Silvopastoralism is a traditional agroforestry practice that is still managed across the world for raising livestock in lands that often include a combination of grass understorey with a sparse cover of trees and/or shrubs. The woody component plays multiple roles such as forage resource, shading and sheltering for livestock and delivering wood, firewood, cork and tannings, among other goods. This chapter firstly describes silvopastoral systems from around the world. It goes on to stress the importance of trees for livestock production. A section is also included on the role of trees for biodiversity and ecosystems services as in recent times silvopastoral systems have been valued for their contribution to carbon sequestration, water quality and biodiversity conservation. The chapter concludes with how to design and manage silvopastures and a look to future trends in research, providing a list of priorities for silvopastoralism going forward.
The emergence of antibiotic resistance in poultry farms
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The use of antibiotics in poultry farming has enhanced production via effectively controlling infectious diseases and promoting growth of birds, allowing the industry to cope with the increasing consumer demands and provide safe and affordable products. However, the use of antibiotics results in the selection of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including established animal and human pathogens. The emergence and proliferation of resistant pathogens and the cognate decrease in the efficacy of antibiotic therapy pose a concrete risk to public health and sustainable farming. Consequently, the need to tightly regulate the use of antibiotics in poultry farming has been highlighted as a pre-emptory necessity.
Understanding and preventing spoilage of cow’s milk
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Milk spoilage is essentially a result of inadequate control of the growth of microorganisms, combined with the activity of enzymes which have found their way into milk from production and processing environments. Microorganisms have developed strategies to survive and thrive in cold (psychrotrophic) as well as in hot (thermophilic) conditions, with some even surviving pasteurization by forming spores. Preventing spoilage is a question of preventing contamination through hygiene and sanitation, proper cooling and understanding the conditions specific to the processes leading to the wide variety of dairy products and ingredients. This chapter examines possible causes of milk spoilage and describes strategies for preventing spoilage during both the production and processing phases. It also examines future trends in this area, including the prospect of better detection and typing methods for identifying problem areas as well as improved technologies for ensuring milk quality all along the value chain.
Trends in the development of herbicide-resistant weeds
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Since the mid-1940s, herbicides have been the most cost-effective and efficient method of weed control for agronomic crops. Today, herbicide-resistant weeds, in combination with a decline in industry discovery programmes and a cessation in discovery of new herbicide sites of action, threaten the continued utility of herbicides. Weeds have evolved resistance to 160 different herbicide-active ingredients (23 of the 26 known herbicide sites of action) in 86 crops and in 66 countries. This chapter reviews the various kinds of herbicide resistance, and then considers resistant weeds by site of action, crop, region and weed family. It considers the available strategies for managing herbicide-resistant weeds, but concludes that although herbicides are likely to remain the backbone of agronomic weed control for the next 30 years, their utility will steadily decline, and we need to begin working on new weed control technologies that will eventually replace herbicides.
The nutritional and nutraceutical/functional properties of mangoes
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Mangoes can be considered a major source of bioactive compounds, notably vitamin C, phenolics (mainly gallic acid) and carotenoids, among which many are provitamin A. This chapter describes the claimed health benefits associated with the antioxidant properties of these compounds, which potentially encompass protection against cardiovascular diseases, metabolic diseases and cancers. The chapter examines specific cell, animal and clinical studies that suggest mango pulp, juice and extract are effective against metabolic diseases and certain forms of cancer. The chapter considers levers that can be used to increase bioactive compounds in mangoes either before or after harvest, and includes a case study on the use of pulsed light to increase concentrations of vitamin C, carotenoids and phenolics.
The integrated management of bud rot disease and Phytophthora palmivora in oil palm
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This chapter provides an overview of research on oil palm bud rot disease which severely affects palm oil production in Central and South America. The chapter reviews the approaches adopted in identifying the causative agent and managing the disease. The chapter describes recent research undertaken by the Colombian Oil Palm Research Centre (Cenipalma) to show Phytophthora palmivora as the causative agent of bud rot, as well as strategies it has developed for controlling its spread throughout oil palm stands. The chapter shows how an understanding of disease biology is critical for developing a successful integrated pest management programme.
The genetic diversity of mangoes
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This chapter provides a list of the principal mango cultivars, selected on the basis of their local and global importance. The description of cultivars is based on evaluations conducted by Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Miami, Florida. The data reflects some 30 years of research. Description information includes origin and information on tree form and vigour. The chapter also includes photographs of principal mango cultivars.
