R. Srinivasan, AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center, Taiwan
Bio-ecology of major insect and mite pests of tomato crops in the tropics
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In tropical climates, tomato production is severely constrained by insect and mite pests. The use of broad-spectrum chemical pesticides can make this problem worse, since it can eliminate the natural enemies of these pests. Changes in cropping system and the impacts of a warming climate can also alterthe damage potential of pest infestations. Understanding the bio-ecology of these pests is therefore essential to developing effective strategies to manage them. In this chapter, we review recent research on the bio-ecology of the major insect and mite pests affecting tomato crops, including aphids, thrips, whitefly, various Lepidopteran species and spider mites. In each case, we consider how the pest affects the tomato plant, the natural enemies of the pest and how global warming could impact each pest
Dr Rianto van Antwerpen
Advances in harvesting and transport of sugarcane
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The chapter describes preparation of sugarcane for harvesting, harvesting options, in-field loading and transport. It considers two harvesting systems: manual and mechanical harvesting, each of which is affected by whether the crop is burnt or not burnt immediately before harvest. The chapter explores the advantages and disadvantages of each method and suggests directions for future development in this field.
Kaustav Majumder, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, USA and Yoshinori Mine, University of Guelph, Canada
Composition and properties of egg white
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Eggs are the most economical and abundant source of high-quality dietary protein, and are noteworthy for both their nutritional and functional properties. This chapter provides detailed information about the structure, chemical composition and functionality of egg white. Section 2 reviews the structure of egg white, and Section3 offers an overview of the proteins in egg white. Sections 4–9 then provide a detailed review of nine important proteins. Finally, Section 10 covers carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins as minor components of egg white.
E. A. Heinrichs, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA; F. Nwilene, The Africa Rice Center, Nigeria; M. Stout, Louisiana State University, USA; B. Hadi, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), The Philippines; and T. Freitas, Universidade Federal Rio
Management of rice insect pests
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Rice farmers face many abiotic and biotic constraints in their quest to increase rice production. In conjunction with the introduction of new high yielding drought and flood tolerant rice varieties, increasing yields will require a reduction in losses to insect pests. This chapter discusses current strategies for managing rice insect pests in an environmentally sustainable manner. It reviews integrated pest management (IPM) as it applies to rice cultivation, and includes discussions of the impacts of cultural practices, conservation biological control and augmentative biological control, and the selective use of insecticides. Finally, dissemination mechanisms for rice IPM are considered.
Dr Dr Bernadette O'Brien
Chemical contaminants in milk
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Developments in analytical technology now allow the identification of some contaminants in milk that were not previously considered. It is critically important that mechanisms are devised to eliminate or reduce these contaminants below the maximum limit allowed by food safety regulations. Thus, the development, metabolization, measurement and reduction process of contaminants in milk must be understood and addressed. These processes are examined in this chapter through three case studies involving dietary iodine, veterinary medicines (specifically flukicides) and cleaning and disinfection agents containing chlorine as the active ingredient.
Per McCord, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in marker-assisted breeding of sugarcane
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Sugarcane breeding has until very recently been based solely on phenotype, and marker-assisted breeding of sugarcane remains in its infancy compared with that of row crops such as maize and soybean. A major reason for this is the complex genetics of sugarcane. This chapter reviews the uses of DNA marker technology in fingerprinting and diversity analysis of sugarcane. This is followed by a review of the development of linkage maps and initial trait/QTL mapping, including the Bru1 locus for resistance to brown rust (Puccinia melanocephala). Finally, the chapter reviews the use of newer next-generation sequencing–based technologies in sugarcane, including genome-wide association analysis and genomic selection.
Michael E. Dikeman, Kansas State University, USA
Beef carcass grading and classification
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This chapter reviews the three main beef carcass grading or classification systems used across three continents. These are used for a large proportion of beef production and processing in the world. One is the ‘EUROP’ system for EU countries, another is the USDA Beef Carcass Grading system in the United States and the third is the Meat Standards Australia system in Australia. The chapter also discusses grading in Japan.
Dr Piya Kittipadakul
Breeding cassava for higher yield
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Cassava is a root crop that adapts well to a wide range of environments. A key factor for grower decisions regarding when to plant cassava is whether a profit can be expected from the crop; increasingly, only cassava growers with high productivity can survive in the volatile price environment. This chapter reviews the strategies and factors for success in cassava breeding for higher yield, including the importance of genetic diversity and breeding schemes. There is a particular focus on Thailand, which has hosted some of the most successful breeding programmes involved in improving cassava varieties over a period of more than 40 years.
Ingrid C. de Jong and Rick A. van Emous, Wageningen Livestock Research, The Netherlands
Broiler breeding flocks: management and animal welfare
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Broiler breeders are the parent stock of broiler chickens. Appropriate management in the rearing and the production period is essential to produce a high number of fertile eggs and high-quality broiler chickens. However, research has shown that current management practices may affect the welfare state of broiler breeders, during both the rearing and the production period. This chapter describes the housing and management of broiler breeders. It then reviews the major welfare issues related to the management of broiler breeders, including feed and water restriction, excisions and the potential for management strategies to have transgenerational effects.
James Anderson, University of Minnesota, USA
Advances in disease-resistant wheat varieties
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The strategies used in breeding disease-resistant wheat are informed by the importance and frequency of the disease, availability of resistant germplasm, genetics of resistance and means of selecting for resistance. Gene mapping to identify regions of the genome controlling important traits has been an important tool for plant geneticists and breeders. This chapter includes a case study of breeding for FHB resistance, illustrating the challenges and opportunities with an episodic disease, introgression of resistance genes from non-adapted germplasm and utilization of DNA marker technology. The use of quantitative trait locus mapping and breeding programme to develop rust-resistant germplasm are also described.
B. N. Harsh and D. D. Boler, University of Illinois, USA
Branded beef programmes
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The emergence of branded beef programmes has had tremendous impact on the beef industry worldwide. As a means to ensure consumer satisfaction and as a tool for differentiation, branding strategies have changed over the years, yet the basic principles of a successful beef brand have not. This chapter will discuss the factors that define successful brands, history and growth of branded beef programmes, the effects of brands on consumer perception, changing consumer demands, including natural and organic beef, international beef branding trends and the role of technology in improving the position of branded beef programmes.
Jacqueline Jacob and Anthony Pescatore, University of Kentucky, USA
Assessing the sustainability of organic egg production
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Organic food production has increased in popularity in the last few decades, although it still remains a small portion of global food production. As questions arise about the sustainability of conventional egg production systems with regard to environmental protection and animal welfare, there has been a push to move away for the caged-rearing systems used in conventional egg production. The question arises: Do organic production systems increase the welfare of the birds and, at the same time, reduce environmental impact. Comparisons of the two broad definitions of egg production systems show that neither system is ideal. Any poultry production system has scope for improvement and thus has the potential to reduce its environmental impact and improve animal welfare.
Thushari Lakmini Wijeratne, Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka
Assessing and reducing the environmental impact of tea cultivation
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Tea is one of the most popular beverages in the world. Consequently it has become an important plantation crop in many countries. As a perennial crop occupying a large proportion of arable land, assessing its environmental impact would benefit the economy of tea growing countries immensely. This chapter reviews the impact of the tea industry on the environment and human activity. It covers the life cycle assessment methodology tailored to tea production, covering cultivation to final waste disposal, its carbon footprint as well as all the other different on- and off-farm impacts caused by the tea industry. Further possible measures to minimize these impacts are also discussed. Two case studies address the CO2 sink/source nature of tea plantations as the cultivation stage is one of the most significant contributors to the carbon footprint of tea. There is a growing awareness of the environmental impact of any commodity on the market. Therefore, the future trends in research requirements for the sustainability of the tea industry are also briefly explained.
Paul A. Iji, Mehdi Toghyani, Emmanuel U. Ahiwe and Apeh A. Omede, University of New England, Australia
Alternative sources of protein for poultry nutrition
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Soya bean and canola meal are the conventional ingredients used to provide protein in poultry feed. However, they are relatively expensive and must be imported to many poultry-producing areas. Developing alternative protein sources for poultry nutrition will reduce the pressure on these key protein sources, as well as promote the development and sustainability of the poultry industry. In this chapter, we first review the supply of conventional protein sources for poultry, and then consider the range of alternative protein sources that might be developed, including grain by-products, oil seed and fruit by-products, pulses, algae, duckweed and certain animal protein sources. We consider how birds respond to diets containing alternative protein sources, and provide recommendations for improving the nutritive value of these alternative sources.
