Advances in the technologies and methods for analysing the quality characteristics of maize grains can help us determine the contribution of maize products to human health, as well as help in the development of maize cultivars with improved characteristics. This chapter reviews a range of methods for determining important characteristics of maize grains, with sections covering starch content, protein content, phenolic compounds (in particular, flavonoids such as carotenoids), kernel hardness/texture and levels of myotoxins.
Ms Marilyn Warburton
Advances in mycotoxin-resistant maize varieties
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Depending on the growing environment, maize grains can be infected by one or more ear rot fungi, which may decrease grain yield and quality. Many of them also produce secondary metabolites, known as mycotoxins, which can have serious detrimental effects on humans and animals that consume the infected grain. There are several potential remedial actions that can be taken to prevent the accumulation of mycotoxins in maize grain. In this case study, Aspergillus flavus resistant maize breeding lines were created. It is concluded that of all mycotoxin prevention or mitigation strategies, the use of host plant resistance and the release of stably resistant varieties is the easiest to transfer to the farmer’s fields and is the most economical control measure for all markets.
Dr T. Abdoulaye
Constraints in adopting improved technologies for maize cultivation: the case of Africa
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The adoption of improved technology is essential for increasing productivity in the production of maize in Africa. This, in turn, will contribute to food self-sufficiency and the alleviation of poverty and food insecurity. This chapter reviews the importance of increasing the adoption rate of improved maize technologies, especially among smallholder farming households. Economic and Institutional barriers to the adoption of new technologies are considered, and then the role and importance of farmers’ individual situations and perspectives are emphasized, since these are vital to a full understanding of adoption decisions. Finally, strategies for promoting the adoption of improved maize technologies are examined.
Elena Lima-Cabello and Paula Robles Bolivar, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Spain and Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Spain and The University of Western Australia, Australia
Assessing and improving the nutritional quality of maize
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Conventional marker-assisted and GM breeding contribute to the production of new maize varieties to compete in the complex global agricultural marketplace. Breeders aim to improve quality and yield, create varieties that are suited to particular agricultural practices and raise the nutritional value of maize without compromising high safety standards. This chapter focuses on the diverse methods available for affecting the development and chemical composition of maize kernels, so as to improve their protein and starch content. We summarize the current state of knowledge and technology in this area, with a focus on protein storage, varieties of starch and how to enhance the quality-related traits of maize kernels. We also consider potential future developments in the field and the application of breeding strategies to develop new maize products with higher nutraceutical value and lower levels of anti-nutritional factors such as allergens.
T. L. Niblack, The Ohio State University, USA
Nematodes associated with maize
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Plant-feeding, or plant-parasitic, nematodes are ubiquitous in soils that support plant growth, and at least one species is usually present in association with the roots or shoots of maize. However, the macro-effects of phytophagous nematodes are notoriously difficult to test and measure, and depend upon many factors associated with the plant, its environment, and the nematodes themselves. This chapter begins with an introduction to soil and plant nematodes, covering their general characteristics, identification and an overview of our current knowledge of their effects on maize. Subsequent sections review various types of nematodes, with particular focus on those which are highly likely to cause yield losses and other damage to maize crops such as lesion, root-knot and vermiform nematodes.
Eliab Simpungwe, HarvestPlus, Zambia
Biofortification of maize
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Biofortification refers to the process of enhancing the micronutrient density of crops. It emerged as a response to the public health problem of micronutrient malnutrition, referred to as hidden hunger, which seriously affects millions of people worldwide. The premise of biofortification is that nutrition of poor people can be improved if they consumed staple crops rich in micronutrients since their diets are dependent primarily on few staples they grow and eat. Since maize is an important crop for millions of people, this chapter looks at biofortification of maize with provitamin A carotenoids, purpose, methods and results, using the Zambia maize biofortification program as a case study.
Dr Bao-Luo Ma - Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada and Zhigang Wang, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, China
Crop rotation: a sustainable system for maize production
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Modern agriculture has led to a simplification of maize-based cropping systems and the extensive practice of monoculture maize (MM). This has led to problems such as yield reduction and soil quality degradation. Meanwhile, the overuse of inorganic fertilizer to increase yields comes with a high environmental cost. Maize grown in rotation with grain or forage legume crops often yields more and requires less application of synthetic chemicals (e.g. fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides) than continuous MM. Thus, maize–legume rotations in tandem with the application of farmyard or dairy manure or other organic wastes is deemed an environmental-friendly strategy for sustainable agriculture development, and can help the agri-food production sector to produce affordable and healthy foods for consumers, reduce air and water pollution and build-up healthy soil for the farmers of tomorrow. This chapter summarizes the recent literature on the agronomic, economic, ecological and environmental assessments of maize–legume crop rotation systems.
Charles Wortmann, Patricio Grassini and Roger W. Elmore, University of Nebraska- Lincoln, USA
Optimizing maize-based cropping systems: Sustainability, good agricultural practices (GAP) and yield goals
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Sustainable maize production is profitable for the farmer, protects the natural resource base, including maintaining and improving soil productivity, prevents environmental degradation beyond the field, improves the quality of life of individuals and communities and ensures the nutritional value and safety of food. These objectives are not always achieved but need to be among the factors considered in selecting good agricultural practices (GAP). The relative importance of different considerations and trade-offs in the choice of GAP varies with production situations and three contrasting maize production situations are discussed in this chapter. The gap between actual and potential yield and determination of realistic yield goals are also addressed for these three situations
Peter S. Setimela, Global Maize Program, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Zimbabwe
Maize seed variety selection and seed system development: the case of southern Africa
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Maize is the most important staple food crop in southern Africa. It is predominantly grown by smallholder farmers, but seed companies generally target large commercial farmers in high potential areas when developing new varieties. To address the needs of smallholder farmers in maize genetic improvement, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) initiated a collaborative drought and low nitrogen maize breeding programme aimed to increase yields in low-input and drought-prone environments in southern Africa. Since then, CIMMYT and seed companies have also introduced new maize varieties which are resistant to a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses. This chapter reviews key activities and the roles of key stakeholders in improving maize productivity for smallholder farmers in southern Africa. It also highlights the development and selection of first-generation maize germplasm, and the role of the seed industry in disseminating improved maize germplasm.
Jutta Kienzle, Independent Researcher, Germany; and Markus Kelderer, Research Station of Laimburg, Italy
Growing organic apples in Europe
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This chapter reviews key research areas involved in organic apple production, and covers the development of suitable varieties and rootstocks, soil fertility management and strategies for maintaining apple tree health. A number of case studies are then considered in order to show how research can have real practical impacts, for example, by adding to the organic farmer’s toolbox of disease control strategies.
Yongrui Wu, National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology & Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China; and Joachim M
Understanding and improving protein traits in maize
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Improving the nutritional quality of maize is necessary to meet the growing demands of maize consumption. Maize could be the main source of protein. Several parameters, however, limit the supply and quality of corn protein. This chapter reviews the mechanisms that determine these limitations, including transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression, compartmentalization of proteins during seed development. It also describes mutants in maize that interfere with these mechanisms and how genetic approaches could be taken to improve protein quality traits. It is important to realize that sulphur and nitrogen storage in maize seeds have to be addressed differently because of their source-sink relationship. This chapter deals with all these aspects.
Doyle McKey, Montpellier University, France; Marc Delêtre, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
The emergence of cassava as a global crop
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This chapter outlines current knowledge about cassava’s origin in Amazonia and summarizes the history of its introduction and diffusion in the Old World. The chapter examines the evolution of the traits that led to its success, focusing on two aspects under-appreciated by cassava breeders, extension specialists and other stakeholders: the management of a crop that is chemically defended against enemies but potentially toxic to human consumers, and the creation of a mixed clonal/sexual reproductive system that is vital for maintaining the crop’s adaptive potential. The chapter shows that these features arose through the biocultural coevolution of the plant’s traits and farmer practices in Amazonia, and argues that imperfect transmission of cultural practices associated with cassava cultivation led initially to maladaptive mismatches that necessitated the partial re-invention of cassava cultivation in the crop’s diasporic populations.
