and ammonia, odour, and GHG emissions. The effectiveness of dietary solutions for reducing gaseous emissions and its relation with animal performance are discussed. Finally, the chapter examines future research trends in this area and provides detailed suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Elhadi M. Yahia, Autonomous University of Querétaro, Mexico
Nutritional value, health benefits and uses of avocado
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Avocado fruit is rich in phytochemicals that have been associated with the prevention of some important diseases. This chapter discusses the important nutritional components of avocado fruit, especially the many important bioactive compounds they contain, as well as the important effects of avocado consumption on human nutrition and health, a driver behind the very significant growth and expansion of the industry in the last few decades. The chapter details nutraceutical properties of avocado, particularly their potential for the prevention and possible treatment of diseases such as macular degeneration, osteoarthritis, cardiovascular problems, and cancer, among others. Some folk medicinal uses of avocado and its components, as well as some pharmaceutical, cosmetic and other applications have been discussed. Potential allergic and toxic compounds have also been mentioned and discussed.
Suzanne Hendrich, Iowa State University, USA
Nutritional, nutraceutical and functional properties of soybeans
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Soybeans have desirable nutritional properties, since they contain about twice the protein of other legumes per serving. Some soybean protein ingredients have protein digestibility corrected amino acid scores commensurate with proteins thought to be optimal to meet human protein needs. This chapter examines recent human clinical studies related to the efficacy and safety of soybean foods and food or dietary supplement ingredients including soybean oils, proteins, isoflavones and selected other compounds for which soybeans are a significant source.
Dr Dr Lise Nistrup Jørgensen
Occurrence and avoidance of fungicide resistance in cereal diseases
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The targeted use of fungicides can help minimise the yield losses caused to grain cereals by plant pathogenic fungi. However, the long-term use of fungicide classes based on a single mode of action has imposed consistent selection pressures on certain pathogens. Over time, this has resulted in many cases of fungicide resistance, leading to a reduction or the total loss of field performance of a range of active ingredients. There is a pressing need to develop anti-resistance management strategies. This chapter briefly reviews the development of resistance in cereal pathogens, before presenting and evaluating a variety of anti-resistance strategies. We include case studies of how data from field trials have helped to illustrate the impact of different control strategies.
Janne Lundén, University of Helsinki, Finland; Kristiina Törmä, Finnish Food Authority, Finland; and Eija Kaukonen, University of Helsinki, Finland
Official control of poultry processing operations: a European perspective
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This chapter is about official control of poultry processing operations from a European perspective. Official control is a cornerstone of food safety, fair trade, animal health and welfare. In poultry processing, official control comprises of ante- and post-mortem inspections of poultry and food safety inspections that verify food business operators’ compliance with food safety legislation. The chapter begins with a section exploring meat inspection, covering food chain information and ante- and post-mortem inspections. This is followed by a section on food safety inspections.
Hiroki Koga and Kenzo Uchigasaki, Oishii Farm, USA
Oishii Farm: gaining the leading edge in the plant factory business and looking ahead
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The age of indoor vertical farming is inevitable as changes in global climate threaten traditional agriculture. Through the integration of new technologies and innovations, whoever establishes themselves as the leader of this rising industry will change the face of agriculture across the globe. And at the forefront, stands Oishii. The company is approaching indoor vertical farming with a higher value product that can differentiate themselves from the rest of the playing field, that product being strawberries. Through developing techniques to farm strawberries on a scale indoors never done before and continuing to expand the knowledge to the cultivation of other crops allows Oishii to strive for the end goal of bringing indoor grown produce to the mass-market.
Dr Dr Jana Seifert
Omics technologies for connecting host responses with poultry gut function
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Optimal gut function is of importance to the whole metabolism of a chicken and thus also central to efficient feed conversion and optimal meat and egg production. State-of-the-art Omics technologies are currently available to gain a deeper insight into animal physiology. This chapter summarizes the latest studies using different omics technologies (e.g. genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics) to identify the response of chicken intestinal cells to various effectors. First, the functions, physiology and microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract in chicken are discussed. Then follows a section on Omics technologies, how they can be used and what they can tell researchers. The authors then present a section on the application of omics to the study of the chicken intestine. The chapter concludes with a case study on the proteomic analysis of the mucosal layer of the chicken gut, and a look to future trends in research.
Ralph E. H. Sims, Massey University, New Zealand
On-farm biomass technologies for heat and power
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Biomass in its various forms, has long been combusted to provide useful heat on farms. Applications include heating of water, crop drying, animal housing, and heated greenhouses for protected vegetable and flower production. Biomass resources are often available on the farm including from crop residues such as cereal straw and orchard prunings, woody biomass from woodlots, and animal manure that can be used as feedstock for a biogas plant. Many companies manufacture a range of heating plant technologies for the combustion of biomass at the farm scale, so a few examples are described. Bioenergy systems can also generate electricity at the small-scale, often as cogeneration together with useful heat. So examples of applications are also included. Where the biomass arises from a sustainable supply, as is the usual case on farms, the bioenergy system can be deemed to be low-carbon and renewable.
Dr Dr Marleen Riemens
On-farm implementation of integrated weed management
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IWM is a part of integrated pest management (IPM) and adoption of IWM is an important driver for IPM. Within the project IWMPRAISE we developed a novel framework for integrating and implementing existing and novel approaches to IWM. Understanding the drivers of decision making by farmers are essential for a successful implementation of on farm IWM. In this chapter we review cognitive, social and dispositional factors often associated with the lack of IWM adoption by farmers: Lack of available knowledge on IWM; Limited evidence of efficiency, reliability and cost- effectiveness of IWM; Trade-offs with other parts of the cropping system; Increased complexity involved in IWM; Insufficient infrastructure to support relevant learning and decision making by farmers and land managers; individual values and beliefs of farmers affecting their attitudes to integrated weed management; Resistance to change and perception of risk. Finally, a framework for IWM decision making by farmers is presented.
