Taxonomy and classification of cacao

$32.50

Theobroma cacao is one of the most important cash crops in the world and is native to the tropical, humid forests of South America. This chapter discusses its origin and the taxonomy and classification of the varieties of Theobroma. It then reviews the characteristics of the three general groups of Theobroma: criollo, forastero and trinitario.

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Control of rodent pests in rice cultivation

$32.50

Rodents cause significant damage to rice crops at all stages. The intensity of rice cropping and the level of asynchrony of cropping affects the level of rodent losses. It is important to understand the biology of rodent species causing damage in order to develop appropriate management strategies. This chapter examines the impact of rodents on rice and comprehensively surveys physical, chemical, biocontrol-based and other methods of rodent management. Case studies of ecologically based rodent management in Vietnam, Laos and Tanzania form the background to the chapter’s assessment of the future for control of rodents and other vertebrate pests affecting rice production.

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Challenges and opportunities for smallholders in banana value chains

$32.50

Bananas and plantains play a major role in terms of global food security and household incomes in banana-producing countries. Banana production and yields are affected by a variety of factors, including availability of labour, soil degradation, access to clean planting material, management of pests and diseases, post-harvest losses, value addition and market access. This chapter reviews the literature on challenges in relation to pre-production, production, post-harvest management and marketing in domestic value chains of cooking bananas and plantains from the perspective of smallholders. The chapter takes stock of existing knowledge on these challenges, identifies opportunities for smallholders and other value chain actors for addressing these issues, and concludes with recommendations for future research.

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Harvesting and packaging of bananas

$32.50

Bananas are one of the most widely traded crops globally, and with appropriate management, can be produced on a continuous basis. However, the journey from field to retail destination is a delicate, finely tuned process, which must be closely managed at every stage to ensure the safety and quality of the product. This chapter describes each stage of this journey, evaluating different strategies and challenges. Various criteria are presented for determining when to harvest a bunch, followed by a description of different harvesting and transport techniques to avoid damage to the crop. Postharvest losses can be reduced through effective techniques of dehanding, washing, sorting and packaging. The chapter concludes with a discussion of future trends in banana cultivation, balancing the need to minimize production costs with the increasing consumer concern for the environmental and human impact of this trade.

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Dry-seeded and aerobic cultivation of rice

$32.50

Finding an efficient irrigation strategy that would minimize water consumption in rice cultivation is a key objective in dealing with the potential future competition for and scarcity of water as a resource. Several water-saving techniques have been developed, including dry-seeded rice and aerobic rice cultivation. This chapter explores these techniques and good agricultural practices (GAP) for optimizing use of both these techniques, describing the entire process in detail from field preparation to harvesting and suggesting best practice in each case. The chapter evaluates the differences between dry direct seeded and aerobic rice cultivation.

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Ripening systems for bananas

$32.50

The correct ripening of bananas is essential for optimum taste, appearance, shelf life and consumer satisfaction. This chapter reviews the skills and technologies needed for successful ripening, together with innovations and recent developments. Advice on procedures and best practice throughout the supply chain is presented from the author’s own experience.

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Banana plant propagation methods

$32.50

The ease of banana propagation by taking a sucker and simply planting it has allowed farmers to multiply their banana selections and share them. The banana sucker is a resilient form of planting material as the growing point is protected within the sucker, which contains a corm with a starchy store that allows the plant to readily re-establish. This chapter briefly describes the basic anatomy of the banana plant required to understand the part of the plant used for propagation. The chapter then describes the various practical aspects of banana propagation using either conventional planting material or tissue culture plants and the benefits and disadvantages of each method. The chapter looks ahead to future research trends in the area of banana tissue culture.

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Quality parameters and testing methods in rice cultivation

$32.50

Quality parameters and the ability to test when these have been satisfied are essential for delivering a consistent, high-quality product to consumers, and important for the development of new rice varieties with desired characteristics. This chapter begins by focusing on technology for assessing rice quality. It reviews some of the core quality parameters, which such technology must measure, considers practical requirements in research and commercial settings and notes areas for further development. Consumer health needs are then considered, but the quality parameters for this area are still being clarified. Section 4 then shows how data linking genotype, growing environment and grain quality can be obtained, and how this can then provide an overview of the natural variation to be expected in rice crops. This information can be used to develop new resilient varieties of rice, or to choose the most suitable variety for a given location.

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Improving photosynthesis in rice: from small steps to giant leaps

$32.50

Current strategies for boosting rice productivity encounter diminishing returns as rice crops approach yield ceilings. This chapter describes how improvement of photosynthetic efficiency is needed to boost yield ceilings. This can be in the context of C3 photosynthesis, overcoming single limitations and maintaining optimal distribution of resources within the photosynthetic apparatus. The chapter shows that chloroplast-specific photorespiratory bypasses can lead to improvements in overcoming photorespiration-related limitations. The most significant enhancement would be engineering the C4 photosynthetic pathway into rice. The chapter argues that a major priority in the early phase of C4 engineering is targeting genes responsible for C4 structure and function.

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The origin, domestication and dispersal of bananas

$32.50

The search for the origins of the edible bananas probably started soon after European explorers brought home stories about the wonderful fruit they had come across in Africa. Currently about 40 seeded species in the genus Musa have been recognised. This chapter describes the morphological and molecular evidence for the origins of bananas and the role of Musa balbisiana in the domestication and early cultivation of bananas. The chapter reviews the archaeological evidence for early banana cultivation before considering the dispersal of bananas into Oceania, Africa, South and Southeast Asia.

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Conserving banana germplasm through field genebanks

$32.50

The availability of true-to-type, pest- and disease-free planting material is fundamental to successful banana cultivation. It ensures that crops will not succumb to pathogens introduced at planting. This chapter examines the key issues in the selection, establishment and management of a field germplasm collection, with a focus on how best to provide a reliable source of quality banana planting stock. The chapter discusses characterisation strategies for variety selection and includes a case study of banana cultivation in Queensland, Australia. The chapter addresses the sourcing of material for the germplasm collection and strategies to ensure freedom from pests and disease. Finally, the chapter suggests future trends in research and offers guidance on where to look for further information on the subject.

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Integrated weed management in maize cultivation: an overview

$32.50

Maize (Zea mays L.) is among the most important cereals of the world. Weeds are one of the major constraints that reduce maize productivity. In this chapter, we discuss the impact of weeds on maize cultivation and the possible ways to control weeds in maize. In addition to herbicides, integrated weed management (IWM) practices are used to control weeds. IWM combinations include techniques such as land preparation, planting and cultivation or cultivars, rotations, intercropping and cover crops as well as mechanical control. The development of herbicide-tolerant maize cultivars and image-based site-specific herbicide applications are expected to contribute significantly in improving weed management in maize.

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Mechanisms of drought tolerance in rice

$32.50

Rice is especially sensitive to drought stress during reproductive growth. Drought mitigation, through development of drought- resistant varieties with higher yields, will be the key factor to improve stable rice production. This chapter reviews the following topics: mechanisms of drought resistance, assessing drought tolerance
performance, identifying genes promoting drought tolerance using quantitative trait loci (QLT) analysis, genetic engineering for drought tolerance, drought-protective genes and plant hormones affecting drought tolerance.

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Understanding the banana industry: monoculture and beyond

$32.50

The dominance of monoculture in banana cultivation has produced numerous agricultural, social and political problems. This chapter examines the way in which monoculture has affected the banana industry. It outlines the available banana varieties and the dominant Cavendish monoculture, looking at the historical development and dynamics of a banana monoculture. The chapter moves on to examine post-war developments in the banana industry and the advent of the dominance of the Cavendish variety, before considering the crisis in Cavendish cultivation and a proposed new paradigm. The chapter examines the hunt for new banana varieties and looks ahead to future developments in the area.