Dr Mariana Wongtschowski
Supporting smallholders in maize cultivation: using an agricultural innovation systems approach
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An innovation system can be defined as a network of organizations, enterprises and individuals focused on bringing new products, new processes and new forms of organization into use, together with the institutions and policies that affect their behaviour and performance. In this chapter, we present an agricultural innovation systems (AIS) approach to understanding the role of research in agricultural innovation, with a focus on the case of research into sustainable maize intensification. We consider three important stages of an innovation process: the identification of problems and targeting of interventions, local experimentation and bringing new ideas into routine use. We discuss the role of research at each stage, and then argue that an AIS approach mandates increased focus on the personal, organizational and institutional capacities of researchers and research bodies.
George Marechera and Grace Muinga, African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF), Kenya
Value chain approaches to mechanization in cassava cultivation and harvesting in Africa
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Cassava is a basic staple food in sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. However, despite the use of improved varieties in some areas, yield levels have remained low due to inefficient production systems. Cassava production in SSA is mainly through manual labour, which is time consuming and inefficient, while cassava mechanization in Africa is almost non-existent. This is one of the key constraints to development of the sector. This chapter highlights mechanized production options. We begin by reviewing the benefits of mechanization, as well as the obstacles to mechanization on smallholder farms. We then review the valuable experience of the African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF) in promoting mechanization in SSA, the various mechanized production options and the business models which could give smallholder farmers access to the necessary machinery.
Thomas W. Kuyper, Wageningen University, The Netherlands; and Samuel Adjei-Nsiah, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ghana
Intercropping and crop rotations in cassava cultivation: a production systems approach
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Cassava does not have a specific and determined maturity period and it can therefore be harvested over a range of ages, depending on cropping system and socio-economic conditions. This chapter reviews current knowledge on mixed cropping systems (both intercropping and crop rotations) in which cassava plays a prominent roule. It discusses the yield benefits of such mixed cropping and evaluates mechanisms that have been proposed to explain superior yields from such systems. The chapter also describes the functional traits of different cassava varieties that are likely to explain why cassava performs well in intercropping. Finally, the chapter addresses the future outlook for intercropping in cassava cultivation and suggests future trends in research.
Dr Keith Tomlins
New uses and processes for cassava
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Cassava’s versatility, resilience to climate stress and huge potential for yield increase make it increasingly popular for both food security and industrial applications. This chapter investigates current uses of cassava and considers new processes which might be introduced to promote greater utilisation of cassava. We use the example of High Quality Cassava Flour (HQCF) in Africa to discuss a framework of enabling factors to help promoters of new technologies achieve sustainability. From this we highlight the key drivers of new uses and processes. Finally, we consider what new opportunities might arise from current research.
Marcelo J. Carena, North Dakota State University, USA
Developing maize-breeding methods and cultivars to meet the challenge of climate change
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Sustainable maize production will be possible only with the development of the next generation of maize products carrying genetic diversity. This chapter addresses ideas to develop not only unique cultivars but also breeding methodologies to better assist breeders managing genetically complex traits in an efficient and sustainable way.
Csaba L. Marton and Zsuzsanna Tóthné Zsubori, MTA Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungary
Advances in cold-tolerant maize varieties
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Maize, a thermophilic plant species, originates from subtropical highlands. Maize cultivation, however, has spread to temperate regions of the world that experience low temperatures during the early development of the plants. Maize genotypes that are cultivated in cooler climates need to have a short vegetation period and the ability to adapt to low temperatures. By growing cold-tolerant hybrids it is possible to achieve improvements in stand uniformity, the rate of plant development and the yield. In addition, cold-tolerant hybrids can be sown earlier, making it possible to grow hybrids with longer vegetation periods and greater yield potential. This chapter will discuss the physiological and genetic background of cold tolerance, the methodology required for its analysis, ways of improving cold tolerance by breeding, and the seed production aspects of this trait.
Aurélie Bechoff, Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, UK
Use and nutritional value of cassava roots and leaves as a traditional food
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Cassava is an important staple crop for the food security of millions of people in developing countries. This chapter examines the strengths and weaknesses of cassava roots and leaves as a source of nutrients, and describes and analyses efforts to promote biofortified varieties of cassava with higher carotenoid levels that could help tackle vitamin A deficiency. The chapter describes in detail the range of products that can be processed from cassava roots and leaves and assesses their nutritional value, as well as analyses the chemical composition of roots and leaves. The chapter includes a case study on the use of biofortified cassava to make two traditional products, gari and fufu, in Nigeria, and suggests future directions that research may take in this area.
Dharam Paul Chaudhary, Indian Institute of Maize Research (IIMR), India
Nutritional and nutraceutical/functional properties of maize
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Maize is the most widely grown crop, which is primarily used for animal feed and food. It is a staple food for a large segment of the world’s population, and it is also used as an industrial raw material. This chapter - reviews the nutritional quality of maize by considering various quality components including protein quality, carbohydrate profile, oil concentration and carotenoids composition. The discovery and association of opaque-2 gene with the enhancement of protein quality in maize has been discussed in detail. Subsequent sections review the carbohydrate profile of maize, the qualities and uses of corn oil, and the micronutrients present in maize.
Tin Maung Aye, CIAT, Vietnam ; and Reinhardt Howeler , CIAT Emeritus - formerly CIAT, Thailand
Integrated crop management for cassava cultivation in Asia
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The demand for cassava in Asia is expected to grow in the years to come, largely because of an increasing demand for animal feed, biofuels and multiple uses of starch. Increasing the quantity and quality of cassava products in response to growing demand requires careful and sustainable increases in cassava production. This chapter describes good agricultural practices (GAP) in cassava cultivation, focusing on pre- and post-harvesting practices and measures to manage crop health, including ensuring soil fertility and weed, disease and pest control. The chapter addresses the challenge of encouraging farmers to adopt GAP and reviews likely future trends in this area.
Key challenges in maize breeding in sub-Saharan Africa
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Development, release and commercialization of improved maize varieties has improved tremendously in the last two or three decades in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Nevertheless, major challenges remain; these are described in this chapter, and strategies by which they may be overcome are proposed. With ample reference to the western, central, eastern and southern African sub-regions, the chapter describes the state of research facilities and human resources in SSA, before discussing how Africa may explore the use of broad-based germplasm resources, successfully to overcome the challenges of hybrid development, apply newly available plant breeding techniques and take advantage of participatory plant breeding research to be self-sufficient in maize production on a sustainable basis.
Claude M. Fauquet and Joe Tohme, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Colombia
GCP21: a global cassava partnership for the 21st century
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Since 1998, cassava has outperformed all the world’s major crops in relative production increase. It is also recognized as being resilient to climate change. Its global average yield, however, is only 13 Mt/ha, compared to a potential of at least 65 Mt/ha, partly due to the impact of pests and diseases. The cassava community needs to improve production, processing and market development to keep its derived food products affordable for global populations. This effort will require a significant increase in research and development (R&D) investment, while speeding up the improvement of cassava value chains – from production in the field to consumption on the plate. This is what the Global Cassava Partnership for the 21st century aims to realize by advocating for cassava to change mindsets, identifying gaps in R&D value chains, and accelerating the flow of information about cassava.
Tin Maung Aye, CIAT, Vietnam
Cassava cultivation in Asia
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Cassava was introduced to Asia in the late eighteenth and the early nineteents centuries. Since then it has become one of the most popular crops, especially in upland environments. Cambodia, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam are now among the top producers and exporters of cassava in the world. This chapter provides an overview of cassava production in Asia, and then reviews some of the key areas of research for developing cassava production, including varietal improvement, crop management techniques, planting and harvesting, soil fertility maintenance and pest, disease and weed control. Finally, a case study on the development of sustainable cassava production in Cambodia is provided.
Dr Dunstan S. C. Spencer
Cassava cultivation in sub-Saharan Africa
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In sub-Saharan Africa, cassava is cultivated under a wide range of ecological and agronomic conditions. Cassava’s adaptability to relatively marginal soils and erratic rainfall conditions, its high productivity per unit of land and labour, the certainty of obtaining some yield even under the most adverse conditions and the possibility of maintaining continuity of supply throughout the year make the crop very adaptable to rain-fed agriculture conditions. This chapter describes the current state of cassava production in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as its contribution to incomes and food and nutrition security. The chapter considers the main drivers of change for cassava production in the region.
