N. Surya Prakash, Central Coffee Research Institute, India
Developing varieties of Robusta coffee
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Coffee is one of the important agricultural commodities, contributing substantially to the national exchequers of growing countries. Coffee is generally obtained from two types of coffee plants, namely Arabica and Robusta; the two species differ from each other in their centre of origin, breeding behaviour, growth habit, adaptability, production potential and quality attributes, but together produce unique blends for the consumer. This chapter offers a comprehensive review of various topics related to the development of Robusta coffee varieties, including the growth habits and agronomical characteristics of Robusta coffee, its breeding behaviour and genetic resources. The chapter describes the genetic structure of Robusta base populations and their phenotypic variability and initial efforts in the development of improved varieties. The chapter finally addresses the factors limiting sustained breeding initiatives and looks ahead to pragmatic strategies for the future.
Adriana Farah, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Nutritional and health effects of coffee
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An increasing number of studies have shown that, in spite of its nutritional limitations, coffee is a complex mixture of bioactive substances that may act together to help prevent diseases when consumed in a proper way. This chapter reviews the literature on the nutritional and health-related aspects of regular coffee consumption, then examines the potential side effects, and looks ahead to future research in this area.
Dr Enrique Troyo-Dieguez
Advances in understanding grain legume physiology: stomatal behaviour and response to abiotic stress
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Grain legumes can fulfill several roles: they can be an immediate seed crop for consumption or marketing, a means to increase soil fertility as a result of their nutrient-rich residues and a key component of livestock feed. They are therefore likely to have an increasing role in agriculture in both less developed and developed regions of the world. However, a potential constraint on their use is their response to drought in the more arid conditions predicted in some parts of the world due to climate change. This chapter will review the responses of various grain legumes to water-deficit conditions, and then will discuss how grain legumes can be bred for the stomatal characteristics most appropriate for water-scarce environments.
Dr Chifumi Nagai
Breeding caffeine-free coffee beans
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Regular Arabica coffee contains about 1.2% caffeine. ‘Decaffeinated’ (less than 0.1%) and ‘low caffeine’ (0.2–0.8%) coffee can be obtained by removing the caffeine. However, this can compromise the flavour, and may lead to consumers viewing the product as less ‘natural’. Over the past 25 yrs, efforts have been made to develop naturally non- or low-caffeinated varieties, and some coffee beans with reduced caffeine content are now commercially available. In this chapter, we first review the process of caffeine biosynthesis and the economic significance of naturally decaffeinated and low-caffeine coffee. We consider the varying levels of caffeine in different coffee species, the production and characteristics of non- and low-caffeine coffee and the challenges of moving to large-scale cultivation for new varieties.
Frans Wielemaker, Consultant (formerly Director of Research at Dole Fresh Fruit International), Costa Rica
Organic banana cultivation and sustainability
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The cultivation of conventional bananas of the commercial Cavendish variety for export markets in the wet tropics requires a substantial amount of synthetic agrochemical input. Over the last 25 years, organic banana production has soared in Latin America. This chapter describes organic banana production, identifying the key requirements for success: growing location, soil quality and the use of rotation. The chapter examines the importance of soil fertility and fertilization, disease management and managing nematode and insect pests. The chapter also focuses on weed management, and offers suggestions for further reading in this subject area.
Louis Bockel, Laure-Sophie Schiettecatte and Orane Debrune, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Italy
Life cycle assessment and carbon footprint of banana cultivation
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This chapter presents concepts and tools around the life cycle assessment (LCA) and carbon footprint (CFP) of the banana value chain. Bananas are the world’s most exported fresh fruit in volume and value and a key crop for millions of households in developing countries providing food, nutrition and income. As one of the most traded fruit, including transoceanic transportation, more attention is being paid to the social and environmental impact along the whole value-chain of bananas. LCA and CFP give farmers, individuals and multinationals the opportunity to identify GHG hotspots along the banana value chain and adopt practices reducing or offsetting the CFP. The FAO tailored the EX-Ante Carbon-balance Tool for value chain tool (EX-ACT VC) to the banana value chain (EX-ACT BVC) allowing analysis of its CFP, resilience and socio-economic factors. The present chapter gives an example of an Ecuadorian and Peruvian banana value chain analysis with EX-ACT BVC.
Dr Dr Philippe Lashermes
Diversity and genome evolution in coffee
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While the worldwide production of coffee relies on a small number of cultivars with reduced diversity, wild coffee trees represent huge reserves of genetic diversity that could help to mitigate the effects of unstable climate and plant diseases, as well as modify the wealth of health-related chemicals present in the coffee seeds. This chapter describes the results of studies of coffee tree species distribution and characterization, phylogenetic relationships among coffee species and the molecular bases of coffee species diversification, as well as looking ahead to future developments in this area.
Dr Thierry Joët
Environmental and genetic effects on coffee seed biochemical composition and quality
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Reserve compounds that accumulate in coffee seeds contribute to a large extent– directly or through roasting-induced chemical reactions – to the broad spectrum of aromas and flavours of the coffee cup. Coffee seed reserves are mainly composed of cell wall polysaccharides, lipids, proteins, sucrose and secondary metabolites including chlorogenic acids, caffeine and trigonelline. Understanding coffee quality requires a detailed characterization of the metabolic pathways dedicated to the synthesis of these aroma/flavour precursors. This chapter describes the current state of knowledge on the relationships between coffee quality, seed chemical composition, and genetic and environmental effects, with a special focus on environmental regulations of coffee seed metabolic pathways. It includes a case study on coffee production on La Réunion Island and provides suggestions for further reading as well as looking ahead to future developments in coffee seed chemical composition research.
Dr Dr Christian Bunn
Climate change and cocoa cultivation
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Climate change has been projected to impact cocoa production unless cultivation practices are adapted. Guiding effective adaptation is a challenging task because of the high model uncertainty for precipitation which is a vital consideration for cocoa producers. We focus on identifying preconditions for forward-looking, proactive adaptation, describing global climatic changes at current cocoa production locations and demonstrating that impacts are spatially differentiated with the example of Ivory Coast. Temperatures were found to rise beyond historically experienced levels with high certainty. In Ivory Coast, at the frontier along the Savanna, dry season conditions may become too severe for cocoa growing. In order to effectively guide adaptation strategies, cocoa research will need to close important knowledge gaps regarding the interaction of cocoa genotypes, high growing season temperatures and reductions in bean quality, the effect of combined heat and drought events for plant survival, and likely changes of pest and disease threats.
Roberto Buffo, National University of Tucumán, Argentina
Advances in research on coffee flavour compounds
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Coffee’s global appeal is related to its unique flavour, taste and mouthfeel. Coffee is the second-most traded global commodity after petroleum, and a thorough understanding of the chemical dynamics associated with its aroma is essential for the enhancement and permanence of its popularity. This chapter covers the chemical composition of green coffee beans, the process of roasting, the profile of volatile and non-volatile compounds generated by roasting and the chemical reactions responsible for their formation. We use research from the 1990s to the present to discuss the presence of incidental compounds in roasted coffee, the influence of coffee processing on aroma profile and the central issue of key volatiles in the determination of coffee aroma. Finally, we provide insights regarding future directions in the elucidation of coffee flavour.
Jetse J. Stoorvogel, Wageningen University, The Netherlands; and Rafael A. Segura, CORBANA S.A., Costa Rica
Nutrition and soil management in banana cultivation
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There is significant variation in banana production systems across the world, particularly at the level of soil management. However, research on plant nutrition and soil management in relation to bananas has been limited for a number of reasons: bananas are unusual in their physiology and management, and the characteristics of the crop make it difficult to carry out standard fertilizer response experiments. Given the considerable investment in soil management, the scarcity of fertilization studies in bananas is surprising. This chapter provides an overview of general aspects of crop nutrition in the broader context of soil management. Focusing mostly on intensively managed systems where fertilizer use is the highest, the chapter discusses a number of strategies for soil nutrition as well as advantages and disadvantages of each approach.
Dr Charles Lambot
Disseminating improved coffee varieties for sustainable production
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Although coffee is one of the most valuable agricultural commodities of the world, it is an orphan crop in relation to investment in plant breeding. An efficient system to develop, introduce and propagate improved coffee varieties is required to place productive, attractive and affordable plants at farmers’ disposal. The chapter describes the rationale of developing and propagating new coffee varieties, presenting a strategy to increase efficiency of coffee production without compromising the quality of results. The chapter considers the physiological constraints of coffee variety development, the legal aspects of plant or seed shipments and the protection of the breeder’s rights within national or international systems. The chapter also includes case studies on statistical methods applied to multi-location trials. The chapter presents some trends for the future and recent initiatives that may be able to accelerate the development and deployment of genetic innovation at farmer level.