E.E. Large, E. Beche, D. Mutoni and A. Scaboo, University of Missouri, USA
Advances in conventional soybean breeding techniques
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Soybean cultivar selection techniques and advances in variety development continue to evolve. The planning that goes into selecting superior soybean varieties is currently complicated by changing environments, a growing global population and decreasing productive farmland. In this chapter, the most recent developments in modern conventional soybean breeding techniques are described in relation to sustainable soybean production.
David S. Buchanan, North Dakota State University, USA
Advances and constraints in conventional breeding of pigs
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Traditional methods of genetic improvement, both through selection programmes and proper use of breed differences and heterosis, have been effective in improving production efficiency. This improvement has been realized primarily in reproductive performance, growth rate and carcass composition. This chapter begins with a historical overview of advances in pig breeding from the end of Second World War. There remain needs for improvement in traits associated with efficiency, disease resistance, behaviour and longevity, and the next two sections review new approaches to genetic improvement with a focus on these traits.
Hermann Buerstmayr, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Austria; Volker Mohler, Bavarian State Research Center for Agriculture, Germany; and Mohan Kohli, Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology, Paraguay
Advances in control of wheat diseases: Fusarium head blight, wheat blast and powdery mildew
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Fusarium head blight, wheat blast and powdery mildew are among the serious damaging diseases of wheat, which are caused by fungi of Ascomycota phylum. Integrated approaches are mandatory for efficient control of all three diseases. Control measures may either contribute to reducing the abundance of inoculum (particularly ascospores or conidia) or hamper infection and/or disease development should inoculum be present. This chapter provides insight into agronomic control measures of all three diseases, including adoption of resistant cultivars. Case studies of genomics-assisted resistance breeding are also discussed. For all three diseases, in addition to genetic control, designing optimal integrated control strategies and refining real-time, site-specific decision support systems are essential.
Lukas Pfiffner and Laura Armengot, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Switzerland
Biodiversity as a prerequisite of sustainable organic farming
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Over the last century, the intensification of agriculture with high inputs of synthetic pesticides and fertilisers combined with monocrop specialisation has been detrimental to the diversity of genetic resources of crop varieties and livestock breeds, to the wild flora and fauna species and to the diversity of ecosystems. Higher levels of biodiversity can strengthen farming systems and its resilience under changing environmental conditions. This chapter gives an overview of the impact of organic farming on biodiversity. The chapter considers land-use intensity, the impact of organic farming on biodiversity, biodiversity at different spatial scales and the impact of organic farming on selected functional groups. Finally, the chapter discusses some examples of the application of functional agro-biodiversity to boost key ecosystem services on organic farms, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Young W. Park. Fort Valley State University, USA
Bioactive components in cow’s milk
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Milk contains many bioactive compounds with health benefits beyond simple nutrition. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of bioactives in milk and research on their nutraceutical properties. These include bioactive proteins such as caseins, whey proteins such as α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin and enzymes such as lactoperoxidase and lysozyme. The chapter then reviews bioactive peptides with antihypertensive, antioxidative peptides, antithrombotic and other therapeutic properties before going on to cover bioactive lipids such as conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), phospholipids and cholesterol. It concludes by discussing bioactive arbohydrates such as lactose and oligosaccharides, other bioactive compounds such as growth factors, cytokines, polyamines, nucleosides and nucleotides as well as bioactive minerals and vitamins.
S. Ivemeyer, University of Kassel, Germany; and A. Bieber and A. Spengler Neff, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Switzerland
Organic dairy farming: key characteristics, opportunities, advantages and challenges
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As the organic dairy farming sector grows across Europe, it is necessary to continuously review its various merits and challenges within the organic sector and in comparison with conventional farming methods. Drawing together empirical findings from across the Europe, this chapter summarises some of the major issues surrounding organic dairy farming, such as the effects on herd health, regulations around pasture access and different methods of calf rearing. It then considers a number of current ‘hot topics’ in this area, including the self-sufficiency of concentrated feeds and the effect of organic methods on udder health. The chapter concludes that organic dairy farming presents many potential benefits, but notes that improvements are necessary, particularly in the area of animal health. It emphasises that solutions to current problems must be site-specific, while observing that particularly successful strategies could serve as helpful models in both organic and conventional dairy farms.
Joseph E. Knoll, USDA-ARS, USA
Advanced technologies to accelerate sorghum breeding
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Sorghum is a critically important crop, yet advanced technologies for its improvement have lagged behind other crops like rice and maize. This chapter first summarizes some of the current technologies beyond conventional breeding methods that can be utilized for crop improvement in sorghum. Some of these techniques have been around for many years, while others, such as marker-assisted breeding, have only recently become widely adopted by sorghum breeders. This chapter then explores some newer technologies, some of which are already common practice in other crops, that have potential applications in sorghum, including doubled haploid breeding and transgenic technology.
Addressing nutritional disorders in cassava cultivation
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Cassava is drought-tolerant and grows reasonably well in relatively infertile soils where other crops would fail. However, production could be further increased if important soil-related constraints are addressed. In order to supply cassava plants with the nutrients required for optimal production, it is important to know about their nutritional requirements, diagnose correctly any deficiency or toxicity, and use adequate measures to correct these problems. This chapter describes these points for each nutrient. It also provides detailed discussion of the soil and nutrient management strategies most suitable for the three main cassava-growing regions: Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.
Dr Christopher J. Richards
Beef cattle nutrition and its effects on beef quality
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Previous dogmas suggested that body composition and subsequent carcass characteristics of beef cattle are primarily tied to mature body weight and fat thickness. Subsequent research suggests that marbling can occur at different stages of growth when sufficient nutrition is provided and that the relationship between total fat and marbling is not constant. Combined with increasing consumer demands and coordination within beef systems, opportunities exist to develop systems that capitalize on marbling and overall palatability at points throughout the production system to provide consumers with a high-quality, consistent beef product.
Alison R. Bentley and Ian Mackay, NIAB, United Kingdom
Advances in wheat breeding techniques
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Wheat production must be increased to meet growing demand, making it critical to increase the rate of genetic gain in wheat breeding. This chapter reviews the suit of core breeding methodologies currently applied, including methods proposed and employed for their advancement. It also discusses technologies, including genomic selection, F1 hybrids, genetic engineering, gene editing and mutation breeding, which, although not all new, offer exciting opportunities to advance wheat breeding.
Jehangir H. Bhadha, University of Florida, USA; and Bernard L. Schroeder, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Best management practices for maintaining water quality in sugarcane cultivation
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Best Management Practices (BMPs) in agricultural crops are farming methods that assure optimum plant growth, profitable yields and minimized adverse environmental effects. This chapter focusses on the achievement of BMPs in maintaining water quality for sugarcane cultivation, drawing on evidence from two well-established long-term BMP programs providing a measure of water quality management: the BMP program (SmartCane) adopted by the Australian Sugar Industry, and the BMP program adapted by growers in the Everglades Agricultural Area in South Florida, USA. The chapter addresses the importance of understanding nitrogen cycling to maintaining water quality and thereby sustainability of sugarcane production.
S. F. Ledgard, AgResearch Ruakura Research Centre, New Zealand
Assessing the environmental impact of sheep production
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Sheep production may impact locally on water, air and soil quality, as well as globally, for example contributing to greenhouse gas emissions. Sheep production can also impact biodiversity, human health via various pollutants, and community and cultural well-being. This chapter examines how life cycle assessment (LCA) can be used as a tool to quantify multiple resource use and environmental impacts. A detailed comparative case study of sheep production in France and New Zealand using LCA examines how potentially harmful emissions can be assessed and measured at each stage in the life cycle of sheep products, so that the most damaging stages can be identified and steps can be taken to mitigate them. The chapter offers indications of future trends in research in this area.