J. Stephen Smith
Ensuring the genetic diversity of maize and its wild relatives
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Genebanks and ex situ collections are essential to conserving maize genetic diversity and enabling global access to those resources. The chapter provides a comprehensive and authoritative review of the key issues facing both in situ and ex situ collections. These issues include better conservation and exploitation of wild varieties and landraces, as well as identifying broader genetic and allelic diversity in Zea and Tripsacum. The chapter includes case studies of the use of exotic germplasm to support breeding of more resilient varieties.
Kolawole Adebayo, Federal University of Agriculture, Nigeria
Targeting smallholder farmers to adopt improved cassava technologies: challenges and opportunities
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This chapter examines the challenges and opportunities for targeting smallholder farmers to adopt improved cassava technologies for yield and profitability. Smallholder farmers are not a homogenous group and, therefore, a static technology promotion system cannot address the needs of a dynamic client group. Using evidence from existing research, the chapter explores how key issues are being addressed. It reviews three case studies, including the Fufu Project and C:AVA, which show research being used in practice to improve cassava productivity among smallholders. Finally, it provides an insight into future trends in research on targeting smallholder farmers to adopt improved cassava technologies.
Cassava is becoming an ever more important crop, and over the past 20–30 years its planted area has increased faster than that of any other food crop. However, yields are still low due to the fact that the crop is usually grown on infertile soils and without adequate soil and crop management. This chapter begins by discussing nutrient absorption, distribution within the plant, and removal by the cassava harvest. Section 3 then considers the effect of cassava cultivation on soil productivity. Section 4 reviews the nutrient loss in eroded sediments and runoff in soils used for cassava cultivation. Finally, Section 5 discusses how cassava farmers can diagnose nutritional problems in their crop.
Dr James George
Seed systems management in cassava cultivation
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A sustainable cassava seed system will ensure that high-quality seeds of farmer-demanded varieties and crops are produced and fully available on time and affordable to farmers and other stakeholders. This chapter describes the production and management of high-quality cassava seed under both informal and formal seed systems, and under both traditional and different types of rapid propagation methods. The chapter includes a detailed case study on mini-stake-based rapid multiplication in India and looks ahead to future developments in this area of research.
Clair H. Hershey, formerly CIAT, Colombia
Drivers of change for cassava’s multiple roles in sustainable development
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This chapter reviews the ways cassava yields can be improved sustainably to keep pace with a rising population. It also looks more broadly at improving the role cassava can play in improving farmers’ and consumers’ lives – through income generation, improved food security, better nutrition, and a healthier environment.
R. Karina Gallardo, Washington State University, USA; and Hildegard Garming, Thünen Institute of Farm Economics, Germany
The economics of apple production
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Economic prosperity is essential to guarantee sustainability, and this chapter provides a cost analysis of apple production worldwide, including classification of production cost studies, an exploration of different cost study approaches and categories included in cost-of-production studies. The chapter analyses the economics of worldwide apple production, including Germany, Italy, South Africa, Switzerland and Chile. A detailed case study of apple production in Washing-ton State is also provided. The chapter includes a comparison of production costs by apple variety across the United States, Germany, Italy and South Africa. Given the importance of international markets for major apple-producing countries in the world, the chapter considers apple production in relation to global trends in production and international trade. It discusses structural changes in the apple industry around the world, trends in production systems and technologies, and major stressors for apple production.
Desmond O’Rourke, Washington State University and Belrose Inc., USA
Consumer trends in apple sales
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Different participants in the global apple market have different goals. Consumer trends are influenced by numerous supply and demand factors. This chapter reviews the influence of suppliers and retailers on apple sales. It describes the global forces affecting apple demand. It explains the recent trends in apple consumption. The factors affecting consumer demand for apples vary in developing and in developed countries. Retailers face many challenges in the marketing of apples. This chapter also deals with all these issues.
M. Jennifer Sjölund
Bacterial diseases affecting potatoes
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Bacterial pathogens continue to pose a significant threat to potato production through in-field yield losses, storage rots and reduced marketability. Ralstonia solanacearum alone is estimated to cause US$1 billion losses worldwide. In this chapter we review current knowledge on principal bacterial diseases of potato, namely ring rot (Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. sepedonicus), brown rot (Ralstonia solanacearum), blackleg (Pectobacterium and Dickeya spp.) and common scab (Streptomyces spp.), as well as the recently emerging pathogens, Dickeya solani and ‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ causing blackleg and zebra chip, respectively. We also review sustainable disease management strategies and discuss how the development and increasing accessibility of molecular genetics have enabled new avenues of research.
Dr Dr G. H. Neilsen
Advances in soil and nutrient management in apple cultivation
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This chapter explores the emerging issues that are likely to influence future approaches to soil and nutrient management in apple orchards. These include climate change and variability, the degradation of soil and water resources, and the future availability and cost of fertilizers. We then consider strategies for precision nutrient and water management with the potential to mitigate the environmental, social and resource limitation challenges identified. Finally, we consider the prospects for alternative production systems and production areas, given the changing climate.
John Norelli, USDA-ARS, USA
Bacterial diseases affecting apples
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Bacterial diseases present an ongoing challenge to the sustainability of apple production. Fire blight is a serious economic threat to apple production in regions of the world where it occurs, and it it is used as an example to present the key issues and challenges which bacterial diseases raise for apple production. The history of fire blight and its spread around the globe, economic impact, symptoms, disease biology, and management were reviewed in this chapter. A case study is also presented on current efforts to develop apple cultivars which are resistant to fire blight disease. Other apple diseases caused by bacteria, including blister spot, crown gall and hairy root, bacterial blister bark and apple proliferation are also considered.
Olivier F. Vilpoux , Denilson de Oliveira Guilherme , and Marney Pascoli Cereda , Catholic University of Campo Grande, Brazil
Cassava cultivation in Latin America
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Cassava was domesticated from its wild species ancestors in the New World, probably in South America. This origin, with its connection to indigenous cultures, has been presented as both advantage and disadvantage. It has helped to maintain the production of cassava, but has also been the cause of difficulty in modernising the crop. A well-known contrast is Thailand, a country with little or no traditional use of cassava, which has managed to establish more commercial and industrial avenues of production and use. This chapter reviews the challenges which Latin American cassava production systems must address in order to increase their productivity and impact. We review global and Latin American approaches to cassava production and the competitiveness of cassava produced in Latin American. We then discuss how research can help to boost cassava production and increase benefits to producers and consumers along the cassava value chain.
Stefano Musacchi, Washington State University, USA; and Duane Greene, University of Massachusetts, USA
Innovations in apple tree cultivation to manage crop load and ripening
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This chapter is a summary of recent innovation in orchard training system design, pruning technique, thinning, plant growth regulators and fruit finishing, with the specific goal of identifying more sustainable practice. New training systems like the ‘bi-axis’ are described as well as pruning techniques to minimize the use of labour. It is now possible to purchase specific typologies of tree that are more congruent with the training, which will minimize the operation of planting and can help achieve early production. New uses of plant growth regulators to manipulate tree growth and fruit finish are also analysed
Elizabeth H. Beers, Washington State University, USA
Sustainable arthropod management for apples
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Management of apple pests is a necessary and challenging part of crop production. Cosmetic and phytosanitary standards entail management of key pests to very low levels which are biologically difficult to sustain. This chapter begins by covering key pests. Such pests drive integrated pest management (IPM) systems, and although few in number, they shape the entire system. We then consider indirect pests, which may be tolerated in moderate densities, and are therefore more amenable to other control tactics, especially biological control. We argue that IPM tactics which control key pests without disrupting biological control of secondary pests are therefore essential for a more stable and sustainable apple IPM. After considering the tools and tactics available as part of a sustainable IPM program, we turn to the challenges facing IPM, such as pesticide resistance and invasive species, which require innovative solutions for future IPM systems.
Kenneth C. Eastwell, Washington State University, USA
Management of viruses and virus-like agents affecting apple production
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Viruses and virus-like agents have recurring impact on quality fruit production throughout the life of an orchard. They are graft-transmissible and are readily disseminated through the use of infected budwood. Since many of these agents do not have arthropod or nematode vectors, the most effective control strategy is to develop orchards with clean, virus-tested planting stock. The implementation of quarantine and certification programmes on a global scale is essential to safeguard apple production and minimize the risk of spreading disease by removing virus-infected plants from the supply chain. Procedures for virus testing and elimination are constantly being revised to incorporate the best and most appropriate technologies.