Charles Staver, Bioversity International, France
Good agricultural practices: an end point or a starting point for more sustainable banana production?
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Bananas, a longstanding export crop, have not been immune from consumer concerns about food safety and the environmental and human health impacts of production. About half of export banana production is certified under four labels – GlobalGap, Organic, FairTrade and Rainforest – based on Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs). GAP certification is a short-term guarantee to marketers and consumers, but GAPs have also been proposed as indicators of sustainability. Our review of the effectiveness of GAP suggests that they could become more useful by incorporating more ecological intensification indicators with economic implications. The present chapter illustrates the application of this approach in smallholder organic export banana to address not only the yield gap, but also improved synchronization between ecological processes, production routines and cost efficiency. While GAPs are an imperfect tool, they are also dynamic and open to new knowledge and practices, to make the extensive tracking and monitoring required of banana growers more effective, enabling as well better understanding of sustainable banana production.
Amanda Berlan, De Montfort University, UK
Organic cocoa cultivation
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The last two decades have witnessed a dramatically increased demand for organically produced goods. As a crop, cocoa can be grown successfully using organic methods, and demand for organic chocolate has risen in line with the overall growth in the organic market. This chapter offers a summary of current issues in the production of organic cocoa. I discuss production trends, acknowledging some of the challenges in accurately monitoring such trends, before considering some of the issues surrounding different cultivation methods, and the certification and pricing of organic cocoa. Finally, the chapter considers different techniques for controlling pests and diseases without the use of chemical inputs. A number of conclusions are presented, such as the importance of farmer acceptance of methods, the need for integrated pest management strategies and the challenges of highly variable markets.
Samuel Orisajo, Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria, Nigeria
Nematode pests of cocoa
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Plant-parasitic nematodes cause cocoa yield losses, a sudden death of trees and retardation of seedling growth in nurseries. This chapter explains the hidden nature and the masking effects of these nematodes and how these have led to erroneous control measures. The chapter describes the nematode pests associated with cocoa and the symptoms of damage. It also addresses several available control options and outlines how nematode management is essential in order to reduce crop losses and to ensure self-sufficiency for food and industrial raw materials. The chapter finally looks ahead to future research in this area and provides additional reading for those interested in researching further.
Sarada Krishnan, Denver Botanic Gardens, USA
Ensuring the genetic diversity of coffee
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Developing adaptation strategies will be critical in sustaining the coffee economy and livelihoods in many countries, owing to continued rises in production costs, as well as problems related to negative impacts of climate change and higher incidence of pests and diseases. Utilizing the varied genetic resources of coffee to develop varieties with drought stress tolerances, pest and disease resistances, high cup quality and increased production will ensure the future sustainability of the crop. This chapter examines the genetic resources of coffee in both ex situ collections and in situ situations and provides a detailed case study of the conservation of wild coffee species in Madagascar. In the context of the development of a Global Conservation Strategy for Coffee Genetic Resources, the chapter looks ahead to future developments in this area.
Prof Prof David W. Turner
A functional approach to bunch formation in banana
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Sustainable management of bananas requires knowledge of development, especially the pivotal processes of bunch formation. This chapter presents a functional analysis of the formation of the inflorescence up to flowering (bunch emergence), emphasising interaction of the plant with the environment. We discuss the role of cool temperature in shortening the juvenile phase and long photoperiod in shortening the mid-vegetative phase of development. We examine differentiation of functionally female flowers that form fruit and subsequently male flowers that do not form fruit. We conclude that hand formation and fruit number per hand are independent but coordinated processes. Genotype and environment determine the relationship between the number of hands per bunch and flowers per hand along the female peduncle. Further research is needed to quantify relationships that underpin new genotypes and management practices for sustainable banana production.
M. A. Rutherford, J. Crozier and J. Flood, CABI, UK; and S. Sastroutomo, CABI-SEA, Malaysia
Improving best practice with regard to pesticide use in cocoa
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Consumer concerns about food safety have been translated into policy in consuming countries, including pesticide residues in cocoa. Such policy changes have an impact on cocoa producers and other supply chain stakeholders, as they have to comply with legislation or risk losing lucrative markets. Consequently, development and implementation of best practice for pesticide use is critical, but major challenges exist in-country. The chapter provides an overview of pesticide use in cocoa-producing countries and the challenge of improving pesticide regulation, before moving on to consider the development of best practice for pesticide use. The chapter provides detailed case studies on establishing baselines, promoting awareness and developing a holistic approach. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and provides guidance for further reading in this area.
Didier Snoeck and Bernard Dubos, CIRAD, UR Systèmes de pérennes, France
Improving soil and nutrient management for cacao cultivation
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The results of early fertiliser trials on cacao showed that phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) always had positive effects, along with variable effects from calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg). The variability of yield responses to nutrients pointed to the need to link the nutrients with each other or with other factors, in particular with soil, climate, and topography. This chapter outlines an approach to nutrition management based on correcting the soil so that the cacao can find the nutrients it needs in optimal quantities and balances. Through two detailed case studies, the chapter discusses the determination of fertiliser formula by physical-chemical analyses of a sample of soil taken from each plot to be corrected. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
W. K. Tushemereirwe and J. Kubiriba, National Agricultural Research Laboratories, Uganda
Banana cultivation in Africa
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Banana is important as a food, cash and climate-resilient crop in Africa. However, its productivity has declined tremendously to less than 10 t/ha compared with a potential 60–100 t/ha and plantation longevity has also severely reduced. This chapter examines the composition and distribution of banana cultivars, assesses banana production systems and focuses particularly on banana production in Uganda. The chapter addresses the challenges of banana production, including nutrient deficiencies, moisture stress and pests and diseases that affect them. It examines the ways in which banana varieties might be improved for management of pests and diseases and shows how marketing acts as a constraint to banana production in Uganda. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Sietze Vellema
Sustainable banana cultivation: from standards to multiple solutions
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There is no single recipe for sustainable banana cultivation. Pest and disease management has been central to sustainability efforts, particularly in the export industry. The global and local spread of pathogens make the capacity to manage such threats a shared concern for leading banana exporters and smallholders. This chapter addresses the gap between implementation of global sustainability standards in the export industry based on a single banana variety, Cavendish, and the overwhelming diversity of varieties, uses and production environments related to local food security and rural livelihoods. This gap between ecologically and socially diverse production systems and management strategies relying on standardisation of a package of practices complicates coordinated action working towards multiple solutions. The chapter includes a case study of a major banana-producing region in the Philippines, representing variety in banana production systems, which shows the importance of working towards a territorial approach that has the capacity to accommodate and connect multiple solutions for making banana cultivation sustainable.
Ulrike Krauss, Palm Integrated Services and Solutions (PISS) Ltd., Costa Rica
Frosty pod rot, caused by Moniliophthora roreri
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Frosty pod rot (FPR) of cacao (Theobroma cacao) is caused by Moniliophthora roreri. FPR commonly can reduce yields by over 80% and is extremely difficult to manage. This chapter reviews the origins, spread and impact of Moniliophthora roreri. It also discusses methods for managing FPR, from strategies for prevention, early detection and rapid response (EDRR), to impact mitigation using integrated approaches. These include cultural control, supplemented by chemical, biological and genetic approaches.
Verina Ingram, Yuca Waarts and Fedes van Rijn, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Cocoa sustainability initiatives: the impacts of cocoa sustainability initiatives in West Africa
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Sustainability initiatives, including associations, platforms and networks, voluntary sustainability standards, corporate and non-governmental and civil society initiatives, have all been developed as solutions to the multiple, long-running challenges facing cocoa growers and producers. Largely implemented by cocoa farmers and groups, these initiatives are often supported by traders, government agencies, certification organisations and other not-for-profit organisations. This chapter examines the different sustainability initiatives and their social, economic and environmental impacts on cocoa farmers, farms and ecosystems. The chapter provides detailed case studies of impacts in Ghana and Ivory Coast. The chapter also looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance for further reading on the topic.
Mary A. Egbuta, Southern Cross University, Australia
Mycotoxins in cocoa: causes, detection and control
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Mycotoxins are produced as secondary metabolites by various species of filamentous fungi, and may affect many agricultural crops and products. The potential health risks associated with these chemical compounds mean that significant attention has been given to their detection and control. However, most study has so far been dedicated to mycotoxin contamination of agricultural crops such as cereals, with less attention given to cocoa. This chapter presents an overview of the current understanding of mycotoxin contamination of cocoa. The main groups of mycotoxins are discussed, followed by a summary of three methods of detection. There follows an explanation of various methods of controlling mycotoxins in cocoa, including recommendations at the stages of production, processing and fermentation and discussion of attempts to decontaminate infected crops. It is concluded that there is a need for more research into the different mycotoxins affecting cocoa and methods of reducing their presence and impact.