Insect pests affecting oil palms
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Monocultures – including oil palm – are known to induce strong parasitic pressure. Coleoptera and Lepidoptera are the main insect pests affecting oil palms in all continents where it is cultivated. This chapter offers an overview of the major types of oil palm pests (23 species) that have been selected from among the most damaging groups in Latin America, West Africa, South East Asia and the Pacific as examples for illustrating the relationships found between the oil palm and herbivorous arthropods, before looking ahead to future research trends in the study of oil palm pests.
The effect of cultivation techniques on tea quality
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The profitability of tea production depends on whether the type of tea produced has the right quality that is acceptable to consumers. However, sensory evaluation of tea alone has been criticized as subjective. This chapter examines the environmental and agronomic factors lying behind tea quality, addressing the chemical quality parameters of tea, the relationship between black tea quality and specific cultivars, the effect of environmental factors such as altitude and temperatures and the relationship between tea quality and agronomic inputs.
Understanding and improving immune function in sheep
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The prevention and control of infectious diseases of sheep can be achieved in a number of ways, including disease screening programmes, implementation of biosecurity measures, chemotherapeutics and vaccination. This chapter describes common diseases of sheep and some commonly used vaccines, and explains why the identification of immunological correlates underpins vaccine design. Focussing on ovine enzootic abortion (OEA) as a case study, the chapter reviews the current capability to study immunology in sheep, discusses barriers to progress and identifies future opportunities for applications of immunology to improve sheep production.
The contribution of environmental enrichment to sustainable poultry production
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Environmental enrichment comprises stimuli added to the poultry housing environment to enhance the biological adaptation of the birds and improve their welfare. By promoting species-typical behaviour, it has the potential to reduce the risk of harmful behaviours and health conditions, and to guide birds to use the available resources more uniformly. Environmental enrichment may also promote positive emotional states and enhance the birds’ ability to cope with unpredictable environmental changes. In this chapter, we review environmental enrichment strategies that are relevant to commercial meat poultry production, their benefits in terms of the behaviour and welfare of the birds and their potential for contributing to more efficient and sustainable production models. Potential risks or problems that may arise when environmental enrichment is not appropriately implemented are also discussed, finishing with discussion of current gaps in knowledge and concluding remarks.
A balanced approach to commercial poultry breeding
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Balanced selection aims to move all of the relevant traits of a breed in the direction of the preferred response. This approach takes into account performance traits of growth, yield and feed conversion, but also gives weight to fitness traits such as fertility, hatchability and early chick survivability. This chapter reviews a balanced selection approach as applied to poultry breeding. It begins by discussing resource allocation during rearing to help birds meet their genetic potential, and then reviews how selection programmes for the breeding of poultry have evolved over time. Subsequent sections discuss the pedigree lines leading to commercial products (pipeline genetics), the molecular methods used to guide selection and the connection between balanced selection and improvement of animal welfare.
Traditional animal breeding of cattle to improve carcass composition and meat quality
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Genetic selection for carcass attributes such as marbling and tenderness is relatively new compared to selection for growth traits. Estimated breeding values (EBVs) allow for the comparison of animals for their genetic potential as parents for a given trait. This chapter reviews the role of EBVs, how they are calculated and their use in selection for carcass composition and meat quality.
Wheat pests: insects, mites, and prospects for the future
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Wheat pests are the subject of this chapter and the previous one. There are four major taxa of wheat pests. Rodents and nematodes were discussed in the previous chapter. Insects and mites are discussed in this chapter. Case studies are presented for eight species: Hessian fly, orange wheat blossom midge, bird cherry oat aphid, greenbug, Russian wheat aphid, Sunn Pest, wheat stem sawfly and wheat curl mite. We end with a discussion on future prospects for genetically based wheat resistance and new pest management technologies.
Towards improving the salt tolerance of soybean
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The growth and production of soybean, an important cash crop, are severely restricted by salt stress. Salt-tolerant soybean varieties can contribute to sustainable soybean production. This chapter describes different approaches to developing salt tolerance in soybean, including a study of germplasm resources for salt tolerance, -omic approaches and molecular breeding of salt-tolerant soybean varieties. The chapter looks ahead to future trends and developments in this area.