Prof. Samira Daroub
Chemical composition of soils: role in soil health
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Integrated nutrient management systems that use a holistic approach, using inorganic fertilizers as well as management practices aimed to increase soil organic matter, are needed to improve soil health. Management practices need to take into account differences in soil properties, climate and available local resources. In this chapter, we discuss the chemistry of nutrients focusing mostly on nitrogen and phosphorus. The impact of chemical composition of soils (nutrients, pH and salinity) on soil health is discussed. We review factors influencing the solubility of nutrients and discuss management practices to improve nutrient availability and reduce the reliance on inorganic fertilizers. We illustrate a case study from India that shows how integrated nutrient management, using both inorganic fertilizers, including sulphur and micronutrients, and practices to improve and increase soil organic carbon, can be done successfully and used on a large scale using site-specific research and available resources.
Dr Dr Qin Zhang
Mechanization and automation for apple
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Sustaining large-scale commercial apple production depends on the availability of a large, seasonal and suitably skilled workforce. The costs and associated risks are dependent on human labor as well as overall productivity which could be reduced by improved mechanization of apple production operations. This chapter begins by reviewing the levels of mechanization that may be introduced into apple production and then considers a variety of mechanization solutions for each of the four key operations in apple production: training and pruning, thinning, pest and disease control, and harvesting. In each case, the chapter first considers those solutions which employ lower levels of mechanization, and then moves up to solutions which involve a higher level of mechanization, including automation and robotics. The advantages and disadvantages of each solution, and directions for further development are also discussed.
Kuakoon Piyachomkwan and Sittichoke Wanlapatit, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Thailand; and Klanarong Sriroth, Kasetsart University, Thailand
Cassava for industrial uses
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Cassava serves not only as a staple food for mankind but also as an industrial crop for food and non-food applications. The roots with high starch contents are processed to dried chips and extracted pure starch. The production scale varies from household level, small and medium-sized enterprises (SME), to the large, modern factories. Currently, dried chips are an important carbohydrate source in animal feed as well as for the bio-based economy, for example bioethanol and organic acid production. Starch is converted to glucose by enzyme hydrolysis and then fermented by microorganisms. Cassava starch with very high purity has versatile functionalities, particularly when modified, hydrolysed and derivatized through physical, chemical and enzyme processes, which broaden its applications in food, paper, textile, adhesive, pharmaceutical, cosmetics and chemicals.
Emeritus Prof. A. N. Lakso
Advances in understanding apple fruit development
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Understanding the ways in which apples grow and develop is crucial for achieving sustainable apple cultivation, which means a regulated crop of apples that provides as high a yield as possible of desired quality while allowing the development of a good and consistent return bloom and cropping in subsequent years. This chapter examines how apples grow and ripen (basic structure, growth habit and physiology), some of the factors that support or limit growth, why fruit abscise and how growers can manipulate fruit growth and abscission to optimize cropping. Among other topics, the chapter explores in detail seasonal growth patterns, the chemical composition of apples in different seasons, the role of hormones in abscission and seasonal ripening patterns. The chapter suggests ways to model and prevent apple thinning, and suggests future trends for research in this area
W. J. Janisiewicz and W. M. Jurick II, USDA-ARS, USA
Sustainable approaches to control postharvest diseases of apples
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Long-term storage of apples faces challenges in maintaining fruit quality and reducing losses from postharvest diseases. Currently the apple industry relies mainly on synthetic fungicides to control postharvest decays. However, the limitations to fungicides such as development of resistance in pathogens, difficulties in developing new fungicides, and their effect on the environment make this practice not sustainable. In addition, growing consumer demand for fungicide free produce and a rapidly expanding organic market necessitate development of more sustainable alternatives to synthetic fungicides. In this chapter we examine various approaches developed for controlling postharvest decays of apples since the introduction of long term storage almost a hundred years ago. They include physical, chemical, and biological treatments. None of the alternative methods has a spectrum of activity as broad as synthetic fungicides; however, when integrated they can provide commercially adequate decay control.
Robert L. Myers, USDA – SARE and University of Missouri, USA
Use of cover crops to promote soil health
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Several principles are recommended for improving soil health, including keeping the soil covered, providing living roots as much of the year as possible, increasing biodiversity and reducing disturbance of the soil. Cover crops contribute to achieving all of these principles. In addition to their contributions to soil health, cover crops help with weed and pest management, provide habitat and food for pollinators and wildlife, and contribute to environmental benefits such as reduced erosion, sediment loss and water quality impacts from nutrients and pesticides. This chapter describes a range of different ways that cover crops can help improve or promote soil health. Many of the cover crop impacts on soil health are interrelated, and such connections will be identified where appropriate in the following sections.
D. Granatstein, Washington State University, USA; and G. Peck, Cornell University, USA
Assessing the environmental impact and sustainability of apple cultivation
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The environmental impact of apple production is determined by regional enviro-pedo-climatic features and socio-political factors, but can also be managed through cultivation practices and inputs. Pesticides typically have the greatest environmental impact, but energy use from operating machinery and the manufacturing processes used to create machinery, trellis and irrigation materials, fuel, and agrichemicals is also substantial. This chapter shows that apple production sustainability has increased for pest management and decreased for resource use. It demonstrates that high-density apple orchards require higher levels of infrastructure and resource inputs than older systems, and argues that enhancing biocontrol of pests and lengthening the usable life of equipment and infrastructure are important strategies for reducing environmental impact.
Prof. Minggang Xu
Organic amendments to improve soil health and crop productivity: a case study in China
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This chapter focuses on three long-term fertilization experiments with a temperature and precipitation gradient from China, which aim to improve soil fertility, maintain soil health and increase crop productivity. After outlining the approaches adopted in long-term experiments in fertilization management, the chapter examines the impact of different fertilization techniques on soil health. The chapter then addresses the impact of different fertilization techniques on crop yield, and finally looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Markus Kellerhals, Agroscope, Switzerland
Advances in pest- and disease-resistant apple varieties
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Disease and pest-resistant cultivars can significantly contribute to sustainable and resilient cultivation of apples. In this chapter, we review the development of apples that are resistant to a number of important diseases, including apple scab, powdery mildew, fire blight, nectria canker and Marssonina apple blotch. We also briefly consider the development of apples which are resistant to pests, before discussing DNA-based selection techniques for developing resistance and the mechanisms on which resistance depends.
Christopher B. Watkins, Cornell University, USA
Advances in post-harvest storage and handling of apples
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Harvest management and storage of apples in optimal conditions are critical factors in maintaining the sustainability of orchard operations. Post-harvest handling of apples, as for most horticultural products, is largely concerned with the maintenance of product quality after harvest. This chapter outlines recent advances in understanding the various factors associated with fruit physiology, maturation and ripening. It reviews harvest, handling and grading operations, and discuss postharvest storage technologies including refrigeration, controlled atmosphere (CA) storage and 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP). It also considers a range of postharvest treatments and the physiological disorders to which apples are subject.
Wayne M. Jurick II, USDA-ARS, USA and Kerik D. Cox, Cornell University, USA
Pre- and postharvest fungal apple diseases
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The domesticated apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) is the most significant pome fruit grown and consumed worldwide. China is the largest producer, followed by the United States, on a global scale. However, fungal plant pathogens cause significant economic losses in the field and during storage, leading to poor fruit quality. Several pathogens also produce mycotoxins that are harmful to human health. Advancements in biological, chemical and cultural controls have been made and integrated to increase production, maintain fruit quality and enhance sustainability. In this chapter, an introduction of apple production and storage is presented, followed by discussions of the main pre- and postharvest apple pathogens, methods on integrated disease management and emerging diseases.
Peter M. Hirst, Purdue University, USA
Advances in understanding flowering and pollination in apple trees
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Fruit production of apples is a two-year process, beginning with the transition of a bud from vegetative to a floral state during the summer. The bud differentiates, overwinters and emerges as a flower the following spring. Flowers are then pollinated, fertilized and the fruit grows first by cell division and later by cell enlargement. All of these processes are vital to the development of high-quality fruit. Suboptimal environmental, biological or cultural conditions during any of these stages can reduce both productivity and fruit quality. Here we discuss the biological processes and genetic controls of these developmental stages. We also highlight some of the key environmental effects and how these processes can be manipulated by cultural management.