Andrew Daymond, University of Reading, UK
Safe handling and movement of cocoa germplasm for breeding
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Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) originated in South America, but is now cultivated in various parts of the tropics. Movement of cocoa germplasm is often required in breeding programmes to increase the genetic diversity pool or to test clones/progeny in the field. However, such movement brings with it the risks of spread of pests and diseases, many of which are confined to particular geographical locations. Thus, it is critical that movement of germplasm is conducted within a quarantine framework. This chapter reviews the risks associated with the movement of cocoa germplasm. It considers international governance of plant movement and discusses the International Cocoa Quarantine Centre at the University of Reading (ICQC,R) as a hub for safe handling and movement of cocoa germplasm.
Navreet K. Bhullar, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
Development of rice varieties with improved iron content in grain
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Iron deficiency constitutes one of the most prevalent forms of micronutrient deficiencies affecting human health. Biofortification of food crops is suggested as a suitable approach to address iron deficiency in a sustainable and cost-effective manner. Rice, a staple food for over half of the world’s population, is an important target crop for iron enrichment. Due to limited germplasm variability for endosperm iron content, conventional breeding has not met much success in developing high-iron rice lines. Genetic engineering approaches have demonstrated varied degrees of success in enriching rice endosperm with iron. This chapter reviews the studies focused on iron enhancement in the rice endosperm.
Chuan Tong and Jinsong Bao, Zhejiang University, China
Agronomic and environmental factors affecting rice grain quality
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Recent research has shown the importance of both cultivation practices and environmental factors in determining the yield and quality of rice crops. These aspects of rice production are increasingly important given the need to develop sustainable production techniques which will provide food security despite a changing climate. This chapter begins by considering the effects of cultivation practices such as sowing, transplantation and harvesting dates, irrigation and fertilizer application on rice production. It then discusses the effects of elevated temperatures, elevated atmospheric levels of CO2 and O3, and water availability. Changes in yield, milling performance and appearance, nutritional quality and cooking properties are all reviewed. Organic rice cultivation is then considered as an effective, sustainable technique for producing high-quality rice..
Siela N. Maximova and Mark J. Guiltinan, The Pennsylvania State University, USA
The potential of somatic embryogenesis for commercial-scale propagation of elite cacao varieties
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Plant tissue culture can be used to speed up the development and deployment of genetically improved genotypes. Research conducted by multiple groups for over 25 years has led to the development of protocols for efficient somatic embryogenesis (SE) of cacao. This chapter provides a synthesis of publically available information and literature describing the research and development activities on cacao tissue culture and of field-test evaluations of SE-derived plants. The chapter also reviews current activities in cacao-producing countries involving adoption and scale-up for large-scale propagation of important genotypes, providing a number of field studies from Africa, Asia and the Americas.
David I. Guest, University of Sydney, Australia; and Philip J. Keane, LaTrobe University, Australia
Cacao diseases: vascular-streak dieback
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‘Vascular-streak dieback’ (VSD) was the name given to a devastating disease of cacao, first described in Papua New Guinea in the 1960s and later found to be caused by a previously undescribed tullasneloid basidiomycete, Oncobasidium theobromae (now Ceratobasidium theobromae). This chapter describes the symptoms of VSD and the biology of the pathogen, the disease’s epidemiology and methods of management, as well as including a detailed case study showing the importance of field studies of the disease. The chapter anticipates future trends for research into this disease and suggests further reading on the subject.
Michelle End, INGENIC (The International Group for Genetic Improvement of Cocoa), UK; Brigitte Laliberté, Bioversity International, Italy; Rob Lockwood, Consultant, UK; Augusto Roberto Sena Gomes, Consultant, Brazil; George Andrade Sodré, CEPLAC/CEPEC,
Cocoa plant propagation techniques to supply farmers with improved planting materials
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The availability of high-performance planting materials to cocoa farmers is an important part of a package of measures to improve the productivity of cocoa farms and thus the sustainability of the cocoa economy. This chapter reviews the methods, advantages and challenges of techniques of mass propagation, with a focus on seed and conventional vegetative propagation (since tissue culture techniques are covered in a separate chapter). The chapter discusses cross-cutting issues to be taken into account when developing a strategy to supply farmers with planting materials. These include availability of source materials, requirements for human resources and facilities, phytosanitary considerations, costs and demand. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to potential future research trends in this area.
Víctor Galán Saúco, Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias, Spain
Challenges in cultivation of bananas in the subtropics
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Although it is commonly thought that a tropical climate is more suited to banana production than a subtropical climate, banana yields obtained in the subtropics are excellent and under good cultural practices can even be considered among the highest of the world. The relatively cool climate of the subtropics causes undesirable physiological phenomena and a long cropping cycle, but it has advantages as well. This chapter describes appropriate cultural practices designed to solve or minimize the climatic constraints on cultivation of bananas in the subtropics, including cultivation under greenhouse conditions.
Dr Brigitte Laliberté
Conserving and exploiting cocoa genetic resources: the key challenges
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The future of the world cocoa economy depends on the availability of genetic diversity and the sustainable use of this broad genetic base to breed improved varieties. Decreasing cacao genetic diversity (in situ, on-farm and conserved in collections) is a serious problem, and all its many causes need to be urgently addressed: the destruction of the Amazonian rainforests, changing patterns of land use, the spread of pests and diseases, sudden changes in climate and threats from natural disasters and extreme weather. These factors are resulting in an irreversible loss of the cacao genetic diversity so essential for farmers, breeders and consumers. A Global Strategy was published in 2012 to optimize the conservation and maximize the use of cacao genetic resources as the foundation of a sustainable cocoa economy. The chapter describes the key challenges, how they are being addressed and the priorities for further research and actions.
Dr Dr Ranjana Bhattacharjee
Taxonomy and classification of cacao
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Theobroma cacao is one of the most important cash crops in the world and is native to the tropical, humid forests of South America. This chapter discusses its origin and the taxonomy and classification of the varieties of Theobroma. It then reviews the characteristics of the three general groups of Theobroma: criollo, forastero and trinitario.
Norman Uphoff, Cornell University, USA
Developments in the system of rice intensification (SRI)
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The system of rice intensification (SRI) is a combination of management practices developed in Madagascar some 30 years ago to make the cultivation of irrigated rice more productive. This chapter reviews how the SRI has evolved over the past 15 years as its efficacy has been demonstrated in over 50 countries. It reviews the ways in which SRI thinking and practice have developed as a result of farmer experience and scientific research, offering higher factor productivity, increased food security and poverty reduction, with more sustainability and climate-resilience in rice production. This review shows how SRI ideas and practices continue to evolve and even have effects beyond irrigated rice production to improve productivity for rain-fed rice and other crops.
Melissa Fitzgerald, University of Queensland, Australia; Adoracion Resurreccion, International Rice Research Institute, The Philippines; and Julie Pua Ferraz, Diabetes Foundation Marikina and Calamba Doctors’ Hospital, The Philippines
Advances in understanding the role of rice in nutrition
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Malnutrition includes both under- and over-nutrition. The development of rice varieties to improve dietary quality can play a role in addressing both forms of malnutrition. This chapter begins by considering under-nutrition, with an emphasis on the problem of micronutrient deficiency. It reviews how a staple crop such as rice can be biofortified to deliver key nutrients such as iron, zinc and vitamin A. Over-nutrition and its negative health consequences are then discussed, and we explore the possibility of biofortifying rice to carry nutritional properties of benefit to those at risk of or suffering from chronic disease.
William Tinzaara, Bioversity International, Uganda; Dietmar Stoian, Bioversity International, France, Walter Ocimati, Enoch Kikulwe and Gloria Otieno, Bioversity International, Uganda; and Guy Blomme, Bioversity International, Ethiopia
Challenges and opportunities for smallholders in banana value chains
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Bananas and plantains play a major role in terms of global food security and household incomes in banana-producing countries. Banana production and yields are affected by a variety of factors, including availability of labour, soil degradation, access to clean planting material, management of pests and diseases, post-harvest losses, value addition and market access. This chapter reviews the literature on challenges in relation to pre-production, production, post-harvest management and marketing in domestic value chains of cooking bananas and plantains from the perspective of smallholders. The chapter takes stock of existing knowledge on these challenges, identifies opportunities for smallholders and other value chain actors for addressing these issues, and concludes with recommendations for future research.