Francesco Bordignon and Andrea Pezzuolo, University of Padova, Italy
On-farm monitoring of layer flock health using sensors and modern data analytics
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Jeroen Dewulf and Dominiek Maes, Ghent University, Belgium
On-farm strategies for preventing pig diseases: improving biosecurity
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Pigs are susceptible to a wide range of diseases that can affect health, welfare and productivity. The implementation of biosecurity measures along the production chain is one of the major solutions to minimize the risk of introduction of diseases into a farm (external biosecurity), as well as their spread within the farm (internal biosecurity). In this chapter, we discuss the five principles of farm-level biosecurity and illustrate the application of these principles both for external biosecurity (purchasing and quarantine policy, the transport of animals and removal of manure and carcasses, the supply of feed, water, and equipment, the access of persons, vermin and bird control, environmental risks) and for internal biosecurity (compartmentalization, working lines, and equipment, disease management, farrowing and suckling period, weaning and fattening period, and cleaning and disinfection). Finally, ways to measure and quantify the biosecurity status of a pig farm are discussed.
Angela Trocino, University of Padova, Italy; Francesca Leone and Valentina Ferrante, University of Milan, Italy
One-Welfare approach to assessing egg quality
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Once basic requirements are met, consumers’ perception of product quality is directed to animal welfare. Both in and beyond Europe, animal farming systems for egg production and laying hens are transitioning from indoor cage to cage-free systems (often still based on high stocking densities and selected genotypes) as well as alternative systems, such as organic and free-range using resilient genotypes and extensive conditions. Based on a One-Welfare approach, this chapter addresses the impacts and research challenges of this transition, ongoing welfare concerns for animals and impacts on egg quality.
Dr Dr Daniel J. Leybourne
Online decision support systems, remote sensing and artificial intelligence applications for wheat pest management
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Infestation with herbivorous insects and other invertebrates (“pests”) can be extremely damaging to wheat production, potentially resulting in up to 80% yield loss. Reducing the damage caused by these pests is a central component of crop protection practices. Decision Support Systems (DSS) are interactive systems (usually software based) that help users identify and solve problems and make decisions as part of an IPM strategy. DSS play an important role in pest management, especially in relation to treatment application. DSS can be used as an umbrella term for any software-based support system that helps farmers make management and production decisions. The chapter will focus on providing an overview of DSS targeting the primary wheat pests covered in this book, we will cover both forecasting and prediction DSS available for wheat pest management as well as remote sensing and AI tools available for pest detection.
Anne E. Dorrance, The Ohio State University, USA
Oomycete and fungal pathogens of soybean
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Soybean production faces numerous biotic challenges, leading to significant yield losses each year. This chapter addresses oomycete and fungal pathogens of soybean. Case studies on the oomycete pathogens Phytophthora sojae and Pythium species as well as the true fungi Cercospora sojina, Phakopsora pachyrhizi and Macrophomina phaseolina, and the Fusarium species are presented. Through these case studies, the diversity in the pathogens which affect soybean, including their genetic diversity, different modes of infection and different host ranges is emphasized. The diverse range of management options and the future trends in research which should improve our ability to manage soybean diseases are also considered.
Bradley J. Heins, University of Minnesota, USA
Opportunities and challenges in crossbreeding dairy cattle in temperate regions
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Crossbreeding is an old technology; however, when used in today’s dairy systems, crossbreeding can produce profitable results for dairy producers. Interest in crossbreeding of dairy cattle has become a topic of great interest in the last ten years and has developed in response to concerns dairy producers have about fertility, calving difficulty, and stillbirths in today’s genetically improved Holstein cows. This chapter summarizes landmark crossbreeding research at the University of Illinois before going on to consider crossbreeding research in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Ireland and Germany. The chapter includes a case study focussing on crossbreeding with Jersey cows conducted at the University of Minnesota. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Elske N. de Haas, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
Opportunities to improve the welfare of young chickens
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This chapter reviews the range of issues affecting the health and welfare of young chickens. It starts by assessing the welfare of parental stock and its effects on offspring. The chapter then reviews research on incubation practices to optimize chick welfare. The chapter also discusses hatching practices to optimise chick welfare, both in commercial hatcheries as well as on-farm hatching. Finally, the chapter assesses rearing practices to optimize pullet welfare, including the importance of enrichment in, for example, in reducing the risk of developing injurious pecking behaviours, reducing risk of injury by improving spatial and navigation skills, as well as reducing feelings of fear and stress.
Dr Dr Anja Steglich
Optimising aquaculture/aquaponics in urban agriculture: developing rooftop water farms
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Fresh fish and fresh vegetables harvested directly from the roof, produced with treated wastewater from the building. This is the vision of the Roof water-farm (RWF) Project. This chapter describes how the project has developed by combining a range of existing technologies such as new housing design, grey-water recycling, hydroponics and aquaponics. It discusses key steps such as planning as well as communication and education strategies needed to involve key actors and win public support. It also reviews challenges in moving from the pilot stage to practical implication as well as potential for the future.
Professor Professor Ruben Sakrabani
Optimising bio-based fertilisation for a more sustainable agriculture
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Highlights the significant importance of supporting farmers in their transition from relying on inorganic fertilisers to utilising more organic sources of nutrition
Considers the role of biostimulants in promoting crop nutrient use efficiency and overall crop health
Reviews the potential contribution of particular soil amendments to soil organic matter content, nutrient availability and nutrient cycling
Professor Professor Ruben Sakrabani
Optimising bio-based fertilisation for a more sustainable agriculture
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Highlights the significant importance of supporting farmers in their transition from relying on inorganic fertilisers to utilising more organic sources of nutrition
Considers the role of biostimulants in promoting crop nutrient use efficiency and overall crop health
Reviews the potential contribution of particular soil amendments to soil organic matter content, nutrient availability and nutrient cycling
Professor Professor Ruben Sakrabani
Optimising bio-based fertilisation for a more sustainable agriculture
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Highlights the significant importance of supporting farmers in their transition from relying on inorganic fertilisers to utilising more organic sources of nutrition
Considers the role of biostimulants in promoting crop nutrient use efficiency and overall crop health
Reviews the potential contribution of particular soil amendments to soil organic matter content, nutrient availability and nutrient cycling
Bijay-Singh, Punjab Agricultural University, India
Optimising fertiliser use to maintain soil health
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Maintaining the health of soils, and therefore their capacity to carry out the ecosystem functions necessary for sustainable food production, is a complex and evolving area of science. This chapter examines management of mineral fertilisers and organic manures in relation to its effects on soil health in terms of soil organic carbon and nitrogen, soil acidification and soil microbiology. The chapter discusses the optimisation of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilisers use, together with their interactions and interdependency. The chapter considers agricultural systems and practices and offers suggestions for future areas of research.