Dr Dr Ieda C. Mendes
Soil health assessment and maintenance in Central and South-Central Brazil
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Brazil has evolved from a food-insecure country in the early 1970s to one of the most important food producers and exporters in the world. Production has increased steadily and productivity gains have fostered a significant land-saving effect. However, wide variations in the landscape, soils, climate and plant diversity present challenges in applying soil health principles for enhanced management practices. These challenges have been overcome by the application of conservation agriculture (CA), an integrated, holistic farming system that improves soil functioning and consequently crop growth and yield. Intensification of agriculture through integrated crop, livestock and forest systems has also had an important role in the last ten years. This chapter outlines several practices, evaluations and monitoring strategies being used to ensure that soil health is being maintained or improved rather than degraded by the more intensive, economically driven management practices.
G. Fazio, USDA-ARS/Cornell University, USA
Evaluating and improving rootstocks for apple cultivation
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The foundations of a productive and healthy orchard are the rootstocks that provide anchorage, water and nutrients essential to the above-ground portions of the trees. Utilization of composite trees has increased the efficiency of breeding productive apple trees by dividing the selection of scion traits and rootstock traits into two genetically (and functionally) different specimens, which are then brought together through grafting. As part of the tree, the rootstock influences many factors in addition to tree size, particularly productivity, fruit quality, pest resistance, stress tolerance and ultimately profitability. Understanding how scion properties are modulated by rootstocks allows targeting of traits that may be selected to improve whole tree performance by improving rootstock performance. This chapter examines apple-breeding methods and explores how rootstocks affect scion traits, before addressing the impact of rootstocks on disease and pest resistance.
Dr Dr A. O. Ogunkunle
Maintaining soil health in Africa
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Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has a wide variety of natural ecosystem resources, including soils, vegetation, water and genetic diversity. However, land degradation in SSA is intensifying at an alarming rate, and this region has the lowest agriculture and livestock yields of any region in the world. This is accompanied by the world’s highest rates of deforestation and malnutrition. This chapter focuses on land degradation and will examine the different types of land degradation as well as their ecological, economic and social consequences. It also addresses the relationships between soil quality, soil health (SH) and food security, and then reviews strategies for maintaining SH.
Dr George G. Brown
The role of soil fauna in soil health and delivery of ecosystem services
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Soil fauna includes microscopic organisms such as nematodes (microfauna), mites and springtails (mesofauna), up to larger invertebrates such as worms, spiders, ants, termites and beetles (macrofauna) and vertebrates (megafauna) such as amphibians, reptiles and mammals. This chapter explains how their activity is important for soil health and can result in various ecosystem services, including provision of food and primary production, nutrient cycling and organic matter dynamics, water availability in soil, gas exchanges, soil formation, pollination and seed dispersal. The chapter classifies soil fauna and reviews currently available information on soil fauna biodiversity and functional roles worldwide, their role in soil health and the importance of management in determining soil fauna communities.
David Güereña, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Nepal
Supporting smallholders in maintaining soil health: key challenges and strategies
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Smallholder farmers are important stewards of global soil resources with strong linkages between livelihoods, global poverty and soil health There is no single method to engage with smallholder farmers in managing soil health, as they are a diverse group scattered across multiple geographies, soil types, agro-ecologies, cropping systems and cultures. However, systematically understanding the key challenges and behaviour drivers among selected groups of smallholder farmers can provide insights into targeted approaches to address the challenges. This chapter defines and characterizes smallholder farmers before describing the key constraints and challenges they face, including financial, labour, agronomic input, behavioural and knowledge-access constraints. The chapter examines the key levers that can assist smallholders in maintaining soil health, and provides suggestions for further reading in this area.
Gayle M. Volk, USDA-ARS-CARR National Laboratory for Genetic Resources Preservation, USA
Ensuring the genetic diversity of apples
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Widely-used apple cultivars exhibit low resistance to pathogens and low tolerance to climatic threats. This chapter reviews the threats to apple production and the resulting need for new varieties of apple. It considers the advantages of using progenitor species of Malus × domestica in traditional breeding programs. It discusses the genetic diversity of apples, capturing and maintaining this diversity, and ensuring that researchers and breeders have access to living apple accessions. The roles of genebanks, such as the USDA-ARS National Plant Germplasm System, are emphasized in the discussion of how to meet these challenges. Finally, new technologies are considered as means to further facilitate the use of wild apple genetic resources in breeding programs.
K. Evans and C. Peace, Washington State University, USA
Advances in marker-assisted breeding of apples
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Breeding and selecting new improved cultivars by exploiting natural genetic diversity is an essential route forward in ensuring sustained and sustainable apple production. There can be no doubt that breeders have an expanding set of tools at their disposal to achieve these goals with the advent of marker-assisted (and DNA-informed) breeding. This chapter discusses the promise of marker-assisted breeding in apple and presents the advances that have been made, particularly over the past two decades, in practical application of genetic markers to breeding programmes, current tools and the impacts of this technology. A case study of genetic marker application in the Washington State University apple breeding program is also described. The chapter suggests what the near future may hold for marker-assisted breeding in apple. The rapid increase in genomic data will present its own challenges in terms of managing decision-making, although the result is surely enhanced efficiency, accuracy and pace of new apple cultivar development.
Bruno De Meulenaer, Raquel Medeiros Vinci and Frédéric Mestdagh, Ghent University, Belgium
Acrylamide formation in fried potato products and its mitigation
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Acrylamide is carcinogenic to rodents and also a ‘probable’ human carcinogen. No regulatory limits have yet been established on the levels of this contaminant in food, but food industries are nevertheless under pressure to find ways of reducing acrylamide formation. The greatest contribution to dietary acrylamide exposure comes from potato products, coffee, bakery products and chocolate. Acrylamide is formed in potato products during industrial processing, retail, catering and domestic preparation. This review summarizes the research to date on acrylamide levels in food, mechanisms of formation, assessment of acrylamide intake and health risks, regulatory measures and possible mitigation strategies from farm to fork in fried potato products. Issues regarding the implementation of mitigation strategies on an industrial scale are discussed and options for risk management are summarized.
Amit Dhingra, Washington State University, USA
The apple genome – harbinger of innovation for sustainable apple production
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Apple breeding programs are aimed at improving the agronomic and consumer traits of apples. While DNA-informed breeding doesn’t reduce the time between generations, it can enable the early elimination of undesirable seedlings, thus saving resources for the program. Combined with horticultural and biotechnological approaches to reduce generation times, DNA-informed breeding can enable the development of superior cultivars in an economically efficient way. In this chapter, we provide a brief overview of the development of genome sequencing technology, review the process of sequencing the apple genome and then consider how this information can be employed, both to develop new and better varieties of apple, and in the shorter term to improve current horticultural practices.
Maria Bowman, ERS-USDA, USA
The economics of soil health
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Soil health management practices and systems can be important tools for farmers to realize on-farm benefits associated with decreased erosion, improved levels of soil organic matter and improved soil structure and function. This chapter describes existing research on the economics of soil health (with a focus on the USA), with a particular focus on the adoption of soil health management practices by farmers and the effectiveness of incentives. The chapter identifies priorities for future research and provides a detailed list of additional resources for readers interested in topics related to the economics of soil health and soil health management practices.
Dr Prashant G. Kawar
Developing early-maturing and stress-resistant potato varieties
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Asian countries with a cereal-based cropping system face a tremendous food security challenge to feed their 4.3 billion people. Potato, being a complete food, can be a valid alternative. This chapter describes the selection of germplasm and traits for breeding early-maturing varieties of potato, exploring genetic aspects of earliness and breeding strategy. The chapter looks at early tuber initiation, high dry matter partitioning efficiency and basic factors that need to be taken into account when breeding for earliness in the potato. The chapter suggests breeding strategies for earliness and stress resistance and considers the genetic aspects. The chapter incorporates a detailed case study of developing an early-maturing, moderately late-blight-resistant Kufri Khyati potato variety for Indian plains. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Prof. Rainer Horn
Soil texture and structure: role in soil health
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Soil texture is a major parameter in quantifying basic soil properties. Healthy soils are well aggregated and provide a continuous pore system with high surface accessibility. They are well aerated, contain sufficient plant available water and provide a reliable filter and buffer capacity. This chapter discusses the effects of particle size and aggregate formation on soil properties, which affect soil health such as cation exchange capacity and hydraulic conductivity, as well as what optimal particle size and aggregate formation mean for soil management.