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Integrated weed management techniques for rice

$32.50

Global food production must increase in order to meet the needs of the world’s growing population. In order to improve productivity in rice cultivation, it is essential to recognize the problems caused by biological constraints such as weeds, and then to evolve and implement appropriate strategies to alleviate these problems. In this chapter, we review the problem of weeds in rice crops and the need for integrated weed management (IWM) to address this issue. After a brief overview of the IWM approach and its advantages, three sections offer a detailed discussion of the wide variety of techniques which may be incorporated into an IWM strategy. We then review examples of how these techniques can be combined and integrated, and offer recommendations for future IWM research.

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The nutraceutical properties of rice

$32.50

This chapter reviews rice varieties and variations in nutritional content, bio-fortification of rice and antioxidants in rice. It also reviews the impact of breeding, cultivation and processing on the nutritional quality of rice.

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Biofortified Golden Rice: an additional intervention for vitamin A deficiency

$32.50

This chapter reviews the development of ‘Golden Rice’, a biofortified variety with enhanced β-carotene designed as a health intervention to help alleviate the problem of vitamin A deficiency (VAD). It also reviews the origins of Golden Rice, product development, as well as current challenges, to establishing Golden Rice as an additional VAD intervention.

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Integrated pest management for sustainable rice cultivation: a holistic approach

$32.50

This chapter describes a holistic approach to integrated pest management (IPM) using knowledge of the natural regulation of herbivore and weed populations and of natural succession in agricultural wetlands. It draws attention to the drivers of change in rice production systems, the forms that future rice production systems will take and anticipated pest problems. The chapter indicates the need for increased attention to understanding rice ecosystems in a holistic manner to ensure the economic and environmental sustainability of modern rice production systems. The chapter shows that knowledge of rice ecosystems, combined with a range of available technologies, can enhance ecosystem functioning, ensure efficient extension pathways and thereby increase the success of IPM.

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Advances in irrigation techniques for rice cultivation

$32.50

Rice land receives 35–45% of all the world’s irrigation water. In view of growing concerns about future water scarcity, achieving water savings in irrigated rice production has become a key research challenge. This chapter considers the key techniques for improving rice water productivity through enhanced irrigation practices aiming to reduce irrigation water use in rice cultivation. These include the cultivation of aerobic rice, the use of the Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) technique, and the deployment of Ssaturated Ssoil Cculture. The chapter includes a detailed case study of water savings management in rice cultivation in southeast Australia and suggests possible lines for future research.

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Processing rice straw and husks as co-products

$32.50

This chapter focuses on by-product processing and management in the rice sector. The first section reviews rice residue availability. The following sections describe rice residue processing technologies, including on-field and off-field options. On-field processing focuses mainly on composting and incorporation into the
soil, while off-field considers rice residue collection and use for energy and non-energy purposes. The chapter also covers value chain analysis and life cycle assessments of rice straw management

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Ensuring and exploiting genetic diversity in rice

$32.50

Genetic diversity is the basis for all advances in breeding and genetic improvement and represents an insurance policy for dealing with disaster. In the context of a changing climate, breeders are under increased pressure to selectively expand the genetic base of the varieties they develop to enhance the climate resilience and sustainability of rice production systems. In this chapter we discuss different definitions of ‘diversity’, the origin and extent of genetic diversity found in rice and its wild relatives, and a variety of approaches for identifying useful sources of variation for rice improvement and utilizing genetic diversity in breeding programs. We discuss the modern toolbox of breeding strategies for enhancing the accuracy and efficiency of selection including marker and genomics assisted breeding, pre-breeding using
recombinant populations, and emerging technologies such as genome editing.

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Advances in molecular breeding techniques for rice

$32.50

For the last two decades, marker-assisted selection has reshaped breeding programmes and facilitated gains from selection. Recent developments in genomic technologies, including the advent of high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies and cost-effective genotyping platforms, are effecting shifts in the prevailing framework of plant breeding towards a more precise utilization of genetic variation for crop improvement. This chapter describes the importance of selection and hybridization in crop improvement. It gives a detailed account of current trends in rice molecular breeding, including QTL mapping and marker-assisted selection, and presents a case study of gene Sub1A to illustrate how these techniques increased breeding efficiency and precision for target traits. Finally, it analyses the emerging tools in genomics-based breeding that promise to increase the efficiency of modern rice breeding towards a more rapid varietal development and release.

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Advances in nutrient management in rice cultivation

$32.50

New nutrient management strategies aim to enhance fertilizer use efficiency in rice ecologies beyond what can be achieved by following blanket nutrient management recommendations formulated for small regions with similar climates. The emphasis is on moving to real-time and site-specific nutrient management. This chapter reviews these nutrient management strategies for rice production. We evaluate non-invasive optical methods for working out the nitrogen (N) needs of crops which are already in the field. We then consider controlled-release N fertilizers and urease and nitrification inhibitors to curb losses of applied N from the soil–plant system. Finally, we review deep placement of N fertilizers and integrated nutrient management of organic nutrient sources and mineral fertilizers.

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Control of rodent pests in maize cultivation: the case of Africa

$32.50

Rodents cause significant damage to maize at sowing, seedling and maturity stages . The major rodent pest species of maize in Africa are Mastomys and Arvicanthis spp. Rodent management programmes in this continent have been reactive but have not considered the population ecology of the target species. The strategies used to manage rodents are probably most suited to managing low-density rodent populations and are selected to solve localized rodent problems in certain areas. Therefore, rodent management programmes should aim to reduce the damage to maize by applying a range of available control methods and must focus on ecological rodent management strategies.

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Rapid response to disease outbreaks in maize cultivation: the case of maize lethal necrosis

$32.50

Emerging plant diseases (EPDs) can cause significant losses of revenue due to decreased production and the high costs of controlling epidemics. Effective control of EPDs relies on rapid detection, accurate diagnosis, timely deployment of preventive responses and containment to prevent geographic expansion. The efficiency and success of this approach depends on intricate networking and collaboration among all stakeholders, including intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations and specialized agencies in developed and developing countries. Such cooperation also prevents the duplication of efforts and improves the use of scarce financial resources. This chapter provides insights into recent biotic threats to maize productivity and the factors driving EPDs of maize. It then highlights the requirements for a coordinated system to respond rapidly to new disease outbreaks to avert potentially disastrous consequences. The recent emergence of maize lethal necrosis (MLN) in East Africa is used as a case study.

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Breeding green super rice (GSR) varieties for sustainable rice cultivation

$32.50

Improving low rice productivity in rainfed areas of Asia and Africa and sustaining rice productivity in irrigated rice lands are challenges in the coming decades for the global rice research community. Green Super Rice (GSR), rice cultivars that can produce high and stable yields under less input, is a concept proposed to meet the challenge. This chapter outlines how GSR would signal a major shift in breeding objectives from yield improvement to high yield potential plus resilience to environmental disturbances. The chapter describes a GSR breeding strategy that integrates strong phenotypic selection in a modified backcross breeding procedure with high-efficient Quantitative/Qualitative Trait Locus network discovery by selective introgression and DNA markers, followed by high-efficient development of GSR varieties by designed QTL pyramiding (DQP) and molecular recurrent selection (MRS). The chapter makes the case that adoption of this breeding strategy will help achieve sustainable rice production and food security.