Juan José Aycart, Dole, Ecuador
Harvesting and packaging of bananas
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Bananas are one of the most widely traded crops globally, and with appropriate management, can be produced on a continuous basis. However, the journey from field to retail destination is a delicate, finely tuned process, which must be closely managed at every stage to ensure the safety and quality of the product. This chapter describes each stage of this journey, evaluating different strategies and challenges. Various criteria are presented for determining when to harvest a bunch, followed by a description of different harvesting and transport techniques to avoid damage to the crop. Postharvest losses can be reduced through effective techniques of dehanding, washing, sorting and packaging. The chapter concludes with a discussion of future trends in banana cultivation, balancing the need to minimize production costs with the increasing consumer concern for the environmental and human impact of this trade.
Maura Calliera and Ettore Capri, Universit à Cattolica Sacro Cuore di Piacenza, Italy
Plant protection products in rice cultivation: critical issues in risk assessment and management to promote sustainable use
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The use of plant protection products (PPPs) is a key issue in ensuring the sustainability of rice cultivation. It is essential to evaluate the risks these products pose to human health and the environment, and to determine what measures are required to keep the risks within acceptable limits. This chapter first reviews how the risks posed by PPPs are currently evaluated, and considers where current risk assessment practices require improvement. Methods of managing the risks associated with PPPs and encouraging more sustainable rice cultivation are then discussed, with an emphasis on how integrated pest management (IPM) strategies can be successfully implemented.
Sharon D. Hamill, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Australia
Banana plant propagation methods
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The ease of banana propagation by taking a sucker and simply planting it has allowed farmers to multiply their banana selections and share them. The banana sucker is a resilient form of planting material as the growing point is protected within the sucker, which contains a corm with a starchy store that allows the plant to readily re-establish. This chapter briefly describes the basic anatomy of the banana plant required to understand the part of the plant used for propagation. The chapter then describes the various practical aspects of banana propagation using either conventional planting material or tissue culture plants and the benefits and disadvantages of each method. The chapter looks ahead to future research trends in the area of banana tissue culture.
Dr P. R. Brown
Control of rodent pests in rice cultivation
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Rodents cause significant damage to rice crops at all stages. The intensity of rice cropping and the level of asynchrony of cropping affects the level of rodent losses. It is important to understand the biology of rodent species causing damage in order to develop appropriate management strategies. This chapter examines the impact of rodents on rice and comprehensively surveys physical, chemical, biocontrol-based and other methods of rodent management. Case studies of ecologically based rodent management in Vietnam, Laos and Tanzania form the background to the chapter’s assessment of the future for control of rodents and other vertebrate pests affecting rice production.
Frits Popma, Popma Fruit Expertise, The Netherlands
Ripening systems for bananas
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The correct ripening of bananas is essential for optimum taste, appearance, shelf life and consumer satisfaction. This chapter reviews the skills and technologies needed for successful ripening, together with innovations and recent developments. Advice on procedures and best practice throughout the supply chain is presented from the author’s own experience.
Rachelle Ward, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Australia
Quality parameters and testing methods in rice cultivation
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Quality parameters and the ability to test when these have been satisfied are essential for delivering a consistent, high-quality product to consumers, and important for the development of new rice varieties with desired characteristics. This chapter begins by focusing on technology for assessing rice quality. It reviews some of the core quality parameters, which such technology must measure, considers practical requirements in research and commercial settings and notes areas for further development. Consumer health needs are then considered, but the quality parameters for this area are still being clarified. Section 4 then shows how data linking genotype, growing environment and grain quality can be obtained, and how this can then provide an overview of the natural variation to be expected in rice crops. This information can be used to develop new resilient varieties of rice, or to choose the most suitable variety for a given location.
Hugo Volkaert, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Thailand
The origin, domestication and dispersal of bananas
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The search for the origins of the edible bananas probably started soon after European explorers brought home stories about the wonderful fruit they had come across in Africa. Currently about 40 seeded species in the genus Musa have been recognised. This chapter describes the morphological and molecular evidence for the origins of bananas and the role of Musa balbisiana in the domestication and early cultivation of bananas. The chapter reviews the archaeological evidence for early banana cultivation before considering the dispersal of bananas into Oceania, Africa, South and Southeast Asia.
Mike Smith, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Australia
Conserving banana germplasm through field genebanks
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The availability of true-to-type, pest- and disease-free planting material is fundamental to successful banana cultivation. It ensures that crops will not succumb to pathogens introduced at planting. This chapter examines the key issues in the selection, establishment and management of a field germplasm collection, with a focus on how best to provide a reliable source of quality banana planting stock. The chapter discusses characterisation strategies for variety selection and includes a case study of banana cultivation in Queensland, Australia. The chapter addresses the sourcing of material for the germplasm collection and strategies to ensure freedom from pests and disease. Finally, the chapter suggests future trends in research and offers guidance on where to look for further information on the subject.
Wyn Ellis, Sustainable Rice Platform, Thailand
Assessing the sustainability impacts of rice cultivation
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In an increasingly crowded, volatile and fragile world, rice represents a crucial driver of global food security. This chapter explores the environmental and broader sustainability challenges posed by rice production. After considering trends in rice production and consumption and its strategic importance as a crop, we consider key environmental and sustainability challenges posed by rice, including resource-use efficiency, how rice production contributes to climate change and how it will be affected by a changing climate. We then address the challenge of quantifying these environmental impacts of rice production, and introduce the approach of the Sustainable Rice Platform, which offers a framework for assessing sustainability and encouraging the adoption of best practices.
T. Parthasarathi, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel; M. Kokila, D. Selvakumar, V. Meenakshi and A. Kowsalya, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India; K. Vanitha, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India; A.
Dry-seeded and aerobic cultivation of rice
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Finding an efficient irrigation strategy that would minimize water consumption in rice cultivation is a key objective in dealing with the potential future competition for and scarcity of water as a resource. Several water-saving techniques have been developed, including dry-seeded rice and aerobic rice cultivation. This chapter explores these techniques and good agricultural practices (GAP) for optimizing use of both these techniques, describing the entire process in detail from field preparation to harvesting and suggesting best practice in each case. The chapter evaluates the differences between dry direct seeded and aerobic rice cultivation.
Dan Koeppel, Independent Journalist and Researcher, USA
Understanding the banana industry: monoculture and beyond
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The dominance of monoculture in banana cultivation has produced numerous agricultural, social and political problems. This chapter examines the way in which monoculture has affected the banana industry. It outlines the available banana varieties and the dominant Cavendish monoculture, looking at the historical development and dynamics of a banana monoculture. The chapter moves on to examine post-war developments in the banana industry and the advent of the dominance of the Cavendish variety, before considering the crisis in Cavendish cultivation and a proposed new paradigm. The chapter examines the hunt for new banana varieties and looks ahead to future developments in the area.
Anuj Kumar
Mechanisms of drought tolerance in rice
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Rice is especially sensitive to drought stress during reproductive growth. Drought mitigation, through development of drought- resistant varieties with higher yields, will be the key factor to improve stable rice production. This chapter reviews the following topics: mechanisms of drought resistance, assessing drought tolerance performance, identifying genes promoting drought tolerance using quantitative trait loci (QLT) analysis, genetic engineering for drought tolerance, drought-protective genes and plant hormones affecting drought tolerance.
Lu Yu, University of Maryland, USA; and Margaret Slavin and Mengyi Dong, George Mason University, USA
The nutraceutical properties of rice
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This chapter reviews rice varieties and variations in nutritional content, bio-fortification of rice and antioxidants in rice. It also reviews the impact of breeding, cultivation and processing on the nutritional quality of rice.
Kazuki Saito, Pepijn van Oort, Ibnou Dieng, Jean-Martial Johnson, Abibou Niang, Kokou Ahouanton and Amakoe Delali Alognon, Africa Rice Center, Benin; Atsuko Tanaka, JICA and Africa Rice Center, Benin; Kalimuthu Senthilkumar and Elke Vandamme, Africa Rice
Yield gap analysis towards meeting future rice demand
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Rice provides 20% of the world’s food energy, and increased rice production owing to growing demand needs to be derived mainly from existing agricultural land. This requires reducing the ‘yield gap’, which is defined as the difference between potential yield and average on-farm yield obtained by farmers. In this chapter, we provide case studies of yield gap analyses using different benchmarks (potential yield, experimental yield and best farmers’ yield) for estimating yield gaps. We start with studies focusing on the quantification of yield gaps and then describe studies with a focus on identification of the causes of yield gaps. We conclude with a discussion of the challenges to achieving better quantification of yield gaps and their causes, and the implications of yield gap studies for sustainable agricultural development to meet future rice demand.