Nick J. Bell, The University of Nottingham, UK
Optimising foot health in dairy cattle
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This chapter examines optimising foot health in dairy cattle. The chapter begins by reviewing the importance of lameness then goes on to discuss claw horn disruption. It also reviews aetiopathogensis of white line bruising and lesions, which is then followed by a section on aetiopathogensis and control of digital dermatitis. A case study on an 800 cow Holstein herd with a sudden rise in sole ulcers and white line lesions is also included. The chapter concludes with an overview of the emerging diseases in dairy cattle.
Dr Dr Ludovic Bonin
Optimising integrated weed management in narrow-row crops
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Sustainable management of weeds represents a major challenge for farmers. Herbicides offer the most effective curative technique and are widely used. Nevertheless, less reliance on them is necessary for environmental and technical reasons, and also in the face of societal pressure. Four detailed case studies, from Denmark, United Kingdom, France and Slovenia illustrate the effectiveness of combined methods to control weeds and preserve/improve farmers’ income.
Léni Corrand, Anibio Group Vétérinaire, France; Richard Jackson, St David’s Veterinary Team, UK; and Paul McMullin, Poultry Health International, UK
Optimising microbiological and food safety in free-range and organic poultry meat production
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This chapter provides an overview of free-range poultry production systems and the consequent potential meat product safety issues that can occur. The chapter discusses two infections which have particularly significant food safety implications: Campylobacter and Salmonella. It also considers other infections such as Erysipelas and avian influenza, whose public health risk is primarily due to exposure of farm staff. Although nematode infections are not a public health risk, they do raise issues of sustainability of free-range production so are also discussed. Finally, the chapter considers the particular importance of biosecurity in free-range systems.
Prof Prof Dominiek Maes
Optimising pig herd health and production
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Whilst it can mean enhanced biosecurity, intensive and globalised pig production (based on a narrowing genetic base) also potentially increases the risk of disease and its spread. It has been estimated that diseases can lower pig production efficiency by 10-15%, though financial losses can be much greater.
Optimising pig herd health and production highlights the need to develop more preventative measures that can be implemented to tackle the increasing threat of disease. The book addresses recent developments in disease prevention, focussing on how farmers and producers can utilise feed management and housing to optimise pig health, as well as the role of vaccine development in preventing the onset of endemic and emerging diseases in pigs.
Through highlighting the importance of understanding and identifying disease, the book showcases how our understanding of the mechanisms of transmission for some of the key porcine viral and bacterial diseases can be applied to optimise pig herd health and production.
Edited by: Professor Dominiek Maes, Ghent University, Belgium and Professor Joaquim Segalés, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and IRTA-CReSA, Spain
Optimising pig herd health and production
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$195.00
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Whilst it can mean enhanced biosecurity, intensive and globalised pig production (based on a narrowing genetic base) also potentially increases the risk of disease and its spread. It has been estimated that diseases can lower pig production efficiency by 10-15%, though financial losses can be much greater.
Optimising pig herd health and production highlights the need to develop more preventative measures that can be implemented to tackle the increasing threat of disease. The book addresses recent developments in disease prevention, focussing on how farmers and producers can utilise feed management and housing to optimise pig health, as well as the role of vaccine development in preventing the onset of endemic and emerging diseases in pigs.
Through highlighting the importance of understanding and identifying disease, the book showcases how our understanding of the mechanisms of transmission for some of the key porcine viral and bacterial diseases can be applied to optimise pig herd health and production.
Edited by: Professor Dominiek Maes, Ghent University, Belgium and Professor Joaquim Segalés, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona and IRTA-CReSA, Spain
Optimising pig herd health and production
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$195.00
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Whilst it can mean enhanced biosecurity, intensive and globalised pig production (based on a narrowing genetic base) also potentially increases the risk of disease and its spread. It has been estimated that diseases can lower pig production efficiency by 10-15%, though financial losses can be much greater.
Optimising pig herd health and production highlights the need to develop more preventative measures that can be implemented to tackle the increasing threat of disease. The book addresses recent developments in disease prevention, focussing on how farmers and producers can utilise feed management and housing to optimise pig health, as well as the role of vaccine development in preventing the onset of endemic and emerging diseases in pigs.
Through highlighting the importance of understanding and identifying disease, the book showcases how our understanding of the mechanisms of transmission for some of the key porcine viral and bacterial diseases can be applied to optimise pig herd health and production.
Nicole Kemper, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Germany
Optimising pig welfare at the weaning and nursery stage
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The welfare of pigs at the nursery stage is an area of special concern because of the manifold influencing factors that have the potential to decrease seriously the piglets’ wellbeing. Especially the separation from their mother sow in combination with a very young weaning age in modern pig farming, the new environment they are brought in, hitherto unknown sources of feed and water, and regrouping with non-litter mates represent big challenges. To help the piglets as best as possible to overcome these challenges is key for animal welfare, health and performance. In this chapter, the most important fields of environmental, nutritional and social stress are explained, and strategies to increase weaners’ welfare are summarised. The importance of trained and skilled stockmen is emphasised, because without a careful eye on the piglets and consideration of all possible negative and positive influencing factors, pig welfare at the nursery stage cannot be realised.
Luigi Faucitano, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada; and Antonio Velarde, Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology, Spain
Optimising pig welfare during transport, lairage and slaughter
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Preslaughter practices, such as transport, handling and slaughter, can affect the welfare of pigs, and carcass and meat quality both individually and additively. Poor transport conditions and handling may result in loss of profits due to animal losses, carcass downgrading and meat quality defects. These economic losses are limited when the design of trucks is improved, the recommended transport, handling, stunning and slaughter practices are applied and the ambient conditions are controlled. The objective of this chapter is to overview research findings on the effects of transport, handling and slaughter practices on behavioral and physiological response, and carcass and meat quality in pigs, and to provide recommendations about the best practices aimed at limiting the impact of these factors on the pork industry economy.
Paul H. Hemsworth, University of Melbourne, Australia
Optimising pig welfare in breeding and gestation
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This chapter considers factors affecting the welfare of pigs during breeding and gestation and provides recommendations on optimising their welfare in commercial conditions. The chapter concludes with a summary of the main findings and a discussion of future opportunities to safeguard pig welfare.