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Controlling aflatoxins in maize in Africa: strategies, challenges and opportunities for improvement

$32.50

Maize is subject to pre- and post-harvest contamination with aflatoxins, which are acutely toxic, immunosuppressive, mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic compounds. This chapter describes in detail the current strategies employed for aflatoxin control and the challenges associated with them, including pre- and post-harvest methods of control and prevention. The chapter also addresses the detoxification of aflatoxin-affected maize and the role of policy and raising public awareness in controlling aflatoxins, as well as suggesting lines of future research in this area.

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Conservation agriculture for sustainable intensification of maize and other cereal systems: the case of Latin America

$32.50

Latin American agriculture faces many challenges, including extensive soil degradation and the prospect of increasing rainfall variability due to climate change. Conservation agriculture offers a way of responding to these challenges through improved management practices to prevent further soil degradation, improve the resilience of the system through increased soil organic matter and improve the efficiency of water and nutrient use. In this chapter, we review the need to move towards more sustainable soil management practices, and the long-term projects CIMMYT is using to research and develop such management practices. We consider the effects of conservation agriculture on physical, chemical and biological soil quality and on productivity, and then discuss how conservation agriculture can minimize greenhouse gas emissions while also making farms more resilient in the face of a changing climate. Finally, we discuss the implementation of conservation agriculture in Latin America.

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Sustainable rice cultivation in coastal saline soils: a case study

$32.50

This chapter describes the development of stress-tolerant rice varieties and management practices for their cultivation. The chapter offers a detailed account of sustainable rice cultivation practices including leaching of salts from the root zone, nutrient management for saline/acid saline soils, measures to reduce weeds, the use of mulching and cover crops, and measures for flood affected areas.

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Intercropping in sustainable maize cultivation

$32.50

As the level of productivity in sub-Saharan cropping increases, driven by technology adoption, the question whether intercropping should still be promoted over sole cropping is not clear. In this chapter, we review the existing evidence on systems productivity, resource capture and use efficiency, between intercrops and sole crops for maize–legume-dominated cropping systems. Findings indicate that system productivity in intercropping systems is more resource-use efficient and productive particularly in low-yielding environments and production systems, that is, under dryer and inadequate crop nutrition. As the level of resource availability increases, the differences between intercropping and sole cropping are reduced, though still intercropping presents advantages over sole cropping in some of the analysed cases.

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Climate risk management in maize cropping systems

$32.50

Climate variability affects the lives and livelihoods of farmers in many diverse ways, directly it affects farmers levels of food security, income and poverty; indirectly it affects farmers’ behaviours and decisions, as well as prices and markets. On the one hand climate variability it presents farmers with risks and challenges; however during the better than average seasons it also offers opportunities for intensification and higher profits, particularly if seasonal conditions would be able to be somehow informed or predicted. Supporting farmers to identify and manage risks and opportunities has been the focus of farming systems research over decades. This requires the convergence of an improved understanding of the functioning of the climate-soil-crop system’s and it’s predictability, together with practice relevance i.e. farmers’ needs and production of actionable information. In this chapter we present a trans-disciplinary analysis based on our up to date understanding of the biophysical, behavioural and socio-economic factors driving the alternative decisions and performance of rainfed maize based cropping systems both in high income large scale - commercial, and low income smallholder - subsistence farming.

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Economically important insect pests of maize

$32.50

Maize yields in most sub-Saharan African countries remain low, at 0.5 to 1.0 ton/ha. While some of this yield disparity can be attributed to the use of open-pollinated varieties (OPVs), much of the yield reduction is a result of numerous economically damaging insect pests. This chapter describes the main below- and above-ground pests of maize, as well as pests of stored maize products, and includes a detailed case study of management of the life cycle of the European corn borer in the United States. The chapter assesses potential future directions for research in this area and provides detailed guidance on where to find further information on the topic.

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Zero-tillage cultivation of maize

$32.50

Zero-till cultivation of maize (Zea mays L.) is a relatively widely used production system whereby the only soil disturbance occurs with the seeding operation. The system aims to reduce erosion, improve soil physical attributes, decrease costs, and improve long-term sustainability of maize cultivation. However, positive impacts from zero-till maize cultivation do not always occur and it is important to understand which factors favour this system and which do not. This chapter will also discuss suggestions for best management of zero-till maize systems.

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Advances in maize post-harvest management

$32.50

One of the key constraints to improving food and nutritional security in the developing world is poor post-harvest management, which leads to loss of grains. Improved post-harvest management at farm level is crucial, as it directly impacts on poverty alleviation, food, nutrition and income security, and prosperity for smallholder farmers. This chapter begins with an overview of post-harvest losses in maize, reviewing the prevalence and significance of the problem, as well as the types and causes of losses. It then considers the biological and socio-economic causes of post-harvest losses. Finally, we offer a discussion of how post-harvest losses can be avoided through technological interventions

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Weed management of maize grown under temperate conditions: the case of Europe and the United States

$32.50

This chapter reviews the impact of weeds on maize grown under temperate conditions, with a particular focus on the situation in the United States and Europe. It discusses current weed management systems and the herbicide resistance issues that have developed through the continuous use of herbicides. Integrated weed management techniques are recommended for achieving more sustainable maize production.

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Precision maize cultivation techniques

$32.50

Information and communication technologies are transforming the way maize is cultivated around the world by providing farmers with a suite of novel tools and techniques for improving crop production, enhancing input use efficiency and increasing profitability while achieving environmental sustainability. This chapter provides an overview of the current state of precision maize cultivation techniques at different stages of maize cultivation. A section on pre-planting assesses current knowledge on the spatial variability of soil properties and how it influences precision maize cultivation techniques. Subsequent sections address planting and the current state of variable-rate seeding, nutrition and various approaches for site-specific fertilizer management, irrigation and the current knowledge of precision irrigation, different aspects of precision pest control and weed management, the opportunities enabled by digital yield maps and big data management, and finally economic aspects and future prospects for precision maize cultivation.

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Modelling crop growth and grain yield in maize cultivation

$32.50

Drought stress, often accompanied by heat stress, is a major problem for maize cultivation, and these stresses are projected to occur more frequently and to be more severe because of global climate change. It is therefore essential to predict likely drought impacts on maize production, which largely relies on robust crop models. This chapter reviews the principles and development of existing crop models, and examines their scope in predicting the impacts of drought and heat stress under climate change. The emerging challenge for crop modelling is to improve the model’s ability to predict drought or/and heat stress impacts on the determination of kernel number and thus final grain yield in maize cultivation.

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Women and maize cultivation: increasing productivity through gender analysis

$32.50

Gender analysis is essential in guiding the design and focus of research to ensure that women participate in and benefit from growth in the maize sector. This chapter begins by situating farmers within households and discussing why the conceptualization of households matters for agricultural research. The following section analyses the ways in which gender impacts agricultural production systems, including access to resources and decisions about inputs. The next three sections offer a detailed analysis of the impact of gender on three vital aspects of maize production: labour, processing and storage and varietal choice. The preferences of women as urban consumers are also considered. Finally, a brief discussion of the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index highlights one tool for monitoring the impact of research and agricultural change on women’s empowerment.

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Improving nutrient management for sustainable intensification of maize

$32.50

Maize is an important crop worldwide for its role in ensuring food security, alleviating poverty and increasing farmer income. Maize production in the world is higher than rice and wheat because of its multiple demands for human food, animal feed, bio-fuel and from other industries using it as raw material. The unprecedented increase in area cultivated under maize has raised concern about the sustainability of maize production systems. High and sustainable production of maize requires appropriate nutrient management. This chapter explores the challenges of maize nutrient management in different geographies spanning Asia, Africa and Latin America. Through case studies, the chapter outlines improved nutrient management strategies for sustainable maize production in these diverse maize production ecologies. Future research needs to strengthen sustainable maize production were also highlighted.