F. G. Horgan, University of Technology Sydney, Australia
Integrated pest management for sustainable rice cultivation: a holistic approach
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This chapter describes a holistic approach to integrated pest management (IPM) using knowledge of the natural regulation of herbivore and weed populations and of natural succession in agricultural wetlands. It draws attention to the drivers of change in rice production systems, the forms that future rice production systems will take and anticipated pest problems. The chapter indicates the need for increased attention to understanding rice ecosystems in a holistic manner to ensure the economic and environmental sustainability of modern rice production systems. The chapter shows that knowledge of rice ecosystems, combined with a range of available technologies, can enhance ecosystem functioning, ensure efficient extension pathways and thereby increase the success of IPM.
Adrian Dubock, Golden Rice Humanitarian Board, Switzerland
Biofortified Golden Rice: an additional intervention for vitamin A deficiency
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This chapter reviews the development of ‘Golden Rice’, a biofortified variety with enhanced β-carotene designed as a health intervention to help alleviate the problem of vitamin A deficiency (VAD). It also reviews the origins of Golden Rice, product development, as well as current challenges, to establishing Golden Rice as an additional VAD intervention.
Simerjeet Kaur and Gulshan Mahajan, Punjab Agricultural University, India; and Bhagirath S. Chauhan, The University of Queensland, Australia
Integrated weed management techniques for rice
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Global food production must increase in order to meet the needs of the world’s growing population. In order to improve productivity in rice cultivation, it is essential to recognize the problems caused by biological constraints such as weeds, and then to evolve and implement appropriate strategies to alleviate these problems. In this chapter, we review the problem of weeds in rice crops and the need for integrated weed management (IWM) to address this issue. After a brief overview of the IWM approach and its advantages, three sections offer a detailed discussion of the wide variety of techniques which may be incorporated into an IWM strategy. We then review examples of how these techniques can be combined and integrated, and offer recommendations for future IWM research.
R. F. Sage, University of Toronto, Canada; and Shunsuke Adachi and Tadashi Hirasawa, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Japan
Improving photosynthesis in rice: from small steps to giant leaps
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Current strategies for boosting rice productivity encounter diminishing returns as rice crops approach yield ceilings. This chapter describes how improvement of photosynthetic efficiency is needed to boost yield ceilings. This can be in the context of C3 photosynthesis, overcoming single limitations and maintaining optimal distribution of resources within the photosynthetic apparatus. The chapter shows that chloroplast-specific photorespiratory bypasses can lead to improvements in overcoming photorespiration-related limitations. The most significant enhancement would be engineering the C4 photosynthetic pathway into rice. The chapter argues that a major priority in the early phase of C4 engineering is targeting genes responsible for C4 structure and function.
D. S. Gaydon, CSIRO Agriculture, Australia
Advances in irrigation techniques for rice cultivation
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Rice land receives 35–45% of all the world’s irrigation water. In view of growing concerns about future water scarcity, achieving water savings in irrigated rice production has become a key research challenge. This chapter considers the key techniques for improving rice water productivity through enhanced irrigation practices aiming to reduce irrigation water use in rice cultivation. These include the cultivation of aerobic rice, the use of the Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) technique, and the deployment of Ssaturated Ssoil Cculture. The chapter includes a detailed case study of water savings management in rice cultivation in southeast Australia and suggests possible lines for future research.
Jennifer Spindel and Susan McCouch, Cornell University, USA
Ensuring and exploiting genetic diversity in rice
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Genetic diversity is the basis for all advances in breeding and genetic improvement and represents an insurance policy for dealing with disaster. In the context of a changing climate, breeders are under increased pressure to selectively expand the genetic base of the varieties they develop to enhance the climate resilience and sustainability of rice production systems. In this chapter we discuss different definitions of ‘diversity’, the origin and extent of genetic diversity found in rice and its wild relatives, and a variety of approaches for identifying useful sources of variation for rice improvement and utilizing genetic diversity in breeding programs. We discuss the modern toolbox of breeding strategies for enhancing the accuracy and efficiency of selection including marker and genomics assisted breeding, pre-breeding using recombinant populations, and emerging technologies such as genome editing.
Bijay Singh, Punjab Agricultural University, India and V.K. Singh, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, India
Advances in nutrient management in rice cultivation
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New nutrient management strategies aim to enhance fertilizer use efficiency in rice ecologies beyond what can be achieved by following blanket nutrient management recommendations formulated for small regions with similar climates. The emphasis is on moving to real-time and site-specific nutrient management. This chapter reviews these nutrient management strategies for rice production. We evaluate non-invasive optical methods for working out the nitrogen (N) needs of crops which are already in the field. We then consider controlled-release N fertilizers and urease and nitrification inhibitors to curb losses of applied N from the soil–plant system. Finally, we review deep placement of N fertilizers and integrated nutrient management of organic nutrient sources and mineral fertilizers.
Loth S. Mulungu, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania
Control of rodent pests in maize cultivation: the case of Africa
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Rodents cause significant damage to maize at sowing, seedling and maturity stages . The major rodent pest species of maize in Africa are Mastomys and Arvicanthis spp. Rodent management programmes in this continent have been reactive but have not considered the population ecology of the target species. The strategies used to manage rodents are probably most suited to managing low-density rodent populations and are selected to solve localized rodent problems in certain areas. Therefore, rodent management programmes should aim to reduce the damage to maize by applying a range of available control methods and must focus on ecological rodent management strategies.
R. B. Angeles-Shim and M. Ashikari, Nagoya University, Japan
Advances in molecular breeding techniques for rice
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For the last two decades, marker-assisted selection has reshaped breeding programmes and facilitated gains from selection. Recent developments in genomic technologies, including the advent of high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies and cost-effective genotyping platforms, are effecting shifts in the prevailing framework of plant breeding towards a more precise utilization of genetic variation for crop improvement. This chapter describes the importance of selection and hybridization in crop improvement. It gives a detailed account of current trends in rice molecular breeding, including QTL mapping and marker-assisted selection, and presents a case study of gene Sub1A to illustrate how these techniques increased breeding efficiency and precision for target traits. Finally, it analyses the emerging tools in genomics-based breeding that promise to increase the efficiency of modern rice breeding towards a more rapid varietal development and release.
Nguyen Van Hung, Carlito Balingbing, James Quilty, Bjoern Ole Sander, Matty Demont and Martin Gummert, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), The Philippines
Processing rice straw and husks as co-products
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This chapter focuses on by-product processing and management in the rice sector. The first section reviews rice residue availability. The following sections describe rice residue processing technologies, including on-field and off-field options. On-field processing focuses mainly on composting and incorporation into the soil, while off-field considers rice residue collection and use for energy and non-energy purposes. The chapter also covers value chain analysis and life cycle assessments of rice straw management
Khawar Jabran
Integrated weed management in maize cultivation: an overview
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Maize (Zea mays L.) is among the most important cereals of the world. Weeds are one of the major constraints that reduce maize productivity. In this chapter, we discuss the impact of weeds on maize cultivation and the possible ways to control weeds in maize. In addition to herbicides, integrated weed management (IWM) practices are used to control weeds. IWM combinations include techniques such as land preparation, planting and cultivation or cultivars, rotations, intercropping and cover crops as well as mechanical control. The development of herbicide-tolerant maize cultivars and image-based site-specific herbicide applications are expected to contribute significantly in improving weed management in maize.
Prof. Z. Li
Breeding green super rice (GSR) varieties for sustainable rice cultivation
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Improving low rice productivity in rainfed areas of Asia and Africa and sustaining rice productivity in irrigated rice lands are challenges in the coming decades for the global rice research community. Green Super Rice (GSR), rice cultivars that can produce high and stable yields under less input, is a concept proposed to meet the challenge. This chapter outlines how GSR would signal a major shift in breeding objectives from yield improvement to high yield potential plus resilience to environmental disturbances. The chapter describes a GSR breeding strategy that integrates strong phenotypic selection in a modified backcross breeding procedure with high-efficient Quantitative/Qualitative Trait Locus network discovery by selective introgression and DNA markers, followed by high-efficient development of GSR varieties by designed QTL pyramiding (DQP) and molecular recurrent selection (MRS). The chapter makes the case that adoption of this breeding strategy will help achieve sustainable rice production and food security.