Glen Hartman, ARS-USDA and University of Illinois, USA
Bacterial and viral diseases affecting soybean production
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Pathogens of soybean include bacteria, fungi, nematodes, oomycetes, parasitic plants and viruses. Losses due to diseases are estimated to be about 14% of total soybean production. In this chapter, we review bacterial blight, pustule, tan spot and wilt, as well as a few other bacterial diseases affecting soybean. We then discuss a few of the viral diseases of soybean, namely alfalfa mosaic virus, bean pod mottle virus, soybean mosaic virus, soybean vein necrosis virus, tobacco ringspot virus and tobacco streak virus. We also consider how the impact of bacterial and viral pathogens can be decreased through management practices such as crop rotation, utilization of pathogen-free seed, better use of synthetic and non-synthetic pesticides for vector control and deployment of cultivars with resistance.
Nicola Bradbear, Bees for Development, UK
Organic and natural beekeeping, and caring for insect pollinators
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The pollination of flowering plants is crucial for the maintenance of earth’s biodiversity, and most food crops depend upon insect pollinators. Unfortunately, conventional agricultural practices tend to diminish the numbers of wild insect pollinators while increasing our need for them. This chapter introduces the numerous ways in which some bee species are managed for optimal pollination of crops, as well as for harvest of honey, beeswax and other bee products. The chapter discusses conventional, natural and organic beekeeping practices, as well as possible ways to encourage biodiversity and abundance of indigenous pollinating insects.
Georgios Arsenos, Angeliki Argyriadou, Sotiria Vouraki and Athanasios Gelasakis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Organic sheep and goat farming: opportunities and challenges
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Organic goat and sheep farming is a highly diverse type of production throughout Europe and other continents. Current practices are geared to achieve a number of objectives, including sustainability and high standards of animal welfare. This chapter aims to characterize organic goat and sheep farming and illustrate the diversity of systems, with a special focus on European countries. The chapter discusses a range of challenges faced by organic sheep and goat production together with some of the ways in which these challenges can be addressed. Challenges examined include nutrient deficiencies, parasitic diseases, udder diseases, lameness, claw and leg problems. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Frédéric Normand
Advances in understanding mango tree growth and canopy development
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The mango tree canopy acts not only as a carbohydrate factory, through photosynthesis, and as a support for reproduction; it is also the place where vegetative growth occurs and the tree develops. The spatial and temporal proximity of vegetative and reproductive growth in the mango tree canopy leads to complex interactions. This chapter reviews the current state of knowledge on vegetative growth and deciphers these interactions, in order to inform more efficiently cultivation practices and future research. It presents the architectural model of the mango tree. The basic structural entity, the growth unit, is then defined and its morphology, growth and development are reviewed. The chapter then discusses the relationships between the growth unit and canopy development, along with the effects of environmental and endogenous factors on tree phenology. Finally, the interactions between vegetative and reproductive growth are described, leading to a complex picture of the mango tree canopy.
Wensheng Hou, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China
Advances in the genetic modification of soybeans
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Transgenic soybean holds a significant share of the soybean market. However, the traits improved by genetic modification of soybean so far remain limited, with herbicide tolerance being the primary trait exhibited by genetically modified (GM) soybean. Several other agronomic traits could be usefully improved, such as insect resistance, oil composition and amino acid composition. Valuable genes and efficient transformation systems are the key requirements for the improvement of GM soybean. In this chapter, we describe recent advances in the genetic modification of important agronomic traits of soybean, and review the genome editing technology available.
Dr Dr Alfredo J. Escribano
Integrated crop-livestock systems with agroforestry to improve organic animal farming
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The International Federation of Organic Movements (IFOAM) has established four fundamental principles which underpin organic farming. One way of achieving these principles is the use of integrated crop-livestock systems, which is very common for well-balanced organic systems with animals. This chapter reviews types of such systems, with a focus on agroforestry systems, their potential environmental and economic benefits, their contributions to animal health and welfare, as well as challenges in implementing and managing such systems whilst ensuring a high animal health and welfare level.
Dorothy McKeegan, University of Glasgow, UK
Beak trimming of laying hens: welfare costs and benefits
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Beak trimming is a procedure routinely applied in the egg industry to prevent feather pecking and cannibalism. The traditional method of trimming by application of a hot blade (HB) has been superseded by infrared (IR) beak trimming. Both methods are associated with acute pain, but there is evidence that IR trimming has welfare advantages over HB trimming. Injurious pecking in laying hens remains a complex and intractable problem and unpredictable pecking outbreaks are more likely and more severe in intact beak flocks. Beak trimming is still the most effective preventative strategy available and, while it remains the case that we cannot reliably control injurious pecking under commercial conditions, the welfare costs imposed by IR beak trimming are probably justified.
J. P. Hill, Fonterra Cooperative Group, New Zealand
Assessing the overall impact of the dairy sector
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Dairy is the number one agricultural commodity by value, provides livelihoods for 1 billion people and is key to enriching diets the world over. Yet, global consumption of dairy falls short of national dietary guidelines. Increasing dairy consumption to match dietary guidelines could save billions of dollars in health budgets and help reduce the incidence of non-communicable diseases. Dairy is responsible for 2.7% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, but farming practices can reduce this figure. Milk production uses 1 billion Ha of the Earth’s land, but headline statements about land use or GHG mask a level of detail crucial to understanding debates about diet and sustainability. This chapter examines the socio-economic impact of dairy on livelihoods and nutrition as well as its ecological impact, arguing that a balance must be struck between reducing dairy’s environmental impact and increasing milk consumption. The chapter explores global frameworks for sustainable production.
Shichen Zhang
Advances in pest-resistant varieties of soybean
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A number of insect pests have been threatening soybean production in North America, including lepidopteran defoliators, coleopteran defoliators and hemipteran sapsuckers. Among various control methods, host-plant resistance has been of the greatest interest as it is economically and environmentally friendly. This chapter will review recent advances in research on improving soybean with host-plant resistance in North America, and discuss challenges of developing highly insect-resistant cultivars with competitive yield performance. The chapter will cover attempts to genetically engineer soybean with Bt insecticidal protein genes as well as gene pyramiding in order to gain broad and durable resistances against multiple insects. The chapter includes a review of future trends and points the reader towards further reading in this area.
L. G. Smith, The Organic Research Centre and Cranfield University, UK; and A. G. Williams, Cranfield University, UK
The effects of organic management on greenhouse gas emissions and energy efficiency in livestock production
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The central objectives of organic farming are reducing external inputs and increasing long-term sustainability. Whilst there may be local improvements in resource efficiency, the extent to which organic livestock systems contribute to net greenhouse gas mitigation and fossil energy efficiency gains depends on the livestock type, the unit of comparison and the system boundaries in time and space. This chapter explores these factors and gives examples of where organic systems could be improved. It also considers soil carbon sequestration in organic livestock systems. Three individual case studies are presented to show how organic producers are implementing measures to improve environmental efficiency in practice. Challenges and opportunities for the sector are discussed from research, farm practice and regulatory perspectives.
Yinglong Chen, The University of Western Australia, Australia; Northwest A&F University, China; Ivica Djalovic, Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Serbia; and Kadambot Siddique, The University of Western Australia, Australia
Advances in understanding grain legume physiology: understanding root architecture, nutrient uptake and response to abiotic stress
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Root system architecture (RSA) influences root foraging and resource uptake from the soil and thus determines plant growth and productivity in grain legumes. Understanding RSA, nutrient uptake and its response to drought and other abiotic stresses is vital for breeding super genotypes for efficient water and nutrient acquisition and with enhanced adaptation to edaphic stresses. This chapter describes the role of root architecture in plant health, available approaches for measuring root architecture, variability of RSA traits across genotypes and its implications for breeding drought-resistant varieties. The chapter explains how combined root phenotyping, non-destructive imaging, root model simulations and molecular techniques can serve as tools in breeding legume genotypes with optimised root system for enhanced adaptation to target environments.
Charley Richard, Sugar Processing Research Institute and the New York Sugar Trade Laboratory, USA
Analysing the processing quality of sugarcane
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Sugarcane, belonging to the genus Saccharum, is a grass grown in many tropical and subtropical areas of the world. As industries attempt to achieve sustainability in sugar production and in the production of current and potential by-products from sugarcane, knowledge about its compositional traits will become increasingly important. In this chapter, we discuss the composition of the whole sugarcane plant, the sugarcane juice and sugarcane fibre and bagasse. We review how composition varies among and within species of sugarcane, and among commercial varieties. We then cover sucrose extraction methods, sustainable production and harvesting practices, quality parameters and grower payment schemes.