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Good agricultural practices for maize cultivation: the case of West Africa

$32.50

Maize is the most important staple food crop for over 300 million people in sub-Saharan Africa but poor management practices and problems related to climate and soil quality mean that yields regularly fall below what is needed to feed the population. This chapter describes the effect of poor soil fertility, drought and weeds (especially Striga hermonthica) on maize yields. It then puts forward evidence-based strategies for mitigating these constraints, including nutrient management through the use of fertilizers on maize yields and approaches to weed management such as genetic engineering of tolerant and resistant maize varieties. Finally, the chapter examines ways of dealing with the challenge of drought, including improved irrigation and genetic engineering of drought-resistant maize varieties.

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Analysing maize grain quality

$32.50

Advances in the technologies and methods for analysing the quality characteristics of maize grains can help us determine the contribution of maize products to human health, as well as help in the development of maize cultivars with improved characteristics. This chapter reviews a range of methods for determining important characteristics of maize grains, with sections covering starch content, protein content, phenolic compounds (in particular, flavonoids such as carotenoids), kernel hardness/texture and levels of myotoxins.

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Advances in mycotoxin-resistant maize varieties

$32.50

Depending on the growing environment, maize grains can be infected by one or more ear rot fungi, which may decrease grain yield and quality. Many of them also produce secondary metabolites, known as mycotoxins, which can have serious detrimental effects on humans and animals that consume the infected grain. There are several potential remedial actions that can be taken to prevent the accumulation of mycotoxins in maize grain. In this case study, Aspergillus flavus resistant maize breeding lines were created. It is concluded that of all mycotoxin prevention or mitigation strategies, the use of host plant resistance and the release of stably resistant varieties is the easiest to transfer to the farmer’s fields and is the most economical control measure for all markets.

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Constraints in adopting improved technologies for maize cultivation: the case of Africa

$32.50

The adoption of improved technology is essential for increasing productivity in the production of maize in Africa. This, in turn, will contribute to food self-sufficiency and the alleviation of poverty and food insecurity. This chapter reviews the importance of increasing the adoption rate of improved maize technologies, especially among smallholder farming households. Economic and Institutional barriers to the adoption of new technologies are considered, and then the role and importance of farmers’ individual situations and perspectives are emphasized, since these are vital to a full understanding of adoption decisions. Finally, strategies for promoting the adoption of improved maize technologies are examined.

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Assessing and improving the nutritional quality of maize

$32.50

Conventional marker-assisted and GM breeding contribute to the production of new maize varieties to compete in the complex global agricultural marketplace. Breeders aim to improve quality and yield, create varieties that are suited to particular agricultural practices and raise the nutritional value of maize without compromising high safety standards. This chapter focuses on the diverse methods available for affecting the development and chemical composition of maize kernels, so as to improve their protein and starch content. We summarize the current state of knowledge and technology in this area, with a focus on protein storage, varieties of starch and how to enhance the quality-related traits of maize kernels. We also consider potential future developments in the field and the application of breeding strategies to develop new maize products with higher nutraceutical value and lower levels of anti-nutritional factors such as allergens.

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Nematodes associated with maize

$32.50

Plant-feeding, or plant-parasitic, nematodes are ubiquitous in soils that support plant growth, and at least one species is usually present in association with the roots or shoots of maize. However, the macro-effects of phytophagous nematodes are notoriously difficult to test and measure, and depend upon many factors associated with the plant, its environment, and the nematodes themselves. This chapter begins with an introduction to soil and plant nematodes, covering their general characteristics, identification and an overview of our current knowledge of their effects on maize. Subsequent sections review various types of nematodes, with particular focus on those which are highly likely to cause yield losses and other damage to maize crops such as lesion, root-knot and vermiform nematodes.

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Biofortification of maize

$32.50

Biofortification refers to the process of enhancing the micronutrient density of crops. It emerged as a response to the public health problem of micronutrient malnutrition, referred to as hidden hunger, which seriously affects millions of people worldwide. The premise of biofortification is that nutrition of poor people can be improved if they consumed staple crops rich in micronutrients since their diets are dependent primarily on few staples they grow and eat. Since maize is an important crop for millions of people, this chapter looks at biofortification of maize with provitamin A carotenoids, purpose, methods and results, using the Zambia maize biofortification program as a case study.

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Crop rotation: a sustainable system for maize production

$32.50

Modern agriculture has led to a simplification of maize-based cropping systems and the extensive practice of monoculture maize (MM). This has led to problems such as yield reduction and soil quality degradation. Meanwhile, the overuse of inorganic fertilizer to increase yields comes with a high environmental cost. Maize grown in rotation with grain or forage legume crops often yields more and requires less application of synthetic chemicals (e.g. fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides) than continuous MM. Thus, maize–legume rotations in tandem with the application of farmyard or dairy manure or other organic wastes is deemed an environmental-friendly strategy for sustainable agriculture development, and can help the agri-food production sector to produce affordable and healthy foods for consumers, reduce air and water pollution and build-up healthy soil for the farmers of tomorrow. This chapter summarizes the recent literature on the agronomic, economic, ecological and environmental assessments of maize–legume crop rotation systems.

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Optimizing maize-based cropping systems: Sustainability, good agricultural practices (GAP) and yield goals

$32.50

Sustainable maize production is profitable for the farmer, protects the natural resource base, including maintaining and improving soil productivity, prevents environmental degradation beyond the field, improves the quality of life of individuals and communities and ensures the nutritional value and safety of food. These objectives are not always achieved but need to be among the factors considered in selecting good agricultural practices (GAP). The relative importance of different considerations and trade-offs in the choice of GAP varies with production situations and three contrasting maize production situations are discussed in this chapter. The gap between actual and potential yield and determination of realistic yield goals are also addressed for these three situations

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Maize seed variety selection and seed system development: the case of southern Africa

$32.50

Maize is the most important staple food crop in southern Africa. It is predominantly grown by smallholder farmers, but seed companies generally target large commercial farmers in high potential areas when developing new varieties. To address the needs of smallholder farmers in maize genetic improvement, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) initiated a collaborative drought and low nitrogen maize breeding programme aimed to increase yields in low-input and drought-prone environments in southern Africa. Since then, CIMMYT and seed companies have also introduced new maize varieties which are resistant to a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses. This chapter reviews key activities and the roles of key stakeholders in improving maize productivity for smallholder farmers in southern Africa. It also highlights the development and selection of first-generation maize germplasm, and the role of the seed industry in disseminating improved maize germplasm.

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Growing organic apples in Europe

$32.50

This chapter reviews key research areas involved in organic apple production, and covers the development of suitable varieties and rootstocks, soil fertility management and strategies for maintaining apple tree health. A number of case studies are then considered in order to show how research can have real practical impacts, for example, by adding to the organic farmer’s toolbox of disease control strategies.

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Understanding and improving protein traits in maize

$32.50

Improving the nutritional quality of maize is necessary to meet the growing demands of maize consumption. Maize could be the main source of protein. Several parameters, however, limit the supply and quality of corn protein. This chapter reviews the mechanisms that determine these limitations, including transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression, compartmentalization of proteins during seed development. It also describes mutants in maize that interfere with these mechanisms and how genetic approaches could be taken to improve protein quality traits. It is important to realize that sulphur and nitrogen storage in maize seeds have to be addressed differently because of their source-sink relationship. This chapter deals with all these aspects.