George Mahuku, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Tanzania and P. Lava Kumar, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria
Rapid response to disease outbreaks in maize cultivation: the case of maize lethal necrosis
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Emerging plant diseases (EPDs) can cause significant losses of revenue due to decreased production and the high costs of controlling epidemics. Effective control of EPDs relies on rapid detection, accurate diagnosis, timely deployment of preventive responses and containment to prevent geographic expansion. The efficiency and success of this approach depends on intricate networking and collaboration among all stakeholders, including intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations and specialized agencies in developed and developing countries. Such cooperation also prevents the duplication of efforts and improves the use of scarce financial resources. This chapter provides insights into recent biotic threats to maize productivity and the factors driving EPDs of maize. It then highlights the requirements for a coordinated system to respond rapidly to new disease outbreaks to avert potentially disastrous consequences. The recent emergence of maize lethal necrosis (MLN) in East Africa is used as a case study.
Mr Abeya Temesgen
Intercropping in sustainable maize cultivation
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As the level of productivity in sub-Saharan cropping increases, driven by technology adoption, the question whether intercropping should still be promoted over sole cropping is not clear. In this chapter, we review the existing evidence on systems productivity, resource capture and use efficiency, between intercrops and sole crops for maize–legume-dominated cropping systems. Findings indicate that system productivity in intercropping systems is more resource-use efficient and productive particularly in low-yielding environments and production systems, that is, under dryer and inadequate crop nutrition. As the level of resource availability increases, the differences between intercropping and sole cropping are reduced, though still intercropping presents advantages over sole cropping in some of the analysed cases.
Tadele Tefera, International Center of Insect Physiology & Ecology (ICIPE), Ethiopia
Advances in maize post-harvest management
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One of the key constraints to improving food and nutritional security in the developing world is poor post-harvest management, which leads to loss of grains. Improved post-harvest management at farm level is crucial, as it directly impacts on poverty alleviation, food, nutrition and income security, and prosperity for smallholder farmers. This chapter begins with an overview of post-harvest losses in maize, reviewing the prevalence and significance of the problem, as well as the types and causes of losses. It then considers the biological and socio-economic causes of post-harvest losses. Finally, we offer a discussion of how post-harvest losses can be avoided through technological interventions
Amare Ayalew and Martin Kimanya, Partnership for Afl atoxin Control in Africa, Ethiopia; Limbikani Matumba, Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Malawi; Ranajit Bandyopadhayay and Abebe Menkir, International Institute of Tropical Agri
Controlling aflatoxins in maize in Africa: strategies, challenges and opportunities for improvement
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Maize is subject to pre- and post-harvest contamination with aflatoxins, which are acutely toxic, immunosuppressive, mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic compounds. This chapter describes in detail the current strategies employed for aflatoxin control and the challenges associated with them, including pre- and post-harvest methods of control and prevention. The chapter also addresses the detoxification of aflatoxin-affected maize and the role of policy and raising public awareness in controlling aflatoxins, as well as suggesting lines of future research in this area.
Sukanta K. Sarangi and Buddheswar Maji, ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, India
Sustainable rice cultivation in coastal saline soils: a case study
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This chapter describes the development of stress-tolerant rice varieties and management practices for their cultivation. The chapter offers a detailed account of sustainable rice cultivation practices including leaching of salts from the root zone, nutrient management for saline/acid saline soils, measures to reduce weeds, the use of mulching and cover crops, and measures for flood affected areas.
Daniel Rodriguez, Caspar Roxburgh, Claire Farnsworth, Ariel Ferrante, Joseph Eyre, Stuart Irvine-Brown, James McLean, Martin Bielich, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Australia
Climate risk management in maize cropping systems
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Climate variability affects the lives and livelihoods of farmers in many diverse ways, directly it affects farmers levels of food security, income and poverty; indirectly it affects farmers’ behaviours and decisions, as well as prices and markets. On the one hand climate variability it presents farmers with risks and challenges; however during the better than average seasons it also offers opportunities for intensification and higher profits, particularly if seasonal conditions would be able to be somehow informed or predicted. Supporting farmers to identify and manage risks and opportunities has been the focus of farming systems research over decades. This requires the convergence of an improved understanding of the functioning of the climate-soil-crop system’s and it’s predictability, together with practice relevance i.e. farmers’ needs and production of actionable information. In this chapter we present a trans-disciplinary analysis based on our up to date understanding of the biophysical, behavioural and socio-economic factors driving the alternative decisions and performance of rainfed maize based cropping systems both in high income large scale - commercial, and low income smallholder - subsistence farming.
Louis Longchamps, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada; and Raj Khosla, Colorado State University, USA
Precision maize cultivation techniques
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Information and communication technologies are transforming the way maize is cultivated around the world by providing farmers with a suite of novel tools and techniques for improving crop production, enhancing input use efficiency and increasing profitability while achieving environmental sustainability. This chapter provides an overview of the current state of precision maize cultivation techniques at different stages of maize cultivation. A section on pre-planting assesses current knowledge on the spatial variability of soil properties and how it influences precision maize cultivation techniques. Subsequent sections address planting and the current state of variable-rate seeding, nutrition and various approaches for site-specific fertilizer management, irrigation and the current knowledge of precision irrigation, different aspects of precision pest control and weed management, the opportunities enabled by digital yield maps and big data management, and finally economic aspects and future prospects for precision maize cultivation.
Alpha Kamara , International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Nigeria
Good agricultural practices for maize cultivation: the case of West Africa
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Maize is the most important staple food crop for over 300 million people in sub-Saharan Africa but poor management practices and problems related to climate and soil quality mean that yields regularly fall below what is needed to feed the population. This chapter describes the effect of poor soil fertility, drought and weeds (especially Striga hermonthica) on maize yields. It then puts forward evidence-based strategies for mitigating these constraints, including nutrient management through the use of fertilizers on maize yields and approaches to weed management such as genetic engineering of tolerant and resistant maize varieties. Finally, the chapter examines ways of dealing with the challenge of drought, including improved irrigation and genetic engineering of drought-resistant maize varieties.
William D. Hutchison and Theresa M. Cira , University of Minnesota, USA
Economically important insect pests of maize
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Maize yields in most sub-Saharan African countries remain low, at 0.5 to 1.0 ton/ha. While some of this yield disparity can be attributed to the use of open-pollinated varieties (OPVs), much of the yield reduction is a result of numerous economically damaging insect pests. This chapter describes the main below- and above-ground pests of maize, as well as pests of stored maize products, and includes a detailed case study of management of the life cycle of the European corn borer in the United States. The chapter assesses potential future directions for research in this area and provides detailed guidance on where to find further information on the topic.
Vasileios P. Vasileiadis and Maurizio Sattin, National Research Council (CNR), Institute of Agro-Environmental and Forest Biology, Italy; and Per Kudsk, Aarhus University, Denmark
Weed management of maize grown under temperate conditions: the case of Europe and the United States
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This chapter reviews the impact of weeds on maize grown under temperate conditions, with a particular focus on the situation in the United States and Europe. It discusses current weed management systems and the herbicide resistance issues that have developed through the continuous use of herbicides. Integrated weed management techniques are recommended for achieving more sustainable maize production.
Wade E. Thomason, Bee Khim Chim and Mark S. Reiter, Virginia Tech University, USA
Zero-tillage cultivation of maize
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Zero-till cultivation of maize (Zea mays L.) is a relatively widely used production system whereby the only soil disturbance occurs with the seeding operation. The system aims to reduce erosion, improve soil physical attributes, decrease costs, and improve long-term sustainability of maize cultivation. However, positive impacts from zero-till maize cultivation do not always occur and it is important to understand which factors favour this system and which do not. This chapter will also discuss suggestions for best management of zero-till maize systems.
Alam Sher
Modelling crop growth and grain yield in maize cultivation
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Drought stress, often accompanied by heat stress, is a major problem for maize cultivation, and these stresses are projected to occur more frequently and to be more severe because of global climate change. It is therefore essential to predict likely drought impacts on maize production, which largely relies on robust crop models. This chapter reviews the principles and development of existing crop models, and examines their scope in predicting the impacts of drought and heat stress under climate change. The emerging challenge for crop modelling is to improve the model’s ability to predict drought or/and heat stress impacts on the determination of kernel number and thus final grain yield in maize cultivation.