Professor Professor Sjaak de Wit
Optimising poultry flock health
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"The result is a refreshing balance between readability and practicality, underpinned by true science and the appliance of science… as a comprehensive resource on the breadth of information available with the combination of general principles, up-to-date advice, coupled with an excellent provision of further reading and resources for every chapter, makes this an essential addition to any poultry library!" (Dr Stephen A. Lister, review in Avian Pathology)
Diseases remain a significant burden to poultry production and its future, with outbreaks of disease resulting in catastrophic financial losses to the sector. Whilst it is widely recognised that vaccines have a major role in inducing protection, they can only be considered as part of the solution to this rapidly growing problem.
Optimising poultry flock health instead reviews ways of optimising preventative measures to reduce the risk of disease in flocks. The book reviews the wealth of recent research on the mechanisms of transmission for infectious diseases and how this understanding can be used to improve poultry flock health.
By showing how poultry flock health can be optimised at different stages of production, the book showcases the extent of preventative measures available to farmers and producers, as well as how these measures can be implemented effectively to protect their flocks against disease.
Professor Professor Sjaak de Wit
Optimising poultry flock health
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$195.00
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"The result is a refreshing balance between readability and practicality, underpinned by true science and the appliance of science… as a comprehensive resource on the breadth of information available with the combination of general principles, up-to-date advice, coupled with an excellent provision of further reading and resources for every chapter, makes this an essential addition to any poultry library!" (Dr Stephen A. Lister, review in Avian Pathology)
Diseases remain a significant burden to poultry production and its future, with outbreaks of disease resulting in catastrophic financial losses to the sector. Whilst it is widely recognised that vaccines have a major role in inducing protection, they can only be considered as part of the solution to this rapidly growing problem.
Optimising poultry flock health instead reviews ways of optimising preventative measures to reduce the risk of disease in flocks. The book reviews the wealth of recent research on the mechanisms of transmission for infectious diseases and how this understanding can be used to improve poultry flock health.
By showing how poultry flock health can be optimised at different stages of production, the book showcases the extent of preventative measures available to farmers and producers, as well as how these measures can be implemented effectively to protect their flocks against disease.
Edited by: Professor Sjaak de Wit, Royal GD and University of Utrecht, The Netherlands
Optimising poultry flock health
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$195.00
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"The result is a refreshing balance between readability and practicality, underpinned by true science and the appliance of science… as a comprehensive resource on the breadth of information available with the combination of general principles, up-to-date advice, coupled with an excellent provision of further reading and resources for every chapter, makes this an essential addition to any poultry library!" (Dr Stephen A. Lister, review in Avian Pathology)
Diseases remain a significant burden to poultry production and its future, with outbreaks of disease resulting in catastrophic financial losses to the sector. Whilst it is widely recognised that vaccines have a major role in inducing protection, they can only be considered as part of the solution to this rapidly growing problem.
Optimising poultry flock health instead reviews ways of optimising preventative measures to reduce the risk of disease in flocks. The book reviews the wealth of recent research on the mechanisms of transmission for infectious diseases and how this understanding can be used to improve poultry flock health.
By showing how poultry flock health can be optimised at different stages of production, the book showcases the extent of preventative measures available to farmers and producers, as well as how these measures can be implemented effectively to protect their flocks against disease.
Norman B. Williamson, Massey University, New Zealand
Optimising reproductive management to maximise dairy herd health and production
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Reproduction is central to the operation of a dairy herd through initiating lactation and providing replacement animals and offspring for sale. This chapter outlines the steps required to detect reproductive problems and limitations in cows and herds. It then elaborates some strategies to overcome limits to reproductive health and production concentrating on detecting cows requiring attention through record monitoring, analysing herd records to monitor reproduction and identify areas that limit performance and providing strategies to deal with these limits. The main limits addressed are anoestrus and inadequate oestrus detection that are addressed through education of farm workers, aids to oestrus detection and the use of planned breeding programs to induce and control oestrus and breeding. Nutritional causes of limited reproductive performance are also considered as well as strategies to limit abortion.
Aila Vanhatalo and Anni Halmemies-Beauchet-Filleau, University of Helsinki, Finland
Optimising ruminal function: the role of silage and concentrate in dairy cow nutrition to improve feed efficiency and reduce methane and nitrogen emissions
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Ruminant farm animals contribute significantly to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, but the emissions can be greatly reduced by nutrition. Sustainable dairy cow feeding strategy to mitigate GHG and N emissions should make the most of the unique ability of ruminants to convert local human-inedible biomass to high-quality dairy foods. In this chapter, we review the potential of silage plant species (grass, forage legumes, maize) and stage of maturity of silage crops as well as dietary forage to concentrate ratio to reduce environmental footprint of dairy cows in the temperate areas without compromising animal performance. Dairy cow performance is examined in terms of feed intake, milk yield, feed and N efficiency, and methane emission intensity. The role of concentrate composition (lipids, carbohydrates and protein) is also evaluated. As a case study, the potential of milled rapeseed to reduce environmental footprint of grass silage-based diet is evaluated in practical farm conditions.
Emma M. Baxter, Animal Behaviour and Welfare Team, Animal and Veterinary Sciences Research Group, SRUC, UK; and Sandra Edwards, Newcastle University, UK
Optimising sow and piglet welfare during farrowing and lactation
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Optimising welfare in the farrowing and lactation environment involves resolving the concerns regarding continued use of close confinement systems, such as the farrowing crate for the sows and the lack of provision of environmental enrichment to provide for behavioural needs. For piglets the main welfare and health issues surround high levels of piglet mortality and the pre-disposing risk factors associated with them. Some of these risk factors, such as low birth weight, have been exacerbated by narrow breeding goals focussed on production traits such as increasing litter size. This chapter concentrates on managerial and environmental interventions that attempt to reconcile the behavioural and physiological needs of both the sow and piglets to optimise their welfare whilst appreciating stockperson concerns with how best to implement them.
Edgar Garcia Manzanilla, Pig Development Department, Teagasc, The Irish Agriculture and Food Development Authority, Ireland
Optimising the health of finisher pigs
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The growing and finishing phase is often seen as the simplest part of the pig production cycle in commercial farms. The target is to have the pigs ready for slaughter at the expected weight and age with the minimum variability on weights and avoiding production tails. This is probably easier said than done and substandard management can result in outbreaks of respiratory or digestive diseases, ulcers, lameness, prolapses, tail biting and other conditions that should be avoided. For finisher pigs, we need to have a clear definition of how herd health is monitored, what are the main factors affecting health and performance and what are the optimal conditions in each case. This chapter does not focus on a particular disease and discusses how to optimise general management of growing finishing pigs to improve the health of the herd.