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The emergence of cassava as a global crop

$32.50

This chapter outlines current knowledge about cassava’s origin in Amazonia and summarizes the history of its introduction and diffusion in the Old World. The chapter examines the evolution of the traits that led to its success, focusing on two aspects under-appreciated by cassava breeders, extension specialists and other stakeholders: the management of a crop that is chemically defended against enemies but potentially toxic to human consumers, and the creation of a mixed clonal/sexual reproductive system that is vital for maintaining the crop’s adaptive potential. The chapter shows that these features arose through the biocultural coevolution of the plant’s traits and farmer practices in Amazonia, and argues that imperfect transmission of cultural practices associated with cassava cultivation led initially to maladaptive mismatches that necessitated the partial re-invention of cassava cultivation in the crop’s diasporic populations.

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Supporting smallholders in maize cultivation: using an agricultural innovation systems approach

$32.50

An innovation system can be defined as a network of organizations, enterprises and individuals focused on bringing new products, new processes and new forms of organization into use, together with the institutions and policies that affect their behaviour and performance. In this chapter, we present an agricultural innovation systems (AIS) approach to understanding the role of research in agricultural innovation, with a focus on the case of research into sustainable maize intensification. We consider three important stages of an innovation process: the identification of problems and targeting of interventions, local experimentation and bringing new ideas into routine use. We discuss the role of research at each stage, and then argue that an AIS approach mandates increased focus on the personal, organizational and institutional capacities of researchers and research bodies.

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Value chain approaches to mechanization in cassava cultivation and harvesting in Africa

$32.50

Cassava is a basic staple food in sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. However, despite the use of improved varieties in some areas, yield levels have remained low due to inefficient production systems. Cassava production in SSA is mainly through manual labour, which is time consuming and inefficient, while cassava mechanization in Africa is almost non-existent. This is one of the key constraints to development of the sector. This chapter highlights mechanized production options. We begin by reviewing the benefits of mechanization, as well as the obstacles to mechanization on smallholder farms. We then review the valuable experience of the African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF) in promoting mechanization in SSA, the various mechanized production options and the business models which could give smallholder farmers access to the necessary machinery.

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Intercropping and crop rotations in cassava cultivation: a production systems approach

$32.50

Cassava does not have a specific and determined maturity period and it can therefore be harvested over a range of ages, depending on cropping system and socio-economic conditions. This chapter reviews current knowledge on mixed cropping systems (both intercropping and crop rotations) in which cassava plays a prominent roule. It discusses the yield benefits of such mixed cropping and evaluates mechanisms that have been proposed to explain superior yields from such systems. The chapter also describes the functional traits of different cassava varieties that are likely to explain why cassava performs well in intercropping. Finally, the chapter addresses the future outlook for intercropping in cassava cultivation and suggests future trends in research.

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New uses and processes for cassava

$32.50

Cassava’s versatility, resilience to climate stress and huge potential for yield increase make it increasingly popular for both food security and industrial applications. This chapter investigates current uses of cassava and considers new processes which might be introduced to promote greater utilisation of cassava. We use the example of High Quality Cassava Flour (HQCF) in Africa to discuss a framework of enabling factors to help promoters of new technologies achieve sustainability. From this we highlight the key drivers of new uses and processes. Finally, we consider what new opportunities might arise from current research.

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Developing maize-breeding methods and cultivars to meet the challenge of climate change

$32.50

Sustainable maize production will be possible only with the development of the next generation of maize products carrying genetic diversity. This chapter addresses ideas to develop not only unique cultivars but also breeding methodologies to better assist breeders managing genetically complex traits in an efficient and sustainable way.

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Advances in cold-tolerant maize varieties

$32.50

Maize, a thermophilic plant species, originates from subtropical highlands. Maize cultivation, however, has spread to temperate regions of the world that experience low temperatures during the early development of the plants. Maize genotypes that are cultivated in cooler climates need to have a short vegetation period and the ability to adapt to low temperatures. By growing cold-tolerant hybrids it is possible to achieve improvements in stand uniformity, the rate of plant development and the yield. In addition, cold-tolerant hybrids can be sown earlier, making it possible to grow hybrids with longer vegetation periods and greater yield potential. This chapter will discuss the physiological and genetic background of cold tolerance, the methodology required for its analysis, ways of improving cold tolerance by breeding, and the seed production aspects of this trait.

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Use and nutritional value of cassava roots and leaves as a traditional food

$32.50

Cassava is an important staple crop for the food security of millions of people in developing countries. This chapter examines the strengths and weaknesses of cassava roots and leaves as a source of nutrients, and describes and analyses efforts to promote biofortified varieties of cassava with higher carotenoid levels that could help tackle vitamin A deficiency. The chapter describes in detail the range of products that can be processed from cassava roots and leaves and assesses their nutritional value, as well as analyses the chemical composition of roots and leaves. The chapter includes a case study on the use of biofortified cassava to make two traditional products, gari and fufu, in Nigeria, and suggests future directions that research may take in this area.

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Nutritional and nutraceutical/functional properties of maize

$32.50

Maize is the most widely grown crop, which is primarily used for animal feed and food. It is a staple food for a large segment of the world’s population, and it is also used as an industrial raw material. This chapter - reviews the nutritional quality of maize by considering various quality components including protein quality, carbohydrate profile, oil concentration and carotenoids composition. The discovery and association of opaque-2 gene with the enhancement of protein quality in maize has been discussed in detail. Subsequent sections review the carbohydrate profile of maize, the qualities and uses of corn oil, and the micronutrients present in maize.

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Integrated crop management for cassava cultivation in Asia

$32.50

The demand for cassava in Asia is expected to grow in the years to come, largely because of an increasing demand for animal feed, biofuels and multiple uses of starch. Increasing the quantity and quality of cassava products in response to growing demand requires careful and sustainable increases in cassava production. This chapter describes good agricultural practices (GAP) in cassava cultivation, focusing on pre- and post-harvesting practices and measures to manage crop health, including ensuring soil fertility and weed, disease and pest control. The chapter addresses the challenge of encouraging farmers to adopt GAP and reviews likely future trends in this area.

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Key challenges in maize breeding in sub-Saharan Africa

$32.50

Development, release and commercialization of improved maize varieties has improved tremendously in the last two or three decades in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Nevertheless, major challenges remain; these are described in this chapter, and strategies by which they may be overcome are proposed. With ample reference to the western, central, eastern and southern African sub-regions, the chapter describes the state of research facilities and human resources in SSA, before discussing how Africa may explore the use of broad-based germplasm resources, successfully to overcome the challenges of hybrid development, apply newly available plant breeding techniques and take advantage of participatory plant breeding research to be self-sufficient in maize production on a sustainable basis.

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GCP21: a global cassava partnership for the 21st century

$32.50

Since 1998, cassava has outperformed all the world’s major crops in relative production increase. It is also recognized as being resilient to climate change. Its global average yield, however, is only 13 Mt/ha, compared to a potential of at least 65 Mt/ha, partly due to the impact of pests and diseases. The cassava community needs to improve production, processing and market development to keep its derived food products affordable for global populations. This effort will require a significant increase in research and development (R&D) investment, while speeding up the improvement of cassava value chains – from production in the field to consumption on the plate. This is what the Global Cassava Partnership for the 21st century aims to realize by advocating for cassava to change mindsets, identifying gaps in R&D value chains, and accelerating the flow of information about cassava.