Mette Vaarst, Aarhus University, Denmark
Rethinking and engaging with animal health in organic farming
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The organic principle of health highlights ‘the wholeness and integrity of living systems’. It is not simply the absence of illness, but the maintenance of physical, mental, social and ecological well-being. We often articulate health as simply ‘disease freedom’. However, this chapter argues that if we see ‘resilience’ as a key component of health, we focus more on how we can meet the species-specific needs and challenges of each animal species, both as individuals (physical and mental well-being), as groups (social well-being), and in their surroundings and their landscapes in many different contexts (ecological well-being). The human responsibility towards animals is to understand their natural needs, organize the surroundings to allow the animals to meet them and at the same time be ready to intervene to prevent or stop suffering. The chapter gives practical and research-based examples of how to support the different aspects of animal health.
Christopher Preston, University of Adelaide, Australia
Assessing and minimizing the environmental effects of herbicides
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Herbicides are widely used to control weeds; however, they can have other effects on the environment. Herbicides can move from the site of application through spray drift, volatilization from surfaces, surface run-off or leaching to groundwater. This chapter examines the sources and fate of herbicides in the environment and the environmental effects of herbicides. It also addresses the ways in which the environmental effects of herbicides may be managed and reduced, including the use of herbicide substitutes and mitigation of herbicide effects, and looks ahead to future trends in this area of research.
P. J. Bramel and H. D. Upadhyaya, Global Crop Diversity, Germany and International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India
Conserving and characterizing the genetic diversity of grain legumes
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An increase in the production and marketing of grain legumes would help to diversify diets and improve human nutrition, as well as contributing to the sustainability of cropping systems and long- term soil health. However, the projected impacts of climate change and the current local adaptation and use of these crops pose challenges to increasing production. One of the key resources for meeting these challenges through crop improvement will be the genetic diversity conserved ex situ in genebanks and in situ with farmers or in protected areas. This chapter reviews global strategies to assess the status of the major grain legume genetic resources held in ex situ collections, develop a vision of a more secure global system of conservation, and identify high- priority actions to facilitate the establishment of this global system. As an example, we focus on the characterization and exploitation of the genetic resources of chickpeas and pigeon peas.
K. K. Jena and G. Ramkumar, International Rice Research Institute, The Philippines
Breeding strategies to improve rice yields: an overview
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This chapter examines three different major strategies designed to break the ‘yield barrier’ so that rice production keeps up with population growth: new ideotype breeding, heterosis and green super rice. The chapter shows that exploring the genetic diversity of wild Oryza species may lead to identification of novel and superior alleles, which may have been ignored during the process of crop domestication. The chapter describes the traits determining rice yield: number of grains per panicle, panicle size and branching, and grain weight. It shows that by deploying a particular gene or gene combinations in the breeding programmes, desired phenotype and yield enhancement of rice can be achieved. Molecular markers for marker-assisted selection processes to pyramid yield-related genes are also discussed in this chapter, which suggests future trends for research to enable a second ‘green revolution’.
Dr Mainaak Mukhopadhaya
Advances in genetic modification of tea
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Due to its botanical characteristics, genetic improvement of tea is slow. Its high gestation period, the difficulty of producing homozygous lines, and the non-availability of mutant genotypes and a mapping population are all hindrances to development. This chapter describes and evaluates the potential of genetic transformation as an alternative for varietal improvement of tea, via the deployment of agrobacterium and particle bombardment. The chapter describes in detail progress global progress on research into transgenic tea.
D. L. Hopkins, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Centre for Red Meat and Sheep Development, Australia
Ageing, physical and chemical methods for improving tenderness and palatability of beef
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The biochemical understanding of tenderization has helped in the design of more targeted approaches to improve beef tenderness through the utilization of specific enzymes. There has also been development of technologies such as SmartStretch™ and the Pi-Vac Elasto-Pack System®, which offer industry scope to improve the tenderness of specific muscles, and there is scope to combine technologies as these techniques have the potential to reduce the time required to age beef to reach acceptability thresholds. Other technologies such as pulse electric field and high-pressure processing may have specific application in the future, but scaling up the technology is a significant challenge. To meet consumer demands, grading systems that go to the cut and even muscle level are required so that the inherent variation within and between carcasses can be accounted for and value maximized.
Mette Vaarst, Aarhus University, Denmark; and Stephen Roderick, Duchy College, UK
Setting the scene: the continued drive to improve organic animal farming
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All the elements of current global development – urbanization, industrialization, population growth, food insecurity, environmental degradation, climate change and other universal issues – call for more equitable and balanced agricultural systems, including new and innovative ways of keeping and integrating animals into our food production systems. This chapter is ‘only’ the introductory chapter which explains the ‘logic’ behind the composition of this book and highlights the key issues which the various authors described, analysed and discussed in their chapters. The chapter highlights important points made in the book Improving organic animal farming, addressing both key farm animal species as well as species less frequently discussed until now, such as fish and bees. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Professor Professor Robert van Barneveld
Advances in understanding pig nutritional requirements
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Linking advances in our understanding to sustainable production of pig meat requires a more lateral perspective centred on the primary drivers of sustainability. This chapter considers advances in nutritional requirements and metabolism and how these contribute to sustainable production of pig meat, including the need to maintain sow body condition throughout gestation and lactation and ways of reducing variation in pork production systems. The chapter examines strategic use of metabolic modifiers and the importance of matching nutrient requirements to pig diet specifications and optimising gut health and nutrient utilisation capacity. The chapter provides a useful overview of understanding the interaction between nutrition and pig health.
Maria Hilda Pérez-Barraza and Jorge Alberto Osuna-Gracia, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales Agrícolas y Pecuarias, Mexico
Advances in understanding flowering, pollination and fruit development in mangoes
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The number of flowers produced by a mango plant is determined a year before production via induction, initiation and floral differentiation processes. The number of fruits will depend the success of the pollination, fecundation and fruit set processes. This chapter addresses flowering, pollination and mango fruit development, beginning with vegetative shoot formation and then the plant’s induction, initiation and floral differentiation. The chapter analyses the genes governing the flowering process and the processes of pollination and fertilisation. It suggests future research trends in this area and recommends further reading on the subject.
Markus Rodehutscord, University of Hohenheim, Germany
Advances in understanding the role of phytate in phosphorus and calcium nutrition of poultry
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In plant seeds, the primary storage form of phosphorus (P) is phytic acid (InsP6), which is usually present in salt form (phytate). Utilization of P from InsP6 and lower forms of InsPx by animals requires stepwise cleavage of P from the inositol ring by phytases. In broiler chickens, the potential to utilize InsP6-P is very high. However, degradation of InsP6 in the gastrointestinal tract is variable and affected by supplements of calcium, P, and other dietary factors. Fine adjustment of feed ingredients and supplements of P, calcium, and phytase are crucial for practical feed formulation to be sustainable through high utilization of InsP6-P and low inclusion of feed phosphates. The potential of turkeys to utilize InsP6-P is lower compared to broiler chickens.
Eliot M. Herman, University of Arizona, USA
Allergens in soybean
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Soybean protein is one of the most significant sources of food allergens and intolerance, causing both IgE-mediated allergy and food protein-induced endocolitis syndrome (FPIES). This chapter first discusses the mechanisms causing allergies and infantile food intolerance. It reviews what we know about adverse food responses, the gut’s response to food and the individual soybean proteins that elicit an immunological response. The chapter also discusses how to reduce allergens in soybean plants as well as the particular problem of intolerance in salmonids with implications for aquaculture.
David R. Walker, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in disease-resistant varieties of soybean
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Soybean yields worldwide are reduced by a variety of diseases. Advances in breeding techniques have facilitated the development of soybean cultivars with broader and more durable resistance, but continued reliance on a small number of major resistance genes remains a concern. Introgression of resistance genes from unadapted germplasm sources with a reduced risk of linkage drag has become more efficient with marker-assisted selection. Advances in DNA sequencing and other technologies have made it possible to identify novel resistance loci and candidate genes. This chapter summarizes what is currently known about resistance to some of the major diseases affecting soybean production, particularly in North America, and genes that condition resistance to those diseases.