Cheryl Doss, Oxford University, UK
Women and maize cultivation: increasing productivity through gender analysis
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Gender analysis is essential in guiding the design and focus of research to ensure that women participate in and benefit from growth in the maize sector. This chapter begins by situating farmers within households and discussing why the conceptualization of households matters for agricultural research. The following section analyses the ways in which gender impacts agricultural production systems, including access to resources and decisions about inputs. The next three sections offer a detailed analysis of the impact of gender on three vital aspects of maize production: labour, processing and storage and varietal choice. The preferences of women as urban consumers are also considered. Finally, a brief discussion of the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index highlights one tool for monitoring the impact of research and agricultural change on women’s empowerment.
Ms Marilyn Warburton
Advances in mycotoxin-resistant maize varieties
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Depending on the growing environment, maize grains can be infected by one or more ear rot fungi, which may decrease grain yield and quality. Many of them also produce secondary metabolites, known as mycotoxins, which can have serious detrimental effects on humans and animals that consume the infected grain. There are several potential remedial actions that can be taken to prevent the accumulation of mycotoxins in maize grain. In this case study, Aspergillus flavus resistant maize breeding lines were created. It is concluded that of all mycotoxin prevention or mitigation strategies, the use of host plant resistance and the release of stably resistant varieties is the easiest to transfer to the farmer’s fields and is the most economical control measure for all markets.
Kaushik Majumdar, International Plant Nutrition Institute – South Asia, India; Shamie Zingore, International Plant Nutrition Institute – Sub-Saharan Africa, Kenya; Fernando García and Adrian Correndo, International Plant Nutrition Institute – Latin
Improving nutrient management for sustainable intensification of maize
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Maize is an important crop worldwide for its role in ensuring food security, alleviating poverty and increasing farmer income. Maize production in the world is higher than rice and wheat because of its multiple demands for human food, animal feed, bio-fuel and from other industries using it as raw material. The unprecedented increase in area cultivated under maize has raised concern about the sustainability of maize production systems. High and sustainable production of maize requires appropriate nutrient management. This chapter explores the challenges of maize nutrient management in different geographies spanning Asia, Africa and Latin America. Through case studies, the chapter outlines improved nutrient management strategies for sustainable maize production in these diverse maize production ecologies. Future research needs to strengthen sustainable maize production were also highlighted.
T. L. Niblack, The Ohio State University, USA
Nematodes associated with maize
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Plant-feeding, or plant-parasitic, nematodes are ubiquitous in soils that support plant growth, and at least one species is usually present in association with the roots or shoots of maize. However, the macro-effects of phytophagous nematodes are notoriously difficult to test and measure, and depend upon many factors associated with the plant, its environment, and the nematodes themselves. This chapter begins with an introduction to soil and plant nematodes, covering their general characteristics, identification and an overview of our current knowledge of their effects on maize. Subsequent sections review various types of nematodes, with particular focus on those which are highly likely to cause yield losses and other damage to maize crops such as lesion, root-knot and vermiform nematodes.
Conservation agriculture for sustainable intensification of maize and other cereal systems: the case of Latin America
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Latin American agriculture faces many challenges, including extensive soil degradation and the prospect of increasing rainfall variability due to climate change. Conservation agriculture offers a way of responding to these challenges through improved management practices to prevent further soil degradation, improve the resilience of the system through increased soil organic matter and improve the efficiency of water and nutrient use. In this chapter, we review the need to move towards more sustainable soil management practices, and the long-term projects CIMMYT is using to research and develop such management practices. We consider the effects of conservation agriculture on physical, chemical and biological soil quality and on productivity, and then discuss how conservation agriculture can minimize greenhouse gas emissions while also making farms more resilient in the face of a changing climate. Finally, we discuss the implementation of conservation agriculture in Latin America.
Dr Bao-Luo Ma - Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada and Zhigang Wang, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, China
Crop rotation: a sustainable system for maize production
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Modern agriculture has led to a simplification of maize-based cropping systems and the extensive practice of monoculture maize (MM). This has led to problems such as yield reduction and soil quality degradation. Meanwhile, the overuse of inorganic fertilizer to increase yields comes with a high environmental cost. Maize grown in rotation with grain or forage legume crops often yields more and requires less application of synthetic chemicals (e.g. fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides) than continuous MM. Thus, maize–legume rotations in tandem with the application of farmyard or dairy manure or other organic wastes is deemed an environmental-friendly strategy for sustainable agriculture development, and can help the agri-food production sector to produce affordable and healthy foods for consumers, reduce air and water pollution and build-up healthy soil for the farmers of tomorrow. This chapter summarizes the recent literature on the agronomic, economic, ecological and environmental assessments of maize–legume crop rotation systems.
Elena Lima-Cabello and Paula Robles Bolivar, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Spain and Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Spain and The University of Western Australia, Australia
Assessing and improving the nutritional quality of maize
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Conventional marker-assisted and GM breeding contribute to the production of new maize varieties to compete in the complex global agricultural marketplace. Breeders aim to improve quality and yield, create varieties that are suited to particular agricultural practices and raise the nutritional value of maize without compromising high safety standards. This chapter focuses on the diverse methods available for affecting the development and chemical composition of maize kernels, so as to improve their protein and starch content. We summarize the current state of knowledge and technology in this area, with a focus on protein storage, varieties of starch and how to enhance the quality-related traits of maize kernels. We also consider potential future developments in the field and the application of breeding strategies to develop new maize products with higher nutraceutical value and lower levels of anti-nutritional factors such as allergens.
Eliab Simpungwe, HarvestPlus, Zambia
Biofortification of maize
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Biofortification refers to the process of enhancing the micronutrient density of crops. It emerged as a response to the public health problem of micronutrient malnutrition, referred to as hidden hunger, which seriously affects millions of people worldwide. The premise of biofortification is that nutrition of poor people can be improved if they consumed staple crops rich in micronutrients since their diets are dependent primarily on few staples they grow and eat. Since maize is an important crop for millions of people, this chapter looks at biofortification of maize with provitamin A carotenoids, purpose, methods and results, using the Zambia maize biofortification program as a case study.
Prof Prof Glen P. Fox
Analysing maize grain quality
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Advances in the technologies and methods for analysing the quality characteristics of maize grains can help us determine the contribution of maize products to human health, as well as help in the development of maize cultivars with improved characteristics. This chapter reviews a range of methods for determining important characteristics of maize grains, with sections covering starch content, protein content, phenolic compounds (in particular, flavonoids such as carotenoids), kernel hardness/texture and levels of myotoxins.
Charles Wortmann, Patricio Grassini and Roger W. Elmore, University of Nebraska- Lincoln, USA
Optimizing maize-based cropping systems: Sustainability, good agricultural practices (GAP) and yield goals
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Sustainable maize production is profitable for the farmer, protects the natural resource base, including maintaining and improving soil productivity, prevents environmental degradation beyond the field, improves the quality of life of individuals and communities and ensures the nutritional value and safety of food. These objectives are not always achieved but need to be among the factors considered in selecting good agricultural practices (GAP). The relative importance of different considerations and trade-offs in the choice of GAP varies with production situations and three contrasting maize production situations are discussed in this chapter. The gap between actual and potential yield and determination of realistic yield goals are also addressed for these three situations
Dr T. Abdoulaye
Constraints in adopting improved technologies for maize cultivation: the case of Africa
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The adoption of improved technology is essential for increasing productivity in the production of maize in Africa. This, in turn, will contribute to food self-sufficiency and the alleviation of poverty and food insecurity. This chapter reviews the importance of increasing the adoption rate of improved maize technologies, especially among smallholder farming households. Economic and Institutional barriers to the adoption of new technologies are considered, and then the role and importance of farmers’ individual situations and perspectives are emphasized, since these are vital to a full understanding of adoption decisions. Finally, strategies for promoting the adoption of improved maize technologies are examined.
Peter S. Setimela, Global Maize Program, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Zimbabwe
Maize seed variety selection and seed system development: the case of southern Africa
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Maize is the most important staple food crop in southern Africa. It is predominantly grown by smallholder farmers, but seed companies generally target large commercial farmers in high potential areas when developing new varieties. To address the needs of smallholder farmers in maize genetic improvement, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) initiated a collaborative drought and low nitrogen maize breeding programme aimed to increase yields in low-input and drought-prone environments in southern Africa. Since then, CIMMYT and seed companies have also introduced new maize varieties which are resistant to a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses. This chapter reviews key activities and the roles of key stakeholders in improving maize productivity for smallholder farmers in southern Africa. It also highlights the development and selection of first-generation maize germplasm, and the role of the seed industry in disseminating improved maize germplasm.