Dr Dugald C. Close
Advances in understanding apple tree growth: rootstocks and planting systems
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Recent research and development has investigated the factors influencing apple tree growth, with the ultimate aim of helping apple growers provide the market with fruit which is consistent in quality and which exhibits the features that consumers value, such as firmness, juiciness, colour and appropriate sugar–acid balance. This chapter begins with a review of important aspects of tree growth and development. It then discusses the importance of rootstocks, with an emphasis on the mechanisms and morphological effects of dwarfing. The chapter provides a brief introduction to the manipulation of tree growth and development and follows it up with a discussion of the effects of different planting systems.
Penny R. Hirsch, Rothamsted Research, UK
Soil microorganisms: role in soil health
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Soil is a complex environment that supports the largest, most diverse and resilient microbial community on the planet, essential for nutrient cycling and plant growth. The details of many soil microorganisms remain unknown, but the recent improvements in molecular methods for microbial ecology have made it possible to view the soil microbiome as a whole, providing information on its responses to changes in land-use and microbially-mediated functions relevant to agricultural sustainability and major geochemical cycles. This chapter discusses methods for investigating microorganisms in soil and the contribution of soil microorganisms to nutrient cycling in soil, as well as the impact on the soil microbiome of activities such as crop selection, land management and the use of agrochemicals such as fertilisers. The influence of the microbiome on crop health and yields is considered, and the potential for future exploitation of the soil microbiome is discussed.
Dr Skye Wills
Soil sampling for soil health assessment
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A successful soil health study or project requires thorough planning. Accurate results in soil health assessment can be difficult to obtain due to complications from spatial, temporal and managerial variability. A well-planned soil health sampling design will ensure that the resulting data are representative of the sample population and study objectives. This chapter focuses on three crucial stages of a successful soil health study: defining objectives and generating hypotheses, designing a suitable sampling plan and collecting data.
Professor Professor Jeffrey Mitchell
Managing irrigation for soil health in arid and semi-arid regions
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Irrigated arid and semi-arid regions of the world account for more than 40% of the global crop production. Managing soil health while simultaneously increasing water use efficiency in these areas is challenging, but critical to future global food security. This chapter describes production practices such as no-tillage and surface residue preservation that maximize both water infiltration into soil and soil water retention, reduce runoff and evaporation and thereby increase the productive flow of water via transpiration. The chapter summarizes recent information on the application of soil health management principles in irrigated and dry land arid and semi-arid environments, including examples of cost–benefit trade-offs associated with reduced-disturbance no-tillage systems and the use of cover crops. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and suggests further reading for those interested in researching further.
Pim Lindhout, Michiel de Vries, Menno ter Maat, Su Ying, Marcela Viquez-Zamora and Sjaak van Heusden, Solynta, The Netherlands
Hybrid potato breeding for improved varieties
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Hybrid potato breeding promises to create new cultivars within a few years. This would facilitate the introgression of genes by marker-assisted selection. In addition, hybrid cultivars can be made available as true seeds, free of soil-borne pathogens, quick to multiply and easy to transport and store. Self-incompatibility and inbreeding depression were previously thought to be prohibiting factors for hybrid potato breeding but have recently been overcome: nearly homozygous diploid inbred lines have been generated and the first experimental hybrids have been evaluated in the field. In this chapter, we review the scientific basis for hybrid potato breeding and highlight the features of our strategy for creating a hybrid breeding system in potato including propagation through seed. We discuss the recent progress made towards the development of useful hybrid varieties, and consider how the hybrid potato breeding technology platform will need to be adapted and optimized for different production systems.
Colin Jeffries and Christophe Lacomme, Science and Advice for Scottish Agriculture (SASA), UK
Viruses affecting potatoes
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The impact of viruses on potato production can be devastating in many areas worldwide. Breeding for agronomic and resistance traits, knowledge of virus species and their epidemiology, together with the development of accurate diagnostic methods have been essential for the development of crop management strategies, and helped certification programmes worldwide in maintaining high health standards. However, in developing countries, there are still major challenges in achieving these goals and, in particular, obtaining: high-quality seed potatoes, appropriate agronomic skills and cultivars that are adapted to a specific environment. In developed countries the challenge resides in increasing further harvestable yields for seed and ware potatoes to compensate for a decreasing arable surface area. There are more than forty virus species that infect potato, and their differing epidemiology poses a challenge for their management and control worldwide. Amongst these virus species, insect-transmitted viruses are the major cause of crop degeneration worldwide. The chapter addresses in detail the challenges posed by viruses in potato production and the challenges of managing and controlling potato-infecting viruses. It includes a case study on the transmission and distribution of aphid-transmitted viruses in field conditions, and looks ahead to future trends in this area, providing guidance on further reading.
Adrian Briddon, Adrian Cunnington and Glyn Harper, Sutton Bridge Crop Storage Research, UK
Post-harvest storage of potatoes
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Storage is one component of the field to fork cycle and good storage can maintain the quality of the input tubers with positive benefits for the rest of the supply chain. This chapter reviews the mechanisms underlying potato spoilage and discusses key techniques for storing potatoes to maintain quality and shelf life, with where possible and as little reliance on agrochemical usage as possible, to conform to current and forthcoming legislation. This is crucial to maximise the profit of potato production to enable progressive and sustainable agriculture. The principal tool available to the store manager is the control of air, as the means by which temperature and humidity are controlled, chemical treatments are delivered, oxygen is maintained and carbon dioxide removed. Pathological and physiological factors both impact on quality and these are discussed in relation to available current practical, effective, storage control methods.
Mark G. Kibblewhite, Cranfield University, UK and Landcare Research, New Zealand
Soil and soil health: an overview
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Soil health is an urgent concern because of the need to manage soil resources better to meet food and other security imperatives. The different meanings of soil ‘quality’ and ‘health’ are explained. Soil health is defined as an integrative property of the biotic and abiotic components of the soil system that describes its performance relative to its inherent potential. Options for assessing soil health are reviewed and a commentary provided on which of these may be most useful in practical agriculture. The importance of good governance of soil health is emphasised and some insights are presented about its management.
Prof. Sara G. Baer
Soil ecosystem services: an overview
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Ecosystem services provided by soil can be supporting (e.g. providing primary production and biodiversity) or regulatory (e.g. erosion control, water infiltration, nutrient retention, atmospheric gas regulation and pest control). This chapter explains how ecosystem services benefit human welfare through these functions, addressing the role of soil in the production of food, fibre and energy, erosion control and nutrient abatement. The chapter also examines how soil regulates infiltration of water, can mitigate greenhouse gases control pests and supports biodiversity. The chapter provides an extensive review of the literature for further reading on the subject and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
A. Fortuna, Washington State University, USA; A. Bhowmik, Pennsylvania State University, USA; and A. Bary and C. Cogger, Washington State University, USA
Biological indicators of soil health in organic cultivation
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This chapter reviews the range of physical, chemical and biological indicators of soil health and how they can be used in practice, in this case focussing on measuring soil health in organic vegetable cultivation and, in particular, the effects of adding organic amendments to soil. Measures include soil organic carbon (SOC), carbon (C) pools and biologically active carbon. The chapter also reviews use of biological indicators such as the use of functional gene copies of bacterial nitrifiers to measure the effects of amendments on soil biological health. The chapter identifies the need to develop standard protocols that simplify techniques, rendering them accessible, reproducible and economical for routine soil analyses.
Gilbert C. Sigua, USDA-ARS, USA
Effects of crop rotations and intercropping on soil health
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There has been an increasing interest in evaluating the health of soil resources motivated by the growing cognizance that soil is a critically important component of the earth’s biosphere, playing an important functional role not only in producing food and fibre, but also in maintaining ecosystem services and global environmental quality. There was a great deal of concern in developing management practices that improve the capacity of the soil to perform its various functions by identifying the physical, chemical and biological soil attributes and by quantifying the changes in the state of soil resulting from different agronomic practices. The goal of this chapter is to discuss the effects of crop rotation and intercropping management practices that are relevant to productivity and their impact on soil health enhancement and stability. This chapter will also attempt to contribute holistic appreciations of the importance of leguminous crops and soil organic matter in maintaining healthy soils, sustaining crop productivity and enhancing biodiversity.