Dr Fouad Maalouf
Developing improved varieties of faba bean
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The faba bean is an important cool-season food legume crop grown under different cropping systems for dry grain and green pods, animal feed and a green manure worldwide. This chapter presents the major research achievements in producing new varieties of faba bean tolerant of heat, drought and herbicides and resistant to broomrape, disease and high nitrogen fixation. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in research in this area.
Roger L. Monk, formerly DuPont Pioneer, USA
Advanced testing, multiplication and release of new sorghum varieties
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The release of a new sorghum variety or hybrid is the culmination of many years of breeding and evaluation. This chapter describes the hybrid advancement process, including ways of increasing the parent lines for hybrid production and the guidelines that must be followed to ensure high-quality seed. The chapter also examines procedures for registration, certification, plant variety protection and plant patenting. This chapter focuses especially on hybrid evaluation and release.
D.Z. Skinner, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in cold-resistant wheat varieties
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Winter wheat is planted in the autumn and must survive the winter months before being harvested the following summer. Winterhardiness is therefore of paramount importance to the survival of the crop. This chapter reviews recent advances in our understanding of the transcriptomic and genetic basis of the wheat plants’ response to low, above-freezing temperatures and to sub-freezing temperatures. We show that wheat plants enact numerous transcriptomic and metabolic networks in response to low temperatures, and that the response is exquisitely tied to the nature of the cold stress, the developmental status of the plant, the part of the plant and the time of day of the onset of low temperature.
K. R. Latha and L. Vimalendran, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India
Improving the cultivation of pigeonpea
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Production of pigeonpea is constrained by agronomic management techniques such as improper methods of sowing, incorrect sowing time, inadequate seed rate, insufficient weeding, imbalance of fertilization, inadequate intercultural operations, insufficient irrigation and inadequate use of fertilizers. Low plant densities, low soil fertility, insufficient weeding and insufficient/ inappropriate use of fungicides and herbicides may also be constraints. This chapter analyses integrated crop management techniques for pigeonpea with an emphasis on efficient fertilizer and water use to maximize sustainable yields. The chapter examines the role of weed management and the potential contributions of pigeonpea hybrid cultivars, early maturing pigeonpea varieties, as well as rabi and summer pigeonpea. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area.
B. B. Singh, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, India
Breeding improved varieties of cowpea
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Cowpea is an important source of nutritious food and fodder and it is grown as an integral component of various cropping systems in the semi-arid tropics and sub-tropics covering over 65 countries. This chapter describes existing cowpea programs and past challenges, with a particular focus on cowpea breeding at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA). The chapter gives an account of the most important examples of progress made to date, including cowpea international trials, and suggests future lines of research for the future.
Heng Ye, Babu Valliyodan, Li Song, J. Grover Shannon, Pengyin Chen and Henry T. Nguyen, University of Missouri, USA
Advances in the drought and heat resistance of soybean
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Drought combined with heat is the major abiotic stress that threatens crop production. Climate changes are anticipated to intensify the occurrence of irregular precipitation patterns worldwide, which will further negatively affect crop production and food security. The success of soybean improvement under drought and heat stress depends on the discovery and utilization of genetic variations present in the germplasm. Identification of genetic diversities for traits related to drought and heat tolerance have helped identify genetic resources in soybean. In this chapter, advances in drought and heat tolerance in soybean are summarized by highlighting the genetic diversity and quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with the traits contributing to drought and heat tolerance. In addition, genomic resources that can facilitate a better understanding of phenotype-genotype association and formulate genomic-assisted breeding strategies are discussed.
Julius van der Werf, School of Environmental & Rural Science, University of New England, Australia; and Andrew Swan and Robert Banks, Animal Genetics and Breeding Unit, University of New England, Australia
Advances in sheep breeding
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This chapter summarises early developments in sheep breeding programmes, with the main emphasis on the Australian industry. It will examine common current breeding practices such as objective trait measurement, flock genetic evaluation and the development of breeding objectives based on rational economic analysis. The chapter shows that breeding programmes for dairy, meat and wool sheep differ in how well the main breeding objective traits can be measured on breeding animals. This has a major impact on the rate of genetic progress that can be achieved as well as on the economic sustainability of technologies such as progeny testing, artificial insemination and genomic selection. The chapter mainly focuses on wool and meat sheep breeding programmes, with a discussion on the implementation and adoption of genetic evaluation systems, the development of breeding objectives and the recent developments towards uptake of genomic selection.
Bogdan A. Slominski, University of Manitoba, Canada
Advances in understanding and improving the role of enzymes in poultry nutrition
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This chapter reviews the current status of research on feed enzymes with an emphasis on identifying the key challenges researchers face in terms of current trends in enzyme development, mechanism(s) of action and enzyme efficacy. It also addresses new research directions and the development of consensus protocol and/or research approaches to prevent potential duplication of effort and to aid coordinated research and collaboration. Sections cover the key drawbacks and opportunities in the application of phytase, non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) and NSP enzymes, β-mannanase, supplemental α-amylase and protease, with a focus on achieving effective use of feed ingredients and more sustainable production of poultry meat.
Dr Laurent Bedoussac
Grain legume–cereal intercropping systems
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There is currently renewed interest in intercropping in Europe in order to achieve sustainable, ecological or eco-functional intensification of agricultural production, particularly in organic farming. This chapter summarises data from over 50 field experiments undertaken since 2001 on cereal–grain legume intercropping in 13 sites in Southern and Western France as well as in Denmark using spring and winter cereal–grain legume intercrops. The chapter addresses the effects of intercropping on yields and quality, the agronomical performance of intercropping and cultivation practices in intercropping.
Y.-C. Lee, R. Lemes Hamawaki, V. Colantonio, M. J. Iqbal and D. A. Lightfoot, Southern Illinois University, USA
The use of marker-assisted selection in developing improved varieties of soybean
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Marker-assisted selection (MAS) for soybean improvement is based on over two thousand mapped loci. In genetics databases there are thousands of mapped loci that underlie quantitative traits, oligogenic traits and simple traits. This chapter describes examples of methods for developing and using DNA markers derived from genomic sequences for monogeneic, oligogeneic and polygeneic traits, together with examples of successful mapping, fine mapping and gene isolation. The chapter examines ways in which marker-assisted selection can be used to isolate and select desirable traits in soybeans.
T. Vuong, University of Missouri, USA; and D. Walker, USDA-ARS and University of Illinois, USA
Advances in marker-assisted breeding of soybeans
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This chapter reviews key developments in marker-assisted breeding of soybean. It begins by discussing types of molecular markers such as simple sequence repeats (SSRs) and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs). It then discusses marker assays and genotyping platforms for marker-assisted selection, including SSR marker genotyping and developments in high-throughput genotyping. The chapter then reviews applications of marker-assisted selection in soybean breeding to deal with biotic threats such as nematodes, rusts and aphids, abiotic threats such as salinity, as well as aspects of quality such as fatty acid composition. The chapter concludes by looking at developments in genomic selection.
John O. Ojiem, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kenya
Improving cultivation practices for common beans
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The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is perhaps the world’s most important, and the most widely cultivated grain legume. It serves as a food security crop and meets more than 50% of household dietary protein requirements, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. In addition, common bean contributes to household cash income, and is believed to play a significant role in the management of human health, particularly reduction of blood cholesterol levels and combating heart diseases, cancers and diabetes. However, its productivity is poor in most of the major growing regions. This chapter examines the major production constraints and how these can be addressed to improve productivity, from an integrated crop management (ICM) perspective. In particular, cropping system, integrated pest management, major pests and diseases and control strategies, water management, integrated nutrient management, liming, and foliar fertilization are discussed.
Elizabeth Ryan, Colorado State University, USA; Indi Trehan, Kristie Smith and Mark Manary, Washington University, USA
Dietary health benefits, phytochemicals and anti-nutritional factors in grain legumes
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Legumes are a significant source of essential nutrients including dietary fibres, proteins, dietary minerals, and carbohydrates. Abundant in both soluble and insoluble fibre, legumes support colonic and overall health. The chapter describes the impact of grain legume consumption on inflammation, the health benefits of dietary fibre, and possible connections between dry grain legume consumption and carcinogenesis. The chapter explores the relationship between grain legume consumption and gut health, analysing the phytochemical content of grain legumes as well as possible chemical toxicant exposures from grain legume consumption.