Andrea Luppi, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna (IZSLER), Italy
Optimising the health of weaned piglets
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The weaning period is a very stressful event for the piglet that can impact the health, welfare and performance. This period of transition is characterized by the adaptation of newly weaned piglets to their new environment, diet, changing in their immunological status and pathogens circulation that can impact their following performance. Knowledge of main risk factors and the measures necessary to prevent health problems is of fundamental importance for a better management of this delicate phase in the pig's production path. A large part of the chapter is devoted to the discussion of factors influencing health and performance of pigs and related intervention and prevention strategies to be implemented in the period of transition from weaning. A more specific section, in the second part of the chapter, takes into consideration the main etiological agents acting in the period of transition from weaning, the risk factors for their introduction and diffusion within the farm, and the main measures for their control.
David M. E. Poulsen, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
Optimising the use of barley as an animal feed
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Barley is a highly significant feed grain, especially in colder regions where other feed grain crops such as wheat, sorghum and corn cannot easily grow. It is used to feed ruminant and non-ruminant species. Despite 80% of the worlds barley being used as feed, most of the emphasis on breeding and selection has been focussed on supplying the malting and brewing industries. This chapter discusses the concept of “feed barley, along what is expected from barley to be used as feed for a range of livestock. The chapter then reviews ways of optimising the use of barley for animal feed, from production and breeding through to the application of new technologies such as near infrared spectroscopy and molecular markers. The chapter then examines the specific grain quality and nutritional requirements of the major animal species routinely fed barley-based diets. The chapter concludes by assessing future research trends in optimising the use of feed barley.
Theo J. G. M. Lam, Royal GD Animal Health and Utrecht University, The Netherlands; and Sarne De Vliegher, M-team, Ghent University and MEX™, Belgium
Optimising udder health in dairy cattle
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In this chapter several aspects of udder health are discussed. Mastitis, inflammation of the mammary gland, which is generally caused by bacterial infections, is one of the most important and most studied diseases in dairy cattle. Diagnostic approaches are discussed with specific attention for the bacteriological causes of the disease. Subsequently immunological aspects of intramammary infections will be reviewed. Because treatment of mastitis in unavoidable at some point in time in most dairy herds, attention is given to treatment of mastitis with an emphasis on different types of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance. The most important part of udder health management, however, is the preventive management. From that perspective, breeding, housing and nutrition are shortly discussed, as are the milking machine and milking procedures. Finally attention is given to problem solving once mastitis has led to a herd level problem and some future trends are discussed.
Cecil C. Konijnendijk and Hyeone Park, University of British Columbia, Canada
Optimising urban forestry: the food connection
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Urban forestry, defined as the planning and management of trees and associated vegetation in urban areas, has become well established across the globe. Its many contributions to resilient, sustainable and attractive cities have become well documented. This chapter focusses on urban forestry’s contributions to food provision. The chapter introduces the concepts of urban food forestry and urban foraging, presenting detailed case studies for each one. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Sara M. Villani, North Carolina State University, USA; Kerik D. Cox, Cornell University, USA; and George W. Sundin, Michigan State University, USA
Optimizing disease management in fruit cultivation
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Sustainable management of plant diseases is a perennial challenge for pome fruit and stone fruit producers in humid regions throughout the world. Delayed orchard profitability, decreased orchard longevity, reduction in fruit quality and unsalable fruit caused by fungal and bacterial diseases of tree fruit result in devastating economic losses annually. Globally, tree fruit growers are increasingly relying on an integrated management approach through the incorporation of predictive modelling and biological, chemical and cultural control methods to mitigate disease-associated losses. This chapter provides an introduction of tree fruit production and general management paradigms, followed by a discussion of main pre-harvest fungal and bacterial diseases, methods of integrated disease management and a discussion of advances in technology for pathogen detection and disease management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future challenges of the tree fruit industry and provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Francesco Orsini, Laura Carotti, Mohammad Kazem Souri, Giuseppina Pennisi and Giorgio Gianquinto, University of Bologna, Italy
Optimizing energy and other resource use in vertical farms
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Plant factories utilizing artificial light (PFALs) perform particularly well in terms of resource efficiency, although energy use, mainly due to the use of artificial light for plant photosynthesis, remains high. This chapter presents the latest innovations in horticulture, photobiology, climate management technology and urban symbiosis aimed at reducing the use of energy, water and soil for crop cultivation in PFALs in order to achieve the highest levels of resource use efficiency.
Dr Dr Andreas Schindlbacher
Optimizing forest management for soil carbon sequestration
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This chapter summarizes the effects of different forest management practices on soil organic carbon (SOC) storage and discusses whether and how they can be optimized under climate change. Afforestation and reforestation of C depleted arable soils typically increase SOC stocks, but on C-rich soils in former grasslands, afforestation can even lead to SOC losses. Tree species selection also affects SOC storage. Coniferous forests store more C in the organic layer, whereas broadleaf forests contain more C in the mineral soil. The total SOC stocks seem comparable between forest types. Tree harvesting operations lead to transient SOC losses. However, lower-intensity harvests that retain parts of the tree residues on site, reduce SOC losses compared to whole-tree harvests. Liming leads to a loss of the organic layer, but associated C gains in the mineral soil are uncertain and site-dependent. In the face of climate change, forest management should increase ecosystem resistance and resilience to maintain SOC stocks. Stand thinning, for example, has no significant effect on SOC stocks, but leads to a higher stand resistance against e.g. storms. The promotion of tree species diversity increase forest resilience against climate extremes, thereby reducing the risk for SOC losses through forest diebacks and disturbances. In summary, minimizing the threat of intensive harvest operations for soils and enhancing the resilience of forest against climate extremes and associated disturbances seem the most effective measures for a soil C friendly forest management.
Dr Dr Manoj Karkee
Optimizing fruit production efficiencies through mechanization
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Many technological advances in farming have been adopted over the last century transforming various operations. However, some processes in fruit and vegetable production such as tree fruit and berry harvesting have not changed, and crops such as apples, cherries, peaches, blueberries, and strawberries are harvested manually, an operation that is highly labor intensive, demanding a huge seasonal workforce in rural areas around the world. This chapter looks at optimizing fruit production efficiencies through mechanization. Starting with an introductory section on challenges faced in tree fruit harvesting, the chapter goes on to discuss harvest-aid (or labor-assist) machines (or platforms), which as the name suggests, are designed to assist human fruit pickers. Mass and robotic harvesting systems, which on the other hand, are designed to remove the need of manual picking, are also covered, with specific examples included. Fruit conveyance and handling, and mechanical pruning are also discussed.