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Cassava cultivation in Asia

$32.50

Cassava was introduced to Asia in the late eighteenth and the early nineteents centuries. Since then it has become one of the most popular crops, especially in upland environments. Cambodia, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam are now among the top producers and exporters of cassava in the world. This chapter provides an overview of cassava production in Asia, and then reviews some of the key areas of research for developing cassava production, including varietal improvement, crop management techniques, planting and harvesting, soil fertility maintenance and pest, disease and weed control. Finally, a case study on the development of sustainable cassava production in Cambodia is provided.

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Cassava cultivation in sub-Saharan Africa

$32.50

In sub-Saharan Africa, cassava is cultivated under a wide range of ecological and agronomic conditions. Cassava’s adaptability to relatively marginal soils and erratic rainfall conditions, its high productivity per unit of land and labour, the certainty of obtaining some yield even under the most adverse conditions and the possibility of maintaining continuity of supply throughout the year make the crop very adaptable to rain-fed agriculture conditions. This chapter describes the current state of cassava production in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as its contribution to incomes and food and nutrition security. The chapter considers the main drivers of change for cassava production in the region.

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Ensuring the genetic diversity of maize and its wild relatives

$32.50

Genebanks and ex situ collections are essential to conserving maize genetic diversity and enabling global access to those resources. The chapter provides a comprehensive and authoritative review of the key issues facing both in situ and ex situ collections. These issues include better conservation and exploitation of wild varieties and landraces, as well as identifying broader genetic and allelic diversity in Zea and Tripsacum. The chapter includes case studies of the use of exotic germplasm to support breeding of more resilient varieties.

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Targeting smallholder farmers to adopt improved cassava technologies: challenges and opportunities

$32.50

This chapter examines the challenges and opportunities for targeting smallholder farmers to adopt improved cassava technologies for yield and profitability. Smallholder farmers are not a homogenous group and, therefore, a static technology promotion system cannot address the needs of a dynamic client group. Using evidence from existing research, the chapter explores how key issues are being addressed. It reviews three case studies, including the Fufu Project and C:AVA, which show research being used in practice to improve cassava productivity among smallholders. Finally, it provides an insight into future trends in research on targeting smallholder farmers to adopt improved cassava technologies.

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Cassava cultivation and soil productivity

$32.50

Cassava is becoming an ever more important crop, and over the past 20–30 years its planted area has increased faster than that of any other food crop. However, yields are still low due to the fact that the crop is usually grown on infertile soils and without adequate soil and crop management. This chapter begins by discussing nutrient absorption, distribution within the plant, and removal by the cassava harvest. Section 3 then considers the effect of cassava cultivation on soil productivity. Section 4 reviews the nutrient loss in eroded sediments and runoff in soils used for cassava cultivation. Finally, Section 5 discusses how cassava farmers can diagnose nutritional problems in their crop.

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Seed systems management in cassava cultivation

$32.50

A sustainable cassava seed system will ensure that high-quality seeds of farmer-demanded varieties and crops are produced and fully available on time and affordable to farmers and other stakeholders. This chapter describes the production and management of high-quality cassava seed under both informal and formal seed systems, and under both traditional and different types of rapid propagation methods. The chapter includes a detailed case study on mini-stake-based rapid multiplication in India and looks ahead to future developments in this area of research.

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Drivers of change for cassava’s multiple roles in sustainable development

$32.50

This chapter reviews the ways cassava yields can be improved sustainably to keep pace with a rising population. It also looks more broadly at improving the role cassava can play in improving farmers’ and consumers’ lives – through income generation, improved food security, better nutrition, and a healthier environment.

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The economics of apple production

$32.50

Economic prosperity is essential to guarantee sustainability, and this chapter provides a cost analysis of apple production worldwide, including classification of production cost studies, an exploration of different cost study approaches and categories included in cost-of-production studies. The chapter analyses the economics of worldwide apple production, including Germany, Italy, South Africa, Switzerland and Chile. A detailed case study of apple production in Washing-ton State is also provided. The chapter includes a comparison of production costs by apple variety across the United States, Germany, Italy and South Africa. Given the importance of international markets for major apple-producing countries in the world, the chapter considers apple production in relation to global trends in production and international trade. It discusses structural changes in the apple industry around the world, trends in production systems and technologies, and major stressors for apple production.

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Consumer trends in apple sales

$32.50

Different participants in the global apple market have different goals. Consumer trends are influenced by numerous supply and demand factors. This chapter reviews
the influence of suppliers and retailers on apple sales. It describes the global forces affecting apple demand. It explains the recent trends in apple
consumption. The factors affecting consumer demand for apples vary in developing and in developed countries. Retailers face many challenges in the
marketing of apples. This chapter also deals with all these issues.

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Bacterial diseases affecting potatoes

$32.50

Bacterial pathogens continue to pose a significant threat to potato production through in-field yield losses, storage rots and reduced marketability. Ralstonia solanacearum alone is estimated to cause US$1 billion losses worldwide. In this chapter we review current knowledge on principal bacterial diseases of potato, namely ring rot (Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. sepedonicus), brown rot (Ralstonia solanacearum), blackleg (Pectobacterium and Dickeya spp.) and common scab (Streptomyces spp.), as well as the recently emerging pathogens, Dickeya solani and ‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ causing blackleg and zebra chip, respectively. We also review sustainable disease management strategies and discuss how the development and increasing accessibility of molecular genetics have enabled new avenues of research.

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Advances in soil and nutrient management in apple cultivation

$32.50

This chapter explores the emerging issues that are likely to influence future approaches to soil and nutrient management in apple orchards. These include climate change and variability, the degradation of soil and water resources, and the future availability and cost of fertilizers. We then consider strategies for precision nutrient and water management with the potential to mitigate the environmental, social and resource limitation challenges identified. Finally, we consider the prospects for alternative production systems and production areas, given the changing climate.

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Bacterial diseases affecting apples

$32.50

Bacterial diseases present an ongoing challenge to the sustainability of apple production. Fire blight is a serious economic threat to apple production in regions of the world where it occurs, and it it is used as an example to present the key issues and challenges which bacterial diseases raise for apple production. The history of fire blight and its spread around the globe, economic impact, symptoms, disease biology, and management were reviewed in this chapter. A case study is also presented on current efforts to develop apple cultivars which are resistant to fire blight disease. Other apple diseases caused by bacteria, including blister spot, crown gall and hairy root, bacterial blister bark and apple proliferation are also considered.

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Cassava cultivation in Latin America

$32.50

Cassava was domesticated from its wild species ancestors in the New World, probably in South America. This origin, with its connection to indigenous cultures, has been presented as both advantage and disadvantage. It has helped to maintain the production of cassava, but has also been the cause of difficulty in modernising the crop. A well-known contrast is Thailand, a country with little or no traditional use of cassava, which has managed to establish more commercial and industrial avenues of production and use. This chapter reviews the challenges which Latin American cassava production systems must address in order to increase their productivity and impact. We review global and Latin American approaches to cassava production and the competitiveness of cassava produced in Latin American. We then discuss how research can help to boost cassava production and increase benefits to producers and consumers along the cassava value chain.

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Innovations in apple tree cultivation to manage crop load and ripening

$32.50

This chapter is a summary of recent innovation in orchard training system design, pruning technique, thinning, plant growth regulators and fruit finishing, with the specific goal of identifying more sustainable practice. New training systems like the ‘bi-axis’ are described as well as pruning techniques to minimize the use of labour. It is now possible to purchase specific typologies of tree that are more congruent with the training, which will minimize the operation of planting and can help achieve early production. New uses of plant growth regulators to manipulate tree growth and fruit finish are also analysed

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Sustainable arthropod management for apples

$32.50

Management of apple pests is a necessary and challenging part of crop production. Cosmetic and phytosanitary standards entail management of key pests to very low levels which are biologically difficult to sustain. This chapter begins by covering key pests. Such pests drive integrated pest management (IPM) systems, and although few in number, they shape the entire system. We then consider indirect pests, which may be tolerated in moderate densities, and are therefore more amenable to other control tactics, especially biological control. We argue that IPM tactics which control key pests without disrupting biological control of secondary pests are therefore essential for a more stable and sustainable apple IPM. After considering the tools and tactics available as part of a sustainable IPM program, we turn to the challenges facing IPM, such as pesticide resistance and invasive species, which require innovative solutions for future IPM systems.