Z. A. Pretorius, University of the Free State, South Africa; M. Ayliffe, CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Australia; R. L. Bowden, ARS-USDA, USA; L. A. Boyd, National Institute of Agricultural Botany, UK; R. M. DePauw, Advancing Wheat Technologies, Canada; Y.
Advances in control of wheat rust
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Rusts are feared diseases of wheat. Despite the many resources invested into genetics of rust resistance, the lack of durability of resistance in wheat and the availability of low-cost fungicides have led to widespread reliance on chemical control. This reliance is unsustainable in the long term and requires continued research in the management of wheat rusts. This chapter describes advances in wheat rust control. Critical concepts involved in studying the wheat rusts are pathogen and host genetics, host–pathogen interactions, epidemiology and management strategies. The overarching goal of research is to use collective knowledge of these aspects to achieve durable rust resistance through application in selection and breeding.
Prof. P. Zhang
Advances in genetic modification of cassava
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Until recently, hybridization was used to breed new varieties of the common tropical and subtropical crop cassava, but changes in global climate, food security and industrialization have accelerated the breeding of new cassava varieties with increased nutrition, high stress resistance and starch content. Genetic engineering shows great potential for cassava, particularly for enhancing starchy storage root development, starch accumulation, health-promoting components, and stress response and regulation. This chapter describes recent progress relating to transgenic modification of cassava. As a vital component of an integrated breeding system, genetic engineering, together with functional genomics, proteomics, marker-assisted selection and traditional hybridization, has greatly promoted the efficiency of cassava production. The chapter also addresses how future research on cassava can strengthen food security, commercialization and bioenergy development.
Pekka Huhtanen, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden
Advances in feeding grass silage
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Grass silage is the main forage source during indoor feeding periods in many temperate regions. The digestibility and energy concentration of silage are mainly determined by the maturity at harvest, but changes in carbohydrate and nitrogen fractions during fermentation process can markedly modify the profile of nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract and also influence intake potential. This chapter reviews research on factors affecting nutrient supply from the digestive tract in animals fed a grass silage–based diet. The chapter examines the effects of energy and protein supplementation on production responses, taking into account nitrogen and methane emissions. The chapter highlights recent developments in the big bale system that has become popular especially in Northern Europe and looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Dr Barbara Frűh
Organic pig farming: key characteristics, opportunities, advantages and challenges
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Organic pig production strives to provide housing and management conditions that guarantee a high level of animal health and welfare, sustainability, a closed soil–plant–animal cycle and produce high-quality products. This chapter discusses how housing of organic pigs affects welfare and the environment, and outlines how organic production systems are desperately in need of alternatives to feedstuffs that are in direct competition with human nutrition. The chapter examines why certain breeding goals should be adapted to organic conditions, and which health problems are typical for organic housing systems. Finally, the chapter shows how waiving of castration could be a challenge but also a chance for organic pig production and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Junming Li, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers – Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), China
Advances in marker-assisted breeding of tomatoes
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Tomato is one of the most important vegetable crops in the world. This chapter describes the process of marker development and how this can be used to improve tomato breeding. The chapter discusses the techniques of marker-assisted selection (MAS) and genomic selection (GS) to identify and exploit specific traits in tomato.
S. Adjei-Nsiah , International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Ghana ; and B.D.K. Ahiabor , CSIR-Savanna Agricultural Research Institute, Ghana
Soil and nutrient management in grain legume cultivation
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Due to their role in improving soil fertility, grain legumes can be integrated into farming systems as part of soil fertility management. This offers a potential pathway towards sustainable intensification. In this chapter we focus on how to maximize biological nitrogen fixation and yields of grain legumes through soil and nutrient management options. We review existing literature on optimal conditions for legume cultivation and biological nitrogen fixation in grain legumes, and then discuss recent studies in biological nitrogen fixation in the Guinea Savanna zone of Ghana. We conclude by considering future trends in grain legume research.
Stephen Roderick, Duchy College, UK
Pastoralism and organic animal farming: are they complementary?
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A general absence of reliance on purchased inputs as well as a focus on natural pastures and free-ranging animals prompts comparison between pastoralism and organic farming. Pastoralism frequently occurs in the marginal lands that can be found where humans and herds of domesticated animals living in a form of symbiotic relationship, utilising nutritional resources that would otherwise be unavailable for other forms of food production. This chapter discusses some of the key characteristics of pastoralism and explores in detail how these systems complement and conflict with the traditional view of what constitutes organic animal production. The chapter examines pastoral management strategies, compares pastoralism with commercial ranching and contrasts breeding strategies. The chapter looks at the opportunities for animal health promotion and considers the question of whether pastoralism provides good animal welfare. Finally, the chapter examines opportunities for integrated systems, impacts of pastoralism on biodiversity and provides guidance on further reading on the subject.
Don W. Morishita, University of Idaho, USA
Weed management in grain legume cultivation
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The importance of managing weeds in a grain legume crop is critical for obtaining optimum yield. All grain legumes are relatively poor competitors with weeds and thus are prone to yield reductions when grown in the presence of weeds. This chapter outlines the nature and challenges of weed interference and methods of weed control, as well as offering two detailed case studies. The chapter demonstrates that a combination of practices, such as cultivar selection, planting date, tillage system, in-crop tillage or cultivation, and/or herbicides are needed to increase the likelihood of successful weed control.
Phillip Jackson, CSIRO, Australia
Advances in conventional sugarcane breeding programmes
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All sugarcane cultivars currently grown throughout the world arise from breeding programmes which have used a reasonably similar approach sustained over many decades. This comprises a continuous pipeline of operations of regular (usually annual) crossing among selected parent clones to produce large populations of seedling clones, followed by selection of these clones in successive stages of field trials for usually 9–12 years for important traits. This chapter outlines the history and structure of sugarcane breeding programmes as context for considering efforts to advance rates of progress. It reviews studies conducted in the last 30 years to improve many specific aspects of operations in sugarcane breeding programmes. Finally, it describes emerging concerns about whether current rates of genetic gain in sugarcane are optimal, and suggests some avenues for faster gains.
Dr Dr Jean Claude Rubyogo
Variety selection and seed quality management in grain legume cultivation
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A key aspect of grain legume crop cultivation is selecting and being able to access the seed of the right type and quality. This is becoming more challenging as grain legumes become cash crops and smallholder farmers transition from subsistence farming to market-oriented production. This chapter discusses the challenges of legume variety selection and seed quality management as well as how they can be addressed, for example through participatory varietal selection (PVS). It includes case studies on improving seed selection and quality management in practice in sub-Saharan Africa.
Velmurugu Ravindran and Mohammad R. Abdollahi, Massey University, New Zealand
Advances and future directions in poultry feeding: an overview
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The poultry industry has witnessed remarkable advancements in recent years. This chapter provides a discussion of the advances and future directions in the poultry feeding. Advancements include defining nutrient requirements, composition and ingredient quality, better feed formulation and the advent of additives. It also discusses the developments in feed processing and phase feeding. Future directions include sustainability, ingredient quality, antibiotic-free nutrition, crystalline and synthetic amino acids, feed enzymes, chick nutrition and growth models. Optimal feed processing and the related hygiene practices are discussed briefly. The chapter then discusses future trends in poultry feeding. The chapter concludes with a section dedicated to further information on these topics, in order for the readers to expand their knowledge.
Shoba Sivasankar, Former Director, CGIAR Research Program on Grain Legumes
Developing drought- and heat-tolerant varieties of grain legumes
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Despite the complexity imposed by the polygenic nature of plant tolerance to drought and to heat, significant strides have been made in understanding the underlying response and adaptation of plants to these stresses. Together with advanced and accessible technologies such as next-generation sequencing and precision phenotyping, this has enabled the assembly of molecular and physiological tools in grain legumes that would support the development of tolerance through traditional and molecular breeding. This chapter provides an overview of physiological, biochemical and molecular responses and adaptation mechanisms to drought, and to heat, with specific examples from grain legumes. The chapter examines the challenge of developing tolerance to drought and to heat, examining traditional breeding and the utilization of natural genetic diversity, and efforts towards molecular breeding including the identification of genetic associations and quantitative trait loci. Finally, the chapter considers functional genomics studies on stress-relevant candidate genes or gene families and suggests further reading on the topic.