B. W. Alsanius, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden; M. Jirström, Lund University, Sweden; M. T. Naznin and S. Khalil, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden; and E.-C. Ekström, Uppsala University, Sweden
Optimizing horticulture for urban agriculture
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Urban horticulture is attracting increasing attention in both low- and high-income countries. The practice can be needs-driven, i.e., providing and securing food and livelihoods, or based on environmental considerations, social integration, and human wellbeing. This chapter focuses on the potential of urban horticulture to provide nutritious, healthy, and safe plant foods (fruit, vegetables) for the urban population and urban livelihoods, and to contribute to circularity of urban resources. The chapter shows that urban horticulture has the potential to make cities more sustainable, self-sufficient, and food secure, but that food safety, waste valorization, and system optimization are important issues.
Prof Prof Claudio Ioriatti
Optimizing insecticide use in integrated management of fruit insect pests
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The integrated pest management approach was conceived to reduce grower reliance on pesticides by combining and optimizing pesticide use with biological, physical and agronomical control tools. Natural enemies are an essential component of the agroecosystem and play a valuable role in controlling insect pests in fruit orchards. Growers need to understand how to protect them from harmful agronomic practices and how these natural allies could be integrated with other control tools. This chapter describes old and new monitoring tools, robust monitoring protocols available for estimating abundance of pest and beneficial insects, use of available phenology models to predict crucial future events important for pest management (e.g. the use of precise timing for surveillance) and pest control. The chapter includes three detailed case studies of common fruit pests as examples of how optimization of insecticide applications could be implemented within a framework of an integrated management of fruit insect pests. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Delia Grace, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Kenya; Elizabeth Cook, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Kenya and University of Liverpool, UK; and Johanna Lindahl, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Kenya
Optimizing livestock farming in urban agriculture
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This chapter summarizes the importance of urbanization and how this increases the consumption of livestock products (LP). This increased demand, alongside infrastructure challenges making transporting and storing LP challenging, encourages urban livestock, close to the final consumer. While data on urban livestock keeping is limited, substantive evidence indicates that large numbers of livestock are kept, and that many processing and retailing activities occur in cities. Key issues for urban livestock keeping are related to human health, nutrition, environment, economy and ethics, and while it has many benefits, it is also implicated in significant problems. The chapter describes these in depth, with reviews of key research. The importance of research in optimizing urban livestock systems is demonstrated by a case study from Nairobi. The chapter concludes with a section on how research can contribute to enhanced, sustainable livestock keeping in cities, followed by a guide to finding additional information and references.
Dr Dr Victor Riau
Optimizing livestock manure as a biofertilizer and bioenergy source
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This chapter provides an overview of the main technologies for manure valorization into bioenergy and biofertilizer products. It discusses developments in more established technologies such as solid-liquid (S/L) separation, anaerobic digestion and composting. It also reviews more innovative techniques, including struvite precipitation, ammonia stripping/scrubbing as well as bioelectrochemical and membrane systems.
Samantha Glaze-Corcoran and Masoud Hashemi, University of Massachusetts Amherst, USA
Optimizing livestock manure as a source of nitrogen and other nutrients
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Manure has long been recognized as a valuable source of nutrients. The product is dynamic, and an understanding of both chemical and biological mechanisms is required to optimize its use. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of manure. Here, the basics of manure composition, collection, storage, and application are summarized with an emphasis on both scientific and practical considerations. Long-standing challenges in manure management, the history of responses, and modern approaches are reviewed. This chapter presents many ideas for future research and problem-solving.
Charles Wortmann, Patricio Grassini and Roger W. Elmore, University of Nebraska- Lincoln, USA
Optimizing maize-based cropping systems: Sustainability, good agricultural practices (GAP) and yield goals
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Sustainable maize production is profitable for the farmer, protects the natural resource base, including maintaining and improving soil productivity, prevents environmental degradation beyond the field, improves the quality of life of individuals and communities and ensures the nutritional value and safety of food. These objectives are not always achieved but need to be among the factors considered in selecting good agricultural practices (GAP). The relative importance of different considerations and trade-offs in the choice of GAP varies with production situations and three contrasting maize production situations are discussed in this chapter. The gap between actual and potential yield and determination of realistic yield goals are also addressed for these three situations
Arthur Agnello, Cornell University, USA
Optimizing pest management in fruit cultivation
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Tree fruit growers in temperate regions have faced challenges in managing the complex of arthropod pests present in these systems because of increasing pesticide regulatory restrictions, public concerns about food safety and environmental quality, and resistance to older pesticides by key pests. Growers are attempting to adopt newer tactics such as reduced-risk (more selective) pesticides and increased reliance on sampling and monitoring techniques plus pheromone-based mating disruption, but these are more expensive and require more time and precise use patterns. In addition, most previous integrated pest management protocols were designed for management programs based on the use of older conventional pesticides. As this chapter shows, a more current and practical approach stresses a basic understanding of pest biology and development, which can be used in predictive models to support the effective use of more selective crop protectants and other sustainable tactics, such as mating disruption and biological control.
Dr Dr Arlene Garcia
Optimizing pig welfare in the growing and finishing stage
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The main objectives of this chapter are to define animal welfare and to identify where intensive production systems may put finishing pigs at risk of poor animal welfare. The chapter discusses pig behavior and how this is affected by production systems, group size, living condition as well as systems for monitoring animal health and care.
Duane Greene, University of Massachusetts, USA
Optimizing plant growth, yield and fruit quality with plant bioregulators
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Plant bioregulators (PBRs) are used extensively in the tree fruit production industry. They influence many processes in a plant including shoot growth, branch angle, bud break, flower bud formation and fruit abscission, ripening, shape and finish, and as such can be used to optimize not only plant growth but also fruit yield and quality. The chapter starts with a classification of PBRs, followed by a detailed discussion on the application of PBRs and their use such as in the development and maintenance of tree structure, and also the control of vegetative growth. The use of PBRs in crop load management and their influence on flowering and fruit set is also presented concluding with sections on both the pre-harvest application of PBRs and their use in improving fruit shape and appearance.