Yongrui Wu, National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology & Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China; and Joachim M
Understanding and improving protein traits in maize
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Improving the nutritional quality of maize is necessary to meet the growing demands of maize consumption. Maize could be the main source of protein. Several parameters, however, limit the supply and quality of corn protein. This chapter reviews the mechanisms that determine these limitations, including transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression, compartmentalization of proteins during seed development. It also describes mutants in maize that interfere with these mechanisms and how genetic approaches could be taken to improve protein quality traits. It is important to realize that sulphur and nitrogen storage in maize seeds have to be addressed differently because of their source-sink relationship. This chapter deals with all these aspects.
Marcelo J. Carena, North Dakota State University, USA
Developing maize-breeding methods and cultivars to meet the challenge of climate change
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Sustainable maize production will be possible only with the development of the next generation of maize products carrying genetic diversity. This chapter addresses ideas to develop not only unique cultivars but also breeding methodologies to better assist breeders managing genetically complex traits in an efficient and sustainable way.
Dr Mariana Wongtschowski
Supporting smallholders in maize cultivation: using an agricultural innovation systems approach
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An innovation system can be defined as a network of organizations, enterprises and individuals focused on bringing new products, new processes and new forms of organization into use, together with the institutions and policies that affect their behaviour and performance. In this chapter, we present an agricultural innovation systems (AIS) approach to understanding the role of research in agricultural innovation, with a focus on the case of research into sustainable maize intensification. We consider three important stages of an innovation process: the identification of problems and targeting of interventions, local experimentation and bringing new ideas into routine use. We discuss the role of research at each stage, and then argue that an AIS approach mandates increased focus on the personal, organizational and institutional capacities of researchers and research bodies.
Dr Keith Tomlins
New uses and processes for cassava
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Cassava’s versatility, resilience to climate stress and huge potential for yield increase make it increasingly popular for both food security and industrial applications. This chapter investigates current uses of cassava and considers new processes which might be introduced to promote greater utilisation of cassava. We use the example of High Quality Cassava Flour (HQCF) in Africa to discuss a framework of enabling factors to help promoters of new technologies achieve sustainability. From this we highlight the key drivers of new uses and processes. Finally, we consider what new opportunities might arise from current research.
Thomas W. Kuyper, Wageningen University, The Netherlands; and Samuel Adjei-Nsiah, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ghana
Intercropping and crop rotations in cassava cultivation: a production systems approach
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Cassava does not have a specific and determined maturity period and it can therefore be harvested over a range of ages, depending on cropping system and socio-economic conditions. This chapter reviews current knowledge on mixed cropping systems (both intercropping and crop rotations) in which cassava plays a prominent roule. It discusses the yield benefits of such mixed cropping and evaluates mechanisms that have been proposed to explain superior yields from such systems. The chapter also describes the functional traits of different cassava varieties that are likely to explain why cassava performs well in intercropping. Finally, the chapter addresses the future outlook for intercropping in cassava cultivation and suggests future trends in research.
George Marechera and Grace Muinga, African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF), Kenya
Value chain approaches to mechanization in cassava cultivation and harvesting in Africa
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Cassava is a basic staple food in sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. However, despite the use of improved varieties in some areas, yield levels have remained low due to inefficient production systems. Cassava production in SSA is mainly through manual labour, which is time consuming and inefficient, while cassava mechanization in Africa is almost non-existent. This is one of the key constraints to development of the sector. This chapter highlights mechanized production options. We begin by reviewing the benefits of mechanization, as well as the obstacles to mechanization on smallholder farms. We then review the valuable experience of the African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF) in promoting mechanization in SSA, the various mechanized production options and the business models which could give smallholder farmers access to the necessary machinery.
Csaba L. Marton and Zsuzsanna Tóthné Zsubori, MTA Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungary
Advances in cold-tolerant maize varieties
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Maize, a thermophilic plant species, originates from subtropical highlands. Maize cultivation, however, has spread to temperate regions of the world that experience low temperatures during the early development of the plants. Maize genotypes that are cultivated in cooler climates need to have a short vegetation period and the ability to adapt to low temperatures. By growing cold-tolerant hybrids it is possible to achieve improvements in stand uniformity, the rate of plant development and the yield. In addition, cold-tolerant hybrids can be sown earlier, making it possible to grow hybrids with longer vegetation periods and greater yield potential. This chapter will discuss the physiological and genetic background of cold tolerance, the methodology required for its analysis, ways of improving cold tolerance by breeding, and the seed production aspects of this trait.
Jutta Kienzle, Independent Researcher, Germany; and Markus Kelderer, Research Station of Laimburg, Italy
Growing organic apples in Europe
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This chapter reviews key research areas involved in organic apple production, and covers the development of suitable varieties and rootstocks, soil fertility management and strategies for maintaining apple tree health. A number of case studies are then considered in order to show how research can have real practical impacts, for example, by adding to the organic farmer’s toolbox of disease control strategies.
Dharam Paul Chaudhary, Indian Institute of Maize Research (IIMR), India
Nutritional and nutraceutical/functional properties of maize
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Maize is the most widely grown crop, which is primarily used for animal feed and food. It is a staple food for a large segment of the world’s population, and it is also used as an industrial raw material. This chapter - reviews the nutritional quality of maize by considering various quality components including protein quality, carbohydrate profile, oil concentration and carotenoids composition. The discovery and association of opaque-2 gene with the enhancement of protein quality in maize has been discussed in detail. Subsequent sections review the carbohydrate profile of maize, the qualities and uses of corn oil, and the micronutrients present in maize.
Tin Maung Aye, CIAT, Vietnam ; and Reinhardt Howeler , CIAT Emeritus - formerly CIAT, Thailand
Integrated crop management for cassava cultivation in Asia
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The demand for cassava in Asia is expected to grow in the years to come, largely because of an increasing demand for animal feed, biofuels and multiple uses of starch. Increasing the quantity and quality of cassava products in response to growing demand requires careful and sustainable increases in cassava production. This chapter describes good agricultural practices (GAP) in cassava cultivation, focusing on pre- and post-harvesting practices and measures to manage crop health, including ensuring soil fertility and weed, disease and pest control. The chapter addresses the challenge of encouraging farmers to adopt GAP and reviews likely future trends in this area.
Kolawole Adebayo, Federal University of Agriculture, Nigeria
Targeting smallholder farmers to adopt improved cassava technologies: challenges and opportunities
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This chapter examines the challenges and opportunities for targeting smallholder farmers to adopt improved cassava technologies for yield and profitability. Smallholder farmers are not a homogenous group and, therefore, a static technology promotion system cannot address the needs of a dynamic client group. Using evidence from existing research, the chapter explores how key issues are being addressed. It reviews three case studies, including the Fufu Project and C:AVA, which show research being used in practice to improve cassava productivity among smallholders. Finally, it provides an insight into future trends in research on targeting smallholder farmers to adopt improved cassava technologies.
Claude M. Fauquet and Joe Tohme, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Colombia
GCP21: a global cassava partnership for the 21st century
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Since 1998, cassava has outperformed all the world’s major crops in relative production increase. It is also recognized as being resilient to climate change. Its global average yield, however, is only 13 Mt/ha, compared to a potential of at least 65 Mt/ha, partly due to the impact of pests and diseases. The cassava community needs to improve production, processing and market development to keep its derived food products affordable for global populations. This effort will require a significant increase in research and development (R&D) investment, while speeding up the improvement of cassava value chains – from production in the field to consumption on the plate. This is what the Global Cassava Partnership for the 21st century aims to realize by advocating for cassava to change mindsets, identifying gaps in R&D value chains, and accelerating the flow of information about cassava.
Key challenges in maize breeding in sub-Saharan Africa
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Development, release and commercialization of improved maize varieties has improved tremendously in the last two or three decades in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Nevertheless, major challenges remain; these are described in this chapter, and strategies by which they may be overcome are proposed. With ample reference to the western, central, eastern and southern African sub-regions, the chapter describes the state of research facilities and human resources in SSA, before discussing how Africa may explore the use of broad-based germplasm resources, successfully to overcome the challenges of hybrid development, apply newly available plant breeding techniques and take advantage of participatory plant breeding research to be self-sufficient in maize production on a sustainable basis.
J. Stephen Smith
Ensuring the genetic diversity of maize and its wild relatives
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Genebanks and ex situ collections are essential to conserving maize genetic diversity and enabling global access to those resources. The chapter provides a comprehensive and authoritative review of the key issues facing both in situ and ex situ collections. These issues include better conservation and exploitation of wild varieties and landraces, as well as identifying broader genetic and allelic diversity in Zea and Tripsacum. The chapter includes case studies of the use of exotic germplasm to support breeding of more resilient varieties.