Fred J. Muehlbauer, Washington State University, USA; and Ashutosh Sarker, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), India
Improving cultivation of lentil
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Lentil is an important food legume in the semi-arid regions of the world where it can be grown successfully on limited soil moisture and in relatively poor soils. This chapter describes agronomic practices used in lentil-producing countries, addressing methods of land preparation, sowing, harvesting, threshing and cleaning. Procedures used in developed countries where the crop is entirely mechanized are also included. The chapter suggests improvements to seed supply systems, seed varieties, planting methods, weed control, and harvesting methods.
Dugald C. Close and Sally A. Bound , University of Tasmania, Australia
Advances in understanding apple tree growth: the manipulation of tree growth and development
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Recent research and development has investigated the factors influencing apple tree growth, with the ultimate aim of helping apple growers provide the market with fruit which is consistent in quality and which exhibits the features that consumers value, such as firmness, juiciness, colour and appropriate sugar–acid balance. This chapter offers a detailed review of how different interventions after planting allow the manipulation of apple tree growth and development. It then provides discussion of two case studies which show the importance of this factor, and illustrates how it can interact with choice of rootstock and planting system to optimize yield.
Sastia P. Putri and Eiichiro Fukusaki, Osaka University, Japan
Metabolomics as a powerful tool for coffee authentication
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Detecting fraudulent adulteration of coffee is essential for both the industry and legislative authorities. Both parties are accountable for establishing quality standards through labelling, composition regulations and routine evaluation protocols to circumvent unfair competition among manufacturers as well as to ensure the safety, quality and authenticity of the product for consumers. This chapter addresses current issues in the area of adulteration of coffee as well as describes recent progress on coffee quality evaluation and authentication using the metabolomics approach. The chapter includes a detailed case study on the application of metabolomics to authenticate Asian palm civet coffee and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
David Jordan, Rick Brandenburg and Gary Payne, North Carolina State University, USA; David Hoisington, Nick Magnan and James Rhoads, The University of Georgia, USA; Mumuni Abudulai, Savanna Agricultural Research Institute, Ghana; Koushik Adhikari and Jinr
Preventing mycotoxin contamination in groundnut cultivation
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Aflatoxin contamination of crops and food poses a substantial threat to humans and livestock worldwide. Preventing various Aspergillus species from becoming established and growing on peanuts (groundnut, Arachis hypogaea L.) can reduce aflatoxin contamination. This chapter describes factors that affect the growth of A. flavus and A. parasiticus on peanut, as well as models predicting contamination, cultural and biological control measures designed to minimize contamination, challenges associated with research and quantification of aflatoxin. The chapter also features three case studies from current value chain projects in Ghana, Haiti, and Malawi. The chapter argues the need for a more focused and concerted effort to address the issue of aflatoxin contamination in peanut.
Noël Durand, CIRAD, France; and Angélique Fontana, University of Montpellier, France
Harmful compounds in coffee
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In recent years, public health issues in the food industry have led to regulations concerning contaminants in foodstuffs, including coffee. Four main types of compound are known to contaminate coffee. First, pesticides come from agricultural treatments, transport and storage. Ochratoxin A is the main mycotoxin found in coffee and is linked to environmental conditions and post-harvest processing. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contamination can be of exogenous (during drying) or endogenous (during roasting) origin. Finally, acrylamide appears during roasting. This chapter discusses each of these compounds, reviewing our current state of knowledge, regulations for avoiding or dealing with contamination and effective ways of limiting contamination.
Nutrient sources and their application in cassava cultivation
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This chapter discusses various sources of nutrients to be applied to prevent soil nutrient depletion, as well as the optimum rates, times and methods of their application. It also describes how computer models can predict site-specific nutrient requirements and balanced fertilizer rates to maximize nutrient use efficiency, increase farmers’ profits and prevent waste and potential pollution of the environment. It ends by considering the variation among cassava genetic resources in nutrient use efficiency in order to breed new varieties with greater tolerance to low soil fertility.
Dr Claudine Campa
Beneficial compounds from coffee leaves
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Leaves are the leading source of carbon for plant growth and reproduction, and possess a wide range of protection systems against environmental stress. The leaves of the coffee plant, characterized by a high antioxidant potential, have a significant impact on fruit quality, and identifying markers in leaves for plant adaptability to environmental stress provides an indication of the quality of future fruits. This chapter provides an inventory of molecules identified to date in the leaves of cultivated coffee trees. It describes the beneficial effects of the molecules exclusively found in leaves on both plant physiology and human health, and suggests where future trends of research in this area may lead.
Dr Dr Stephen Roderick
Improving organic animal farming for the future
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This chapter reviews key issues and approaches in improving organic animal farming for the future. It emphasises the value of developing diverse solutions suited to local conditions as well as the importance of understanding and working in harmony with the natural resource base. The chapter highlights the need for a more holistic concept of health as resilience together with the importance of locally adapted and more resilient breeds. It discusses the role of skills and better communication between different partners and the importance of an ethical framework underpinning all aspects of organic farming operations.
Dr Jorge Teodoro De Souza
Cocoa diseases: witches' broom
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Witches' broom, caused by the hemibiotrophic basidiomycete Moniliophthora perniciosa, is one of the most important cocoa diseases. The pathogen co-evolved with cocoa in the Amazon River basin and is currently restricted to South and Central America. Other cocoa-producing regions of the world are at risk because the introduction of the pathogen would greatly impact cocoa production. In the last few years new technologies such as NGS, bioinformatics, transformation, and the establishment of a model host-plant interaction accelerated the gain of information and have enabled significant advances in our knowledge of witches’ broom. In this chapter, we review the information on witches' broom, including the latest information on disease physiology, genomics and transcriptomics, diversity, and management practices.
Timo Stadtlander, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Switzerland
The development of organic aquaculture
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This chapter offers a general overview of global aquaculture production, explaining some of the key drivers (such as environmental, health and welfare issues with intensive conventional aquaculture) which led to the development of organic aquaculture more than two decades ago. The chapter looks at negative environmental impacts of aquaculture, general rules and regulations governing aquaculture, and the concept of trophic levels. The chapter offers a brief history of organic aquaculture and examines culture and production systems. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this field and the prospects of sustainable organic aquaculture.
R. Redden, RJR Agricultural Consultants, Australia; X. Zong, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), China; R. M. Norton, International Plant Nutrition Institute and The University of Melbourne, Australia; F. L. Stoddard, University of Helsinki,
Efficient and sustainable production of faba bean
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Faba bean is mainly grown under rain-fed conditions, although irrigated production is important in Egypt, parts of China and central Asia. China is the leading producer with a wide range of intensive rotation and inter-crop holistic cropping systems. The main focus of this chapter is faba bean cultivation under rain-fed growing conditions. We cover faba bean production in China and in West Asia, North and East Africa Regions, including discussion of the diseases, weeds and pests affecting this crop. We also review faba bean breeding, genetic resources and markers for breeding, water deficit management, tillage systems, biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) and mineral nutrient requirements.
Dr Dr Mette Vaarst
Organic poultry farming: opportunities and challenges
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Poultry constitute a fascinating and diverse group of animals with huge potentials to adapt to many local conditions and to be integrated into a wide variety of organic farming systems throughout the world. Poultry herds fit into many different farm settings throughout the world, including the diverse farming environments in Europe. However, at the other end of the range of organic poultry production, we see increasingly industrial farms based on a complete separation between organic egg and broiler breeds, some with the same welfare and disease problems as the non-organic systems. This chapter looks at organic poultry production through the lenses of the four organic IFOAM principles, and discusses current options and challenges such as genetic material and breeds, and possible future developments with a focus on animal welfare and health, beyond existing systems, for example agroforestry and mobile housing systems, and integration into peri-urban and urban system.
Michael N. Clifford
Chemical composition of coffee beans: an overview
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This chapter provides an overview of the composition of green coffee beans and the changes associated with roasting and beverage production. The chapter focusses principally, but not exclusively, on more recent advances related to the major chemical components of coffee such as the chlorogenic acids, the alkaloids (caffeine and trigonelline), the diterpenes (cafestol and kahweol), volatile aromatics and the poorly characterized melanoidins.