Carlos H. J. Brando and João Alberto P. Brando, P&A Marketing, Brazil
Optimizing post-harvest practices in coffee cultivation
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The objective of this chapter is to describe how coffee is processed, from picking coffee cherries to green coffee ready to be exported or roasted, and how to optimize each step in the processing chain.
Dr Dr Denise Neilsen
Optimizing precision in orchard irrigation and nutrient management
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Precise water and nutrient management in fruit production systems has become a key area of study over recent years, not only due to the changing climate but also due to increased demand for fruit from a growing population as part of a healthy diet. Irrigated fruit production has been proven to be both reliable and more efficient than rain-fed production and the trend is towards high efficiency irrigated systems. This chapter documents both precision management of irrigation and nutrients in orchards (mainly apple, pear, sweet cherry and peach). Precision management of irrigation is discussed in detail including the use of efficient irrigation systems, matching water supply to plant demand, reducing evaporation from the soil surface and responding to drought. A further section on nutrient management covers both ferti-irrigation or fertigation, where nutrients are dissolved in irrigation water, and foliar application, where dissolved nutrients are applied directly to the fruit tree in dilute water sprays.
Pietro Santamaria, Barbara De Lucia and Angelo Signore, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Italy
Optimizing product quality in soilless culture systems (SCS)
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In a soilless culture system (SCS), quality parameters of produce may be improved by better control of the environmental and technical factors involved. This chapter focuses on the main factors through which it is possible to influence and improve the quality profile of soilless horticultural produce. These include the composition, electrical conductivity, pH, temperature and management of the nutrient solution (NS). The chapter also discusses biofortification and harvesting methods.
Prof. Prof. Stefano Musacchi
Optimizing production of quality nursery plants for fruit tree cultivation
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It is now possible to purchase specific nursery tree types that are more compatible with an intended training system, improving planting efficiency and encouraging early production. Although single axis, well-feathered scions suitable for high-density spindle training systems have dominated nursery production over the past two decades, recent nursery trends increasingly produce double axis scions for pear, apple and even stone fruits, to obtain uniform and early producing fruiting walls. This chapter summarizes current knowledge of the physiology of grafting and recent innovations in such fruit tree nursery techniques. New approaches to regulate nursery plant growth and development are reviewed. In vitro propagation is also included which is becoming more and more powerful for producing rootstocks and self-rooted varieties of several fruit species. Sections on scion grafting and budding techniques are covered and the biochemical and physiological aspects of graft incompatibility are discussed in detail. The chapter concludes with a section on tree production in the nursery.
Dr Dr David Fangueiro
Optimizing slurry management
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This chapter discusses optimizing slurry management in agricultural practices. It begins by first highlighting current decision tools for optimizing manure management, then goes on to review modifying animal slurry pH to enhance its value as a biobased fertilizer through methods such as bio acidification and alkalinization. A section on improving manure management systems to minimize trade-offs is also provided, followed by an overview of combining manure management with anaerobic digestion. The chapter also reviews pre- and post-treatment for anaerobic digestion as well as the optimization of anaerobic digestion operations to optimize digestate quality.
Stephen Roderick, Duchy College, UK and Hannah Jones, Farm Carbon Toolkit, UK
Optimizing soils, pasture and grassland management for organic dairy farming
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Organic dairy cows should be able to rely on homegrown forages, especially pasture, as their main source of nutrition. A critical aim is to ensure cows have the optimum body condition at calving and inevitable lactational loss of condition are minimised. Some of the desired attributes of an organic pasture include resilience to variable climatic conditions, the ability to flourish without artificial fertilisers, the potential for climate change mitigation and the supporting of ecological biodiversity. Soil health is key to ensuring effective pasture-based dairy farming and grassland management is critical in this respect. Having the right breed and type of animal for the system and being able to adapt management to meet variations in seasonal and climatic conditions are important factors. In this chapter, rotational grazing systems and the use of diverse species pastures are explored with regards to their practical application and the achievement of organic farming objectives.
Rick van Emous, Wageningen Livestock Research, The Netherlands; and André Steentjes, Veterinary Centre Someren, The Netherlands
Optimizing the health of broiler breeder birds
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The main objective in broiler breeder production is to produce fertilized eggs resulting in healthy and robust day-old broiler chicks. Due to the continuing increase in the genetic potential of the offspring and the improved reproduction performance, there is a high need for professional management and poultry health care of broiler breeder flocks. Implementation of strict biosecurity measures in combination with intensive, well-orchestrated vaccination programs must prevent disease challenges for both breeders and offspring. Points of attention during the rearing period are stress factors like necessary feed restriction, flock density, bird handling, transport and vaccination reactions. A good coordination between rearing and laying period in equipment, management, feed strategy and health care is crucial for maximum chick performance. This chapter gives an overview of the diseases, vaccinations and direct and indirect effects of management and nutritional interventions on health and productivity in broiler breeders.
Edgar Orlando Oviedo-Rondón, North Carolina State University, USA
Optimizing the health of broilers
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This chapter will present the critical infectious disease challenges faced in the top five broiler-producing countries. The current and future strategies to control these diseases will be discussed. These strategies include biosecurity, vaccination, surveillance, diagnostics, environmental management, nutritional interventions, and genetic selection. The optimization of broiler health comes with a better understanding and monitoring of the whole production system in each location. The data presented in this chapter indicates that intestinal and respiratory diseases are the main aspects to improve worldwide. There are big challenges to improving immunity against coccidiosis, Clostridium spp., IBV, and E. coli. These four pathogens are the major infectious diseases. Proper incubation and broiler-house environmental management play an important role in preventing and controlling diseases caused by these and other pathogens. Improving chick quality and reducing early mortality is a priority to enhance broiler health.
S. Björkman, C. Oliviero and O. A. T. Peltoniemi, University of Helsinki, Finland
Optimizing the health of gilts and sows during pregnancy and parturition
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Pregnancy and parturition are sensitive phases of the production cycle in the sow. Indeed, production diseases such as post partum dysgalactia syndrome (PDS) and vaginal discharge syndrome (VDS) appear in the peri- or postpartum period. Social stress and seasonal disruption of pregnancy in group housing seem to be linked, while contemporary research on infective agents threatening pregnancy reveals emergence of viral newcomers such as the PCV-3. Infectious reproductive diseases such as porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) and leptospirosis typically threaten pregnancy during the last trimester. While litter size goes on rising, duration of farrowing appears to be extending, creating welfare concerns and problems for transfer of immunity. Transfer of immunity from sow to gilt is therefore essential and interesting new information on interaction between farrowing management and microbiota has emerged. The new findings may bring light to management issues that should be under focus for future research.