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Management of viruses and virus-like agents affecting apple production

$32.50

Viruses and virus-like agents have recurring impact on quality fruit production throughout the life of an orchard. They are graft-transmissible and are readily disseminated through the use of infected budwood. Since many of these agents do not have arthropod or nematode vectors, the most effective control strategy is to develop orchards with clean, virus-tested planting stock. The implementation of quarantine and certification programmes on a global scale is essential to safeguard apple production and minimize the risk of spreading disease by removing virus-infected plants from the supply chain. Procedures for virus testing and elimination are constantly being revised to incorporate the best and most appropriate technologies.

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Chemical composition of soils: role in soil health

$32.50

Integrated nutrient management systems that use a holistic approach, using inorganic fertilizers as well as management practices aimed to increase soil organic matter, are needed to improve soil health. Management practices need to take into account differences in soil properties, climate and available local resources. In this chapter, we discuss the chemistry of nutrients focusing mostly on nitrogen and phosphorus. The impact of chemical composition of soils (nutrients, pH and salinity) on soil health is discussed. We review factors influencing the solubility of nutrients and discuss management practices to improve nutrient availability and reduce the reliance on inorganic fertilizers. We illustrate a case study from India that shows how integrated nutrient management, using both inorganic fertilizers, including sulphur and micronutrients, and practices to improve and increase soil organic carbon, can be done successfully and used on a large scale using site-specific research and available resources.

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Mechanization and automation for apple

$32.50

Sustaining large-scale commercial apple production depends on the availability of a large, seasonal and suitably skilled workforce. The costs and associated risks are dependent on human labor as well as overall productivity which could be reduced by improved mechanization of apple production operations. This chapter begins by reviewing the levels of mechanization that may be introduced into apple production and then considers a variety of mechanization solutions for each of the four key operations in apple production: training and pruning, thinning, pest and disease control, and harvesting. In each case, the chapter first considers those solutions which employ lower levels of mechanization, and then moves up to solutions which involve a higher level of mechanization, including automation and robotics. The advantages and disadvantages of each solution, and directions for further development are also discussed.

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Cassava for industrial uses

$32.50

Cassava serves not only as a staple food for mankind but also as an industrial crop for food and non-food applications. The roots with high starch contents are processed to dried chips and extracted pure starch. The production scale varies from household level, small and medium-sized enterprises (SME), to the large, modern factories. Currently, dried chips are an important carbohydrate source in animal feed as well as for the bio-based economy, for example bioethanol and organic acid production. Starch is converted to glucose by enzyme hydrolysis and then fermented by microorganisms. Cassava starch with very high purity has versatile functionalities, particularly when modified, hydrolysed and derivatized through physical, chemical and enzyme processes, which broaden its applications in food, paper, textile, adhesive, pharmaceutical, cosmetics and chemicals.

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Advances in understanding apple fruit development

$32.50

Understanding the ways in which apples grow and develop is crucial for achieving sustainable apple cultivation, which means a regulated crop of apples that provides as high a yield as possible of desired quality while allowing the development of a good and consistent return bloom and cropping in subsequent years. This chapter examines how apples grow and ripen (basic structure, growth habit and physiology), some of the factors that support or limit growth, why fruit abscise and how growers can manipulate fruit growth and abscission to optimize cropping. Among other topics, the chapter explores in detail seasonal growth patterns, the chemical composition of apples in different seasons, the role of hormones in abscission and seasonal ripening patterns. The chapter suggests ways to model and prevent apple thinning, and suggests future trends for research in this area

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Sustainable approaches to control postharvest diseases of apples

$32.50

Long-term storage of apples faces challenges in maintaining fruit quality and reducing losses from postharvest diseases. Currently the apple industry relies mainly on synthetic fungicides to control postharvest decays. However, the limitations to fungicides such as development of resistance in pathogens, difficulties in developing new fungicides, and their effect on the environment make this practice not sustainable. In addition, growing consumer demand for fungicide free produce and a rapidly expanding organic market necessitate development of more sustainable alternatives to synthetic fungicides. In this chapter we examine various approaches developed for controlling postharvest decays of apples since the introduction of long term storage almost a hundred years ago. They include physical, chemical, and biological treatments. None of the alternative methods has a spectrum of activity as broad as synthetic fungicides; however, when integrated they can provide commercially adequate decay control.

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Use of cover crops to promote soil health

$32.50

Several principles are recommended for improving soil health, including keeping the soil covered, providing living roots as much of the year as possible, increasing biodiversity and reducing disturbance of the soil. Cover crops contribute to achieving all of these principles. In addition to their contributions to soil health, cover crops help with weed and pest management, provide habitat and food for pollinators and wildlife, and contribute to environmental benefits such as reduced erosion, sediment loss and water quality impacts from nutrients and pesticides. This chapter describes a range of different ways that cover crops can help improve or promote soil health. Many of the cover crop impacts on soil health are interrelated, and such connections will be identified where appropriate in the following sections.

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Assessing the environmental impact and sustainability of apple cultivation

$32.50

The environmental impact of apple production is determined by regional enviro-pedo-climatic features and socio-political factors, but can also be managed through cultivation practices and inputs. Pesticides typically have the greatest environmental impact, but energy use from operating machinery and the manufacturing processes used to create machinery, trellis and irrigation materials, fuel, and agrichemicals is also substantial. This chapter shows that apple production sustainability has increased for pest management and decreased for resource use. It demonstrates that high-density apple orchards require higher levels of infrastructure and resource inputs than older systems, and argues that enhancing biocontrol of pests and lengthening the usable life of equipment and infrastructure are important strategies for reducing environmental impact.

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Organic amendments to improve soil health and crop productivity: a case study in China

$32.50

This chapter focuses on three long-term fertilization experiments with a temperature and precipitation gradient from China, which aim to improve soil fertility, maintain soil health and increase crop productivity. After outlining the approaches adopted in long-term experiments in fertilization management, the chapter examines the impact of different fertilization techniques on soil health. The chapter then addresses the impact of different fertilization techniques on crop yield, and finally looks ahead to future research trends in this area.

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Advances in pest- and disease-resistant apple varieties

$32.50

Disease and pest-resistant cultivars can significantly contribute to sustainable and resilient cultivation of apples. In this chapter, we review the development of apples that are resistant to a number of important diseases, including apple scab, powdery mildew, fire blight, nectria canker and Marssonina apple blotch. We also briefly consider the development of apples which are resistant to pests, before discussing DNA-based selection techniques for developing resistance and the mechanisms on which resistance depends.

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Advances in post-harvest storage and handling of apples

$32.50

Harvest management and storage of apples in optimal conditions are critical factors in maintaining the sustainability of orchard operations. Post-harvest handling of apples, as for most horticultural products, is largely concerned with the maintenance of product quality after harvest. This chapter outlines recent advances in understanding the various factors associated with fruit physiology, maturation and ripening. It reviews harvest, handling and grading operations, and discuss postharvest storage technologies including refrigeration, controlled atmosphere (CA) storage and 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP). It also considers a range of postharvest treatments and the physiological disorders to which apples are subject.