Brian K. Slater, Ohio State University, USA
Soil health assessment and inventory: indices and databases
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It is increasingly appreciated that the soil resource embodies significant natural capital supporting valuable ecosystem services, yet soil natural capital and ecosystem services are threatened by land degradation at the same time as they become more central to efforts to expand food production to feed a growing population. This chapter explores the challenges for comprehensive soil health assessment, giving an account of soil health assessment frameworks and indices and indexing systems in active use. The chapter looks at practical on-farm assessment of soil health, including the use of soil health cards, crowdsourcing and citizen science. It also describes methods of mapping soil health and the use of soil property databases, concluding with a proposal for a multi-scale soil database framework. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Jerry Knox and Tim Hess, Cranfield University, UK
Advances in irrigation management and technology in potato cultivation: experiences from a humid climate
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For many farmers, irrigation is an essential component of potato production, serving to maximise yields and meet quality assurance targets for retailers and consumers. In recent years, rising costs for labour and energy (pumping) have led to considerable attention being given to improving on-farm irrigation efficiency and water productivity, or ‘more crop per drop’. This chapter focuses on recent advances in both in-field water management (notably irrigation scheduling) and application equipment, including the challenges in implementing precision irrigation technologies to improve productivity and reduce water demands. The chapter reports evidence relating to research and practitioner experiences from the United Kingdom, which has a humid climate and where irrigation is supplemental to rainfall, but the issues raised and measures proposed are equally applicable to other environments where water resources for agriculture are under scrutiny and potatoes are an important commodity crop.
Dr Dr Promil Mehra
Soil health and climate change: a critical nexus
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A healthy soil has the capacity to sustain biological activity, maintain environmental quality and promote plant and animal health. This chapter reviews the impact of climate change on the key components of soil health, including soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Holistically, under the nexus of climate change and farming systems, this chapter also reviews some of the key management practices that have been demonstrated to improve soil health and deliver climate benefits. To address the conundrum of building soil health under a changing climate, this chapter proposes a framework for wider implementation of sustainable management approaches for improving soil health globally. The chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area, including multidisciplinary collaboration and communications, and provides guidance on further reading on the subject.
A. Lees, The James Hutton Institute, UK
Fungal diseases affecting potato storage
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Fungal and oomycete pathogens responsible for causing potato storage diseases are both numerous and ubiquitous wherever potatoes are grown. These diseases can result in losses of 5–10% during storage, with additional losses caused in the field in subsequent growing seasons for affected seed crops. Previous research has tended to focus on individual diseases and their management, but there is a growing need to understand the bigger picture. This chapter considers the issue in three stages: identifying the causal pathogens, understanding the epidemiology of the diseases and managing disease in the field and during storage. A detailed case study of Fusarium dry rot is presented to illustrate how improved understanding of diseases can be used to ensure more effective management.
Curtis M. Frederick
Advances in understanding potato plant physiology and growth
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Potato physiology determines how genetically-encoded developmental attributes interact with local environmental conditions, as modified through agricultural practice, to produce the final crop. This chapter highlights how physiological responses of potato to management choices made by growers and environmental conditions during growth and post-harvest storage determine yield, quality and sustainability. The development of the potato plant is described and special emphasis is given to the interdependence of tuber growth and canopy development. Key aspects of the root system architecture are reviewed. The chapter discusses research assessing the sensitivity of potato yield to water and nutrient availability, highlighting the adverse effects of water deficits and high temperatures on tuber growth, quality and overall sustainability.
Kim Davie and Jon Pickup, Science and Advice for Scottish Agriculture (SASA), UK
Nematode pests of potatoes
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Potatoes are particularly susceptible to attack from nematodes, with around 70 species from 24 genera several different reported. Nematodes reduce the value of the harvested crop by affecting yield, tuber size and marketability or indirectly through the transmission of viruses. After introducing nematodes and nematode pests of potato, this chapter describes quarantine regulations affecting potatoes with regard to nematodes, before outlining techniques of nematode management. Finally, the chapter describes the major nematode pests of potatoes, outlines future trends in research and suggests further reading on the subject.
Peng Zhang, Weijuan Fan, Hongxia Wang, Yinliang Wu and Wenzhi Zhou, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China; and Jun Yang, Shanghai Chenshan Plant Science Research Center, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, China
Developing new sweet potato varieties with improved performance
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Novel sweet potato varieties with improved traits are needed, especially for marginal lands and disease-prone regions. However, the high degree of heterozygosity, high levels of male sterility, and self- and interspecific incompatibility of the sweet potato plant results in strong segregation of hybrid progenies. Molecular breeding provides a promising approach for the development of new varieties with value-added traits. This chapter reviews the development and application of genetic transformation and trait improvement to sweet potato, including the development of sweet potato plants which are resistant to disease and abiotic stress, and sweet potatoes with improved starch quality and higher anthocyanin content.
Richard W. Zobel, USDA-ARS, USA
Plant–soil interactions: an overview
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Plant–soil interactions are the prime mechanism for integrating the impacts of the aerial environment, animals (including plant shoot symbionts and pathogens), plant shoot physiology, plant root physiology and structure, the soil microbiome and soil chemistry and structure into what is commonly termed soil health. This chapter addresses three aspects of this chain: interactions of the shoot with the roots, interactions between the roots and the microbiome, and interactions between the root system and the soil physical and structural characteristics. The chapter looks ahead to future developments in this area of research.
Moses Nyongesa and Nancy Ng’ang’a, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kenya
Improving potato cultivation to promote food self-sufficiency in Africa
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Demand for potato in sub-Saharan Africa is growing, but the projected growth in demand is not matched by the projected growth rate in local potato production. An interplay of factors ensure the production gains achieved are small and slow. This chapter reviews the current state of potato production in Africa, and the challenges it faces. We review the development and promotion of suitable potato varieties, consider crop improvement initiatives and programs, and emphasise the potential of potato to contribute to food security and poverty reduction.
E. A. Stockdale, Head of Farming Systems Research, NIAB, UK
Nutrient cycling in soils
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Sustainable agricultural systems must enable profitable production of sufficient high-quality crops to meet human demands while simultaneously minimising off-site impacts. Though simple chemical equilibrium plays a part, nutrient cycling processes in soil are largely the outcome of biochemical processes resulting from the activity and interactions of a huge diversity of soil organisms. Hence soil health is central to nutrient cycling. Decomposition and cycling of C are the central processes driving almost all soil nutrient cycles. The size, diversity and activity of the soil community are affected by complex interactions between physical, chemical and plant community factors within the soil, as well as farm management practices and local climate. New research methods continue to provide increasing insight into the biological and geochemical interactions within soil nutrient cycles. But this research must be conducted in partnership with farmers and agronomists to develop effective site-specific nutrient management approaches and increase the sustainability of farming systems, whilst maintaining soil health.
John Bamberg and Shelley Jansky, USDA-ARS, USA; Alfonso del Rio, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA; and Dave Ellis, International Potato Center (CIP), Peru
Ensuring the genetic diversity of potatoes
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Preserving genetic diversity lies at the heart of improvements in breeding and resilience in potato cultivation. This chapter discusses the challenges, opportunities and recent accomplishments of potato gene banks in the areas of acquisition, classification, preservation, evaluation and distribution of genetic stocks and information, as well as offering a legal perspective on access to genetic materials. The chapter reviews routes for acquisition of potato genetic material, together with methods for its classification and preservation. The chapter also discusses the evaluation and enhancement of potato genetic material, before looking at issues of control and assess to minimise problems such as transmission of disease.
Liping Jin, Chinese Academy Of Agricultural Sciences, China
Potato production and breeding in China
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China is the largest potato producer in the world, accounting for a quarter of total global production. The potato has become the fourth most important food crop in China, following corn, rice and wheat. The development of the potato industry has significantly helped to alleviate poverty, improve food security and increase farmers’ incomes. This chapter provides a systematic and comprehensive review of the Chinese potato industry. Topics addressed include potato germplasm collection and evaluation, variety breeding, cultivation and planting patterns. Seed potato propagation is also covered.
Humberto Blanco-Canqui, University of Nebraska, USA
Conservation grass hedges and soil health parameters
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Grass hedges, narrow (
Vijay Kumar Dua, Sanjay Rawal, Sukhwinder Singh and Jagdev Sharma, ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, India
Improving potato cultivation practices: an overview
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Environmental and food safety concerns are driving potato research towards the development of sustainable practices. Soil and planting management, as well as cultivation practices, are directly related to increased marketable yield and quality and are of great importance for quick crop emergence, better growth and quality. Based on research and development in India and abroad, this chapter explores the adoption of production technologies by potato growers in the Indo-Gangetic plains. The chapter provides an overview of potato cultivation in India before considering techniques of soil management, seed bed preparation and planting, and potato cultivation. The chapter then moves on to consider the contribution of green manures and cover crops to potato nutrient management, as well as the impact of irrigation, mechanisation and conservation agriculture.