Yuko Sato, Iowa State University, USA
Optimizing the health of poultry layers
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Commercial egg production is an important part of poultry production worldwide. Table egg production is facing times of change and transition with focus on animal well-being. Several major global trends have impacted egg production in many ways: 1) housing systems, 2) ban on beak treatments, 3) increasing focus on sustainability, and 4) consumer demand for specialty eggs. Although the majority of the US egg production still remains in cages, increasing numbers of table egg layer producers transition into cage-free/aviary type production or organic egg production, which involves raising birds cage-free with outdoor access or free-range. The choice of the management and housing system is up to the poultry producer and depends on regulations, personal preference, financial returns, and environmental options. Producers are constantly looking at different challenges with egg production based on customer preference, in which case these alternative systems demands better and different management skills in order to keep birds in good health and productivity.
Declan J. Bolton, Teagasc Food Research Centre (Ashtown), Ireland
Optimizing the microbial shelf-life of fresh beef
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Beef spoilage is primarily caused by bacteria, and maximizing shelf-life is dependent on a multiple hurdle approach to generate conditions that inhibit microbial growth. This chapter begins by reviewing the factors that affect beef spoilage and microbial shelf-life, and the bacteria and processes involved in spoilage. Subsequent sections then consider methods for maximizing the microbial shelf-life of beef products, including minimizing the initial microbial burden in beef, chilling of beef carcasses and the wide variety of packaging technologies
Sylvia Kratz, Kerstin Panten, Ewald Schnug and Elke Bloem, Julius Kühn-Institute, Germany
Optimizing the use of treated wastes in crop nutrition
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Environmental concerns and depleting phosphorus reserves have led to intensified research efforts to close nutrient cycles by recycling of nutrient-rich human wastes in the last decade. Treated wastes for crop nutrition need to contain plant-available nutrients and be free of, or at least low in, potential contaminants. This chapter presents the key issues in the optimum use of treated wastes in crop nutrition. The chapter discusses technical processes such as precipitation of salts, incineration and post-treatment of ashes, as well as production of carbonaceous materials. The chapter characterizes the resulting materials regarding their plant availability and possible inorganic and organic contamination. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research objectives for the optimized use of treated wastes.
Erik Stange, Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Norway
Optimizing urban beekeeping
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Beekeeping, or apiculture, is an agricultural pursuit that has witnessed a dramatic rise in popularity in the past decade in many urban areas across the world as individuals and groups react to the widespread concern about the global decline populations of pollinating insects. This chapter provides a description of the urban environment for bees, and the specific challenges of pursuing beekeeping in cities—including honeybees’ pathogens and swarming behavior. It describes work that attempts to map urban foraging resources for bees, and how this information can be used to provide guidelines for sustainably managing urban honeybee densities. It also highlights recent investigations of how urban landscapes can be managed with respect to plant assemblages and mowing regimes to improve foraging options for both honeybees and wild pollinators alike.
Jan Shearer, Iowa State University, USA
Optimizing welfare in transport and slaughter of cattle
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Transport represents one of the most stressful events an animal may experience. Its impact on the welfare of beef and dairy cattle is frequently underestimated, as are the effects of transport on carcass quality issues such as bruises and dark cutting beef. For ease of discussion, the process is broken down into three phases: pre-transport, transport and arrival at slaughter. The pre-transport phase includes selection of animals to be removed from herds and determining their fitness for travel, and making preparations based upon weather conditions, time and distance to the ultimate destination. The behavioral tendency of cattle to stand during transport increases stress, fatigue and the potential for injury as time in transit increases, especially for compromised animals. Upon arrival at slaughter, animals should exit at that their own speed into an alleyway that provides an obvious unrestricted path to follow in route to a holding pen. The holding pen should provide immediate access to water and be large enough to avoid overcrowding of animals. The movement of animals from the pre-slaughter holding pen to the alleyway leading to the stun box should move in an orderly and calm manner with little, or preferably no use of prodding devices. Once the animal enters the restrainer, stunning should proceed without delay.
V. S. Almeida, F. T. Delazari, C. Nick, W. L. Ara ú jo and D. J. H. Silva, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Brazil
Optimizing yields in tomato cultivation: maximizing tomato plant use of resources
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The operation of leaf stomata affects a plant’s photosynthesis, transpiration and respiration, and allows vegetable dry matter to be produced, which is required for production of the tomato fruit. The opening and closing of the stomata can be affected by various factors, and this in turn can have an effect on crop yield. After reviewing the role and functioning of the stomata, this chapter considers the main factors that affect stomata opening and closure, namely, soil water availability, light, CO2, relative air moisture, air temperature and wind. It then considers how these and other factors may interact, reviews the cultivational practices which can promote stomatal opening and briefly cover methods for determining the water status and transpiration rate of plants. The aim of the chapter is to provide novel insights into improving tomato yield by ensuring stomatal pores stay open for longer at appropriate times.
Roberto Ugás, Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Peru
Organic agriculture and agroecology in Latin America
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This chapter provides an account of the development and current status of agroecology and organic agriculture in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). It highlights the main contributions made by LAC farmers, practitioners, researchers and value chain actors to the worldwide growth of agroecology and organic agriculture. It provides an overview of certified and non-certified organic agriculture in the region, the guarantee systems in place and the markets for such products. National standards and regulations for organic agriculture are included, as well as programmes for organic agriculture and agroecology which have been developed over the last 20 years. Numerous factors including favourable policies, capacity building, provision of good quality public services and infrastructure development are discussed and found to be key to promoting the transition of smallholders into more sustainable farming systems. The chapter concludes with a review of the performance of organic systems in the LAC region.
Minggang Xu, Wenju Zhang and Zejiang Cai, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China; Shaoming Huang, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China; and Ping Zhu, Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China
Organic amendments to improve soil health and crop productivity: a case study in China
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This chapter focuses on three long-term fertilization experiments with a temperature and precipitation gradient from China, which aim to improve soil fertility, maintain soil health and increase crop productivity. After outlining the approaches adopted in long-term experiments in fertilization management, the chapter examines the impact of different fertilization techniques on soil health. The chapter then addresses the impact of different fertilization techniques on crop yield, and finally looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