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Pre- and postharvest fungal apple diseases

$32.50

The domesticated apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) is the most significant pome fruit grown and consumed worldwide. China is the largest producer, followed by the United States, on a global scale. However, fungal plant pathogens cause significant economic losses in the field and during storage, leading to poor fruit quality. Several pathogens also produce mycotoxins that are harmful to human health. Advancements in biological, chemical and cultural controls have been made and integrated to increase production, maintain fruit quality and enhance sustainability. In this chapter, an introduction of apple production and storage is presented, followed by discussions of the main pre- and postharvest apple pathogens, methods on integrated disease management and emerging diseases.

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Advances in understanding flowering and pollination in apple trees

$32.50

Fruit production of apples is a two-year process, beginning with the transition of a bud from vegetative to a floral state during the summer. The bud differentiates, overwinters and emerges as a flower the following spring. Flowers are then pollinated, fertilized and the fruit grows first by cell division and later by cell enlargement. All of these processes are vital to the development of high-quality fruit. Suboptimal environmental, biological or cultural conditions during any of these stages can reduce both productivity and fruit quality. Here we discuss the biological processes and genetic controls of these developmental stages. We also highlight some of the key environmental effects and how these processes can be manipulated by cultural management.

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Soil health assessment and maintenance in Central and South-Central Brazil

$32.50

Brazil has evolved from a food-insecure country in the early 1970s to one of the most important food producers and exporters in the world. Production has increased steadily and productivity gains have fostered a significant land-saving effect. However, wide variations in the landscape, soils, climate and plant diversity present challenges in applying soil health principles for enhanced management practices. These challenges have been overcome by the application of conservation agriculture (CA), an integrated, holistic farming system that improves soil functioning and consequently crop growth and yield. Intensification of agriculture through integrated crop, livestock and forest systems has also had an important role in the last ten years. This chapter outlines several practices, evaluations and monitoring strategies being used to ensure that soil health is being maintained or improved rather than degraded by the more intensive, economically driven management practices.

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Evaluating and improving rootstocks for apple cultivation

$32.50

The foundations of a productive and healthy orchard are the rootstocks that provide anchorage, water and nutrients essential to the above-ground portions of the trees. Utilization of composite trees has increased the efficiency of breeding productive apple trees by dividing the selection of scion traits and rootstock traits into two genetically (and functionally) different specimens, which are then brought together through grafting. As part of the tree, the rootstock influences many factors in addition to tree size, particularly productivity, fruit quality, pest resistance, stress tolerance and ultimately profitability. Understanding how scion properties are modulated by rootstocks allows targeting of traits that may be selected to improve whole tree performance by improving rootstock performance. This chapter examines apple-breeding methods and explores how rootstocks affect scion traits, before addressing the impact of rootstocks on disease and pest resistance.

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Maintaining soil health in Africa

$32.50

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has a wide variety of natural ecosystem resources, including soils, vegetation, water and genetic diversity. However, land degradation in SSA is intensifying at an alarming rate, and this region has the lowest agriculture and livestock yields of any region in the world. This is accompanied by the world’s highest rates of deforestation and malnutrition. This chapter focuses on land degradation and will examine the different types of land degradation as well as their ecological, economic and social consequences. It also addresses the relationships between soil quality, soil health (SH) and food security, and then reviews strategies for maintaining SH.

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The role of soil fauna in soil health and delivery of ecosystem services

$32.50

Soil fauna includes microscopic organisms such as nematodes (microfauna), mites and springtails (mesofauna), up to larger invertebrates such as worms, spiders, ants, termites and beetles (macrofauna) and vertebrates (megafauna) such as amphibians, reptiles and mammals. This chapter explains how their activity is important for soil health and can result in various ecosystem services, including provision of food and primary production, nutrient cycling and organic matter dynamics, water availability in soil, gas exchanges, soil formation, pollination and seed dispersal. The chapter classifies soil fauna and reviews currently available information on soil fauna biodiversity and functional roles worldwide, their role in soil health and the importance of management in determining soil fauna communities.

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Supporting smallholders in maintaining soil health: key challenges and strategies

$32.50

Smallholder farmers are important stewards of global soil resources with strong linkages between livelihoods, global poverty and soil health There is no single method to engage with smallholder farmers in managing soil health, as they are a diverse group scattered across multiple geographies, soil types, agro-ecologies, cropping systems and cultures. However, systematically understanding the key challenges and behaviour drivers among selected groups of smallholder farmers can provide insights into targeted approaches to address the challenges. This chapter defines and characterizes smallholder farmers before describing the key constraints and challenges they face, including financial, labour, agronomic input, behavioural and knowledge-access constraints. The chapter examines the key levers that can assist smallholders in maintaining soil health, and provides suggestions for further reading in this area.

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Ensuring the genetic diversity of apples

$32.50

Widely-used apple cultivars exhibit low resistance to pathogens and low tolerance to climatic threats. This chapter reviews the threats to apple production and the resulting need for new varieties of apple. It considers the advantages of using progenitor species of Malus × domestica in traditional breeding programs. It discusses the genetic diversity of apples, capturing and maintaining this diversity, and ensuring that researchers and breeders have access to living apple accessions. The roles of genebanks, such as the USDA-ARS National Plant Germplasm System, are emphasized in the discussion of how to meet these challenges. Finally, new technologies are considered as means to further facilitate the use of wild apple genetic resources in breeding programs.

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Advances in marker-assisted breeding of apples

$32.50

Breeding and selecting new improved cultivars by exploiting natural genetic diversity is an essential route forward in ensuring sustained and sustainable apple production. There can be no doubt that breeders have an expanding set of tools at their disposal to achieve these goals with the advent of marker-assisted (and DNA-informed) breeding. This chapter discusses the promise of marker-assisted breeding in apple and presents the advances that have been made, particularly over the past two decades, in practical application of genetic markers to breeding programmes, current tools and the impacts of this technology. A case study of genetic marker application in the Washington State University apple breeding program is also described. The chapter suggests what the near future may hold for marker-assisted breeding in apple. The rapid increase in genomic data will present its own challenges in terms of managing decision-making, although the result is surely enhanced efficiency, accuracy and pace of new apple cultivar development.

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Acrylamide formation in fried potato products and its mitigation

$32.50

Acrylamide is carcinogenic to rodents and also a ‘probable’ human carcinogen. No regulatory limits have yet been established on the levels of this contaminant in food, but food industries are nevertheless under pressure to find ways of reducing acrylamide formation. The greatest contribution to dietary acrylamide exposure comes from potato products, coffee, bakery products and chocolate. Acrylamide is formed in potato products during industrial processing, retail, catering and domestic preparation. This review summarizes the research to date on acrylamide levels in food, mechanisms of formation, assessment of acrylamide intake and health risks, regulatory measures and possible mitigation strategies from farm to fork in fried potato products. Issues regarding the implementation of mitigation strategies on an industrial scale are discussed and options for risk management are summarized.

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The apple genome – harbinger of innovation for sustainable apple production

$32.50

Apple breeding programs are aimed at improving the agronomic and consumer traits of apples. While DNA-informed breeding doesn’t reduce the time between generations, it can enable the early elimination of undesirable seedlings, thus saving resources for the program. Combined with horticultural and biotechnological approaches to reduce generation times, DNA-informed breeding can enable the development of superior cultivars in an economically efficient way. In this chapter, we provide a brief overview of the development of genome sequencing technology, review the process of sequencing the apple genome and then consider how this information can be employed, both to develop new and better varieties of apple, and in the shorter term to improve current horticultural practices.