Jai Gopal, ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, India
Advances in conventional potato-breeding techniques
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Potato is highly heterozygous. In order to maintain productivity, improved potato varieties are therefore developed by inter-mating desired parental lines and selecting superior clones from the progeny. Since potato is vegetatively propagated, any selected genotype can be fixed with all its intra- and inter-locus interactions responsible for phenotypic expression, and multiplied for commercial cultivation if desired. Recent advances in molecular breeding provide opportunities for rapid genetic gain (Slater et al. 2014a). Nevertheless, phenotypic selection remains the common practice in conventional potato-breeding programmes. Nearly all new varieties of potato still emerge from a process free from use of molecular technologies. This chapter reviews the progress and advances made in phenotypic selection techniques of conventional potato breeding. The role of molecular approaches in improving phenotypic selection is also described briefly.
Paul C. Struik, Wageningen University and Research, the Netherlands
Understanding ageing processes in seed potatoes
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The physiological quality of seed tubers is very important for the performance of the crop grown from them, and interacts strongly with seed tuber size. Physiological quality consists of two components: dormancy and physiological age. This chapter reviews the conditions which influence both dormancy and physiological age, and the effects of seed quality on various aspects of crop performance. Future research should aim for a reliable, cheap indicator of physiological age that can predict the performance of the crop grown from the seed under different conditions and for different outlets.
Robert J. Kremer, University of Missouri, USA
Pesticide use and biodiversity in soils
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Pesticides are applied to agricultural systems in high quantities relative to other synthetic compounds and therefore have considerable effects on soil microbial communities and their functions. Although pesticides undergo considerable evaluation for efficacy in controlling target pests in agroecosystems and non-agricultural sites, effects on soil and environmental organisms and their activities receive minimal attention beyond specific environmental impacts required by regulatory agencies. Limited research has found that pesticides used in agricultural management systems influence both structural and functional biodiversity in soils, which are important components of soil health. The objectives of this chapter are to present the mechanisms by which pesticides affect soil microbial diversity and describe management systems developed to limit impacts of pesticides on soil and environmental health.
A. Fortuna, Washington State University, USA; A. Bhowmik, Pennsylvania State University, USA; and A. Bary and C. Cogger, Washington State University, USA
Managing soil health in organic cultivation
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Although organic standards do not refer directly to soil health, organic agriculture has the potential to improve soil health and environmental services by promoting soil conservation and reducing greenhouse gases. This chapter presents findings from a field experiment which continuously monitored the soil health of an organically managed production system from 2003 to 2014. The experiments focus on intensive organic vegetable crop production systems typical of experienced fresh market growers. The research sought to evaluate short- and long-term effects of various different management systems, including crop rotations, cover crops and animal amendments. We discuss the impact of these measures in terms of nutrient release, soil health, greenhouse gas emissions and ecosystem structure and function.
Putri Ernawati Abidin and Edward Carey, International Potato Center (CIP), Ghana
Improving the breeding, cultivation and use of sweetpotato in Africa
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Sweetpotato is a low-input crop with significant potential for improving public health and nutrition and developing food security in sub-Saharan Africa. This chapter examines the nutritional contribution made by OFSP (orange-fleshed sweetpotato) in poor rural communities in Malawi, Ghana, Nigeria and Burkina Faso; sustainable breeding and seed systems; and effective commercialisation and marketing to benefit the communities concerned. The chapter includes detailed case studies from Ghana and Malawi and offers suggestions for future trends for research in this area.
Dr Pandi Zdruli
Maintaining soil health in dryland areas
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Drylands cover 40% of the global terrestrial space and are home for 2 billion people, often the most vulnerable. Land use is dominated by rangelands and much less by croplands, while barren areas with sparse vegetation mixed with rock outcrops are widespread. In spite of their hostile nature, drylands host 50% of global livestock and 30% of all present grown crops originate from them. This chapter addresses critical research issues needed to maintain soil health in the drylands, including nutrient cycling, preservation of soil biota, carbon sequestration, erosion control, rainwater harvesting and irrigation efficiency. The chapter examines the options for improving dryland soil health and provides a case study from Egypt, as well as looking ahead to future trends in this area and suggesting detailed further reading on the topic.
Santanu Bakshi and Chumki Banik, Iowa State University, USA; and Zhenli He, University of Florida, USA
The impact of heavy metal contamination on soil health
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Heavy metal pollution often results in the degradation of soil health. The term ‘soil health’ or ‘soil quality’ is used to express the status of the soil’s functional ability in the ecosystem, as indicated by its physical, chemical and biological properties. Contamination of heavy metals above threshold values can destroy the soil’s natural ability to perform ecosystem services, a change which can be irreversible. Heavy metal contamination of soils is a global challenge that needs to be resolved by the joint efforts of governments and scientific communities. The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the available literature regarding sources, impacts, indicators, risk assessment, remediation and the future problems of heavy metals in relation to soil and human health, and to provide directions for the improvement of soil management and the development of effective pollution control strategies.
Eleanor E. Campbell, University of New Hampshire, USA; and John L. Field and Keith Paustian, Colorado State University, USA
Modelling soil organic matter dynamics as a soil health indicator
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The presence of soil organic matter (SOM) is seen as essential for soil health. Modelling SOM in soils helps researchers and farmers understand and predict the effects of different cultivation practices on changes in SOM. This chapter reviews key issues in SOM modelling and the development of increasingly sophisticated, dynamic SOM models. It looks at the role of SOM models in improving soil health monitoring and developing decision support tools for farmers.
Ankush Prashar and Filipe de Jesus Colwell, Newcastle University, UK; and Csaba Hornyik and Glenn J. Bryan, The James Hutton Institute, UK
Advances in development of potato varieties resistant to abiotic stress
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Abiotic stresses namely drought, salinity, high or low temperature, submergence, nutrient deficiency and so forth have an impact on potato yields. These suboptimal conditions restrict potato plant performance so that the plants do not reach their full genetic potential. This chapter examines different abiotic stress improvement targets in the potato as well as the variety of tools and techniques being developed and used for crop improvement for abiotic stresses. The chapter reviews technological advances to develop abiotic stress resistance in potatoes and tolerant varieties, especially through genetic engineering, and looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Jane Rickson, Cranfield University, UK
Mechanisms of soil erosion/degradation
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Soil degradation threatens soil health in terms of soils functioning as complex living biological systems, delivering multiple ecosystem goods and services. For example, soil erosion removes the most fertile topsoil, reducing soil depth and soil health, which leads to poor crop growth. This impacts on the economic sustainability of farmers’ livelihoods. This chapter identifies different types of soil degradation, focusing on soil erosion by water. Soil erosion processes are described, and how these change soil properties that relate directly to crop growth, including soil depth, water-holding capacity, biota, carbon content and nutrient reserves. The causal links between soil erosion and crop production are presented, including attempts to quantify the economic costs incurred. It is likely that current impacts and costs will increase further under climate change, increasing the need for effective soil erosion mitigation measures that also enhance soil health.
Bijay-Singh, Punjab Agricultural University, India
Optimising fertiliser use to maintain soil health
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Maintaining the health of soils, and therefore their capacity to carry out the ecosystem functions necessary for sustainable food production, is a complex and evolving area of science. This chapter examines management of mineral fertilisers and organic manures in relation to its effects on soil health in terms of soil organic carbon and nitrogen, soil acidification and soil microbiology. The chapter discusses the optimisation of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilisers use, together with their interactions and interdependency. The chapter considers agricultural systems and practices and offers suggestions for future areas of research.
Francis J. Larney, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada
Manure and compost management to maintain soil health
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This chapter discusses the role of manure and compost in maintaining soil health in relation to the use of inorganic fertilizer. It reviews best management practices in using manure and the effects of increased manure use, including resolving problems related to excess manure. The chapter reviews ways of integrating livestock and crop production to optimise soil health, and includes a case study on the legacy effect of a one-time manure application on crop yield and soil health.