Alan Carvalho Andrade, Embrapa Café/Inovacafé, Brazil
Developments in molecular breeding techniques in Robusta coffee
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As a perennial crop, faster breeding methods are needed for coffee to be able to cope with the challenges of climate change that lie ahead. This chapter focuses on the state of the art of developed molecular tools, characterized traits, quantitative trait loci and candidate genes already described for Coffea canephora (Robusta coffee), which accounts for a third of the worldwide coffee production. The chapter examines coffee’s molecular markers, genetic diversity and the current state of molecular breeding, as well as looks ahead to future developments in this area.
Dr Dr Isabel Blanco-Penedo
Organic beef farming: key characteristics, opportunities, advantages, and challenges
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This chapter offers an overview of the current status of organic beef production systems and emphasizes the need for more data to better characterize this farm system. It also offers an overview of the course of farm conversion, together with the available resources and options to determine the conditions required for the farm to be competitive in the market. The chapter focuses on the challenges, advantages and opportunities of organic beef farming as an important provider of ecosystem services. It also examines the nature of consumer demand and current preferences and looks ahead to future trends in the area of organic beef farming.
Prof. Raphael Wahome
Smallholder integrated organic farming: how can it work in the tropics?
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Organic animal farming in the tropics varies considerably across countries and regions, and comprises many different types of systems with significant variation in the degree to which animals are integrated into the systems. The chapter focuses on the issues associated with keeping animals on organic farms in the tropical regions of the world where smallholder systems dominate and will draw specifically on experiences from smallholder dairy farms in East Africa to unfold some of the challenges and opportunities that these systems can face. After giving an overview of tropical animal production and organic and smallholder farming, the chapter describes organic standards for animal husbandry in the tropics and challenges faced by tropical organic animal farmers.
K. Ellis, Scottish Centre for Production Animal Health and Food Safety, University of Glasgow, UK
Biosecurity and safety for humans and animals in organic animal farming
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‘Biosecurity’ describes methods of reducing the risk of disease spread. Two defining aspects of organic farming are the requirement to allow animals outside access and the aim to nurture animal health without reliance on veterinary medicines. These measures create differences in risks of disease and access to environmental pollutants compared to non-organic animals. This chapter summarises some of the biosecurity issues particular to organic farming and discusses their significance to human health. Particular focus is given to organic animal rearing and the unique challenges of this sector. A number of strategies for reducing risk of infectious disease are discussed, and two case studies are presented to show how biosecurity has been addressed in practice. It is concluded that applying bespoke biosecurity plans on farms can reduce animal disease risk, thereby increasing the health and welfare of farmed animals and contributing to high standards of food quality.
Fábio M. DaMatta, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Brazil
Coffee tree growth and environmental acclimation
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In this chapter, some aspects of coffee growth and development as well as the recent advances in the environmental physiology of growth and production are reviewed. The information deals with both Coffea arabica and C. canephora, which together account for 99% of coffee bean production worldwide. This chapter is organized into sections dealing with vegetative growth, flowering and fruiting, competition between vegetative and reproductive growth, and physiological acclimation to environmental factors including light, water and temperature.
K. B. Saxena, United Arab Emirates; Y. S. Chauhan, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Australia; C. V. S. Kumar, A. J. Hingane, R. V. Kumar, R. K. Saxena and G. V. R. Rao, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), I
Developing improved varieties of pigeonpea
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Pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.] is a high protein pulse crop which grows well under biotic and abiotic stress situations. It could play a significant role in meeting the challenges of food security in the tropics and sub-tropics, under the looming threat of drought, warm climate, and rising production costs. This chapter examines the role of pigeonpea in global nutritional security for humans and animals, and addresses the physical, environmental and genetic factors that may affect the sustainability of pigeonpea production. The chapter examines four ways of enhancing pigeonpea production: through crop modeling, an efficient seed system, plant breeding and hybridization. Finally, the chapter considers the latest trends in pigeonpea breeding and production.
Eduardo Somarriba, CATIE, Costa Rica; Luis Orozco-Aguilar, University of Melbourne, Australia; Rolando Cerda, CATIE, Costa Rica; and Arlene López-Sampson, James Cook University, Australia
Analysis and design of the shade canopy of cocoa-based agroforestry systems
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Cocoa-based agroforestry (AF) systems are a conspicuous element of agricultural landscapes worldwide. Shade canopy analysis and design is a key component of crop husbandry, and requires a good understanding of the interactions, synergies and trade-offs between shade, yield and environmental services. In this chapter we provide a guide and some principles to analyse and design an optimal shade canopy that provides a diverse, resilient AF system. We first review the different cocoa system typologies described in the literature, placing special emphasis on cocoa–timber systems. We present a guide for the analysis of the shade canopy of shaded cocoa systems, and then investigate the optimal design for cocoa shade canopies, with emphasis on the analysis of trade-offs and synergies between carbon storage and cocoa yields. Finally, we consider critical issues in applying AF science/knowledge to cocoa cultivation programmes.
Paul Macek, World Cocoa Foundation, USA; Upoma Husain and Krystal Werner, Georgetown University, USA
Supporting smallholders in achieving more sustainable cocoa cultivation: the case of West Africa
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Sustainability initiatives, including associations, platforms and networks, voluntary sustainability standards, corporate and non-governmental and civil society initiatives, have all been developed as solutions to the multiple, long-running challenges facing cocoa growers and producers. Largely implemented by cocoa farmers and groups, these initiatives are often supported by traders, government agencies, certification organisations and other not-for-profit organisations. This chapter examines the different sustainability initiatives and their social, economic and environmental impacts on cocoa farmers, farms and ecosystems. The chapter provides detailed case studies of impacts in Ghana and Ivory Coast. The chapter also looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance for further reading on the topic.
Ningjian Liang
Bioactive compounds in coffee beans with beneficial health properties
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In recent years, the health benefits of coffee beverage consumption have received considerable interest. This chapter describes the latest research on the potential health benefits of coffee components including caffeine, phenolics, trigonelline, cafestol and kahweol. The chapter pays particular attention to the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties of these compounds, and evaluates the results of clinical studies on the effects of coffee beverage consumption on human health.
Lindsay K. Whistance, The Organic Research Centre, UK
Enhancing naturalness and human care in organic animal farming
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Organic farming aims to produce food in a way that respects the environment, the people and the animals involved. These aims are covered by the principles of Health, Ecology, Fairness and Care. Naturalness and human care are integral components of welfare for farm animals that are managed under organic systems. Naturalness includes allowing animals to interact with nature and so develop resilience to potential health threats. It also includes animals being able to perform natural behaviour patterns that allow them to fulfil wants and needs when motivated to do so. Physiological health and emotional well being are integral to the welfare of the animals as individuals and as a group. Human care ranges from the provision of appropriate environment and management practices, where stockpersons are a friendly ally to the animals, to more intimate care when health and welfare are compromised. Support networks including advisors and veterinarians are important.
Dr Alpha Y. Kamara
Improving cultivation of cowpea in West Africa
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Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] is a legume crop of vital importance to the livelihoods of millions of people in West and Central Africa, providing a nutritious grain and an inexpensive source of protein for both rural poor and urban consumers. This chapter examines what constitutes an optimal cowpea plant population and explains plant configuration in intercropping systems in West Africa. The chapter explores how planting dates can be manipulated to improve cowpea productivity, and how nutrient management can be used to increase cowpea yields. Finally, the chapter examines the application of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in cowpea production and looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Herbert A. M. van der Vossen, Coffee Breeding Consultant, The Netherlands
Developing varieties of Arabica coffee
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About 60% of the annual world coffee production is harvested from Arabica (Coffea arabica) coffee, with the remainder harvested from Robusta (C. canephora) coffee. The former is superior in beverage quality, but more expensive to cultivate. The demand for quality coffees is steadily increasing, but anticipated climate change may jeopardize the sustainability of Arabica coffee production. This chapter reviews the achievements of several coffee research centres in conserving and evaluating genetic resources and variety development in Arabica coffee. It then discusses the main preconditions for successful next-generation variety development. These are related to genetic variation, disease and pest resistances, tolerance to abiotic stress factors, beverage quality and cost-effective mass propagation of hybrid cultivars. Breeders will have to combine classic selection methods with advanced genetic and genomic technologies in order to meet the challenge of developing resilient (hybrid) cultivars for sustainable, climate-change-tolerant Arabica coffee production.