Zoonoses affecting poultry: the case of Salmonella
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Salmonella is a major causative organism of gastroenteritis in humans worldwide, and most cases are caused by the consumption of raw or undercooked poultry products. In response to public concern, many countries have introduced survey and control programmes for Salmonella in poultry. However, it remains an economic burden in many areas, and there are emerging risks associated with new serovars. In this chapter, we describe the invasion and transmission mechanisms of Salmonella, review the currently available detection methods and then provide a detailed overview of the strategies available for controlling Salmonella in poultry, with a particular focus on those employed before the meat is harvested.
Wheat diseases: an overview
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Fungal and viral pathogens lead to significant yield losses in wheat crops worldwide. This chapter reviews the important fungal and viral diseases of wheat, considering their mode of infection, symptoms, distribution and effect on wheat yield. Responses to each pathogen are discussed, including adaptations to wheat production systems, the use of fungicides and insecticides, and improvement of the resistance of wheat to pathogens. Particular emphasis is placed on resistance of wheat as the most cost-effective and environmentally friendly form of plant protection.
Trends in dairy farming and milk production: the case of the United Kingdom and New Zealand
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This chapter reviews the importance of dairy farming to the rural economies of the United Kingdom and New Zealand. It begins by assessing global milk production, considering producer and cow numbers, productivity and trade. It then turns to an examination of the situation in the European Union (EU), which as a whole is the largest milk producer in the world. Marketing structures, production, consumption and trade within this region are reviewed. The next section looks at the United Kingdom (a member state of the European Union at the time of writing). The United Kingdom is the third largest milk producer in the European Union and thirtieth in the world. Finally, the case of New Zealand is reviewed in detail. New Zealand has an almost similar land area to that of the United Kingdom (27 million and 24 million hectares, respectively). However, it is the thirteenth largest milk producer in the world and also the world’s largest exporter of milk products.
Welfare of weaned piglets
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Demands for improved animal welfare and animal handling systems from governments, non-government organizations and consumers are increasing. The weaning period in pork production has particular potential to positively impact animals. This chapter focuses on current practices that can be detrimental to piglet well-being, improvements to these practices, and advances in technology that could improve animal well-being, profitability and sustainability.
Weeds affecting field crops and water bodies in sub-Saharan Africa
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In sub-Saharan Africa, weeds are a serious challenge, undermining food security and economic development. Weeds interfere with various human activities. Despite the different classes of weeds based on habitat (terrestrial or aquatic), life cycle (annual or perennial) or morphology (dicots or monocots), they possess common characteristics such as competitiveness, persistence and cause economic losses. This chapter considers integrated management techniques for a range of weeds, including spear grass (Imperata cylindrica), Striga hermonthica and floating aquatic weeds. The chapter examines the role of Chromolaena odorata in the humid tropics and control measures against it, as well as considering weed control in plantain and cassava systems. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Sustainability pathways in oil palm cultivation: a comparison of Indonesia, Colombia and Cameroon
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Oil palm development is a major subject in controversies over sustainable agriculture. Economic benefits are very high due to the crop characteristics and its impact on smallholder development and economic growth. Producer countries have targeted oil palm expansion to meet national and global demands for food and energy. However, oil palm development also has considerable environmental costs in the form of deforestation, loss of biodiversity and greenhouse gas emissions. In this article, the concept of sustainable pathways is used to describe how sustainability issues are being addressed in three different countries: Indonesia, Colombia and Cameroon.
The use of rotations and cover crops to manage weeds
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Crop rotation has been known for many years as an effective strategy for controlling weeds because it has a disruptive effect on weed populations. Cover crops are important additions to cash crop rotations because they suppress weeds during rotational periods when crops are absent and provide ecosystem services that enhance soil quality and fertility. This chapter describes current research on crop phenological diversity and management disturbance diversity, before suggesting new analytical frameworks for assessing the multifunctional properties and overall sustainability of cover crops and crop rotations. The chapter looks forward to future developments in this area and provides suggestions for further reading on the subject.
The role of herbicide-resistant crops in integrated weed management
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Herbicide-resistant (HR) crops have been a boon for farmers who have adopted them as they provided simple, flexible and economical tool to manage a broad spectrum of weeds and weeds resistant to other herbicides. This chapter reviews the major types of HR crop (commercialized or under development), their benefits and pitfalls. It also discusses how they can fit into an integrated weed management (IWM) programme.
Modelling crop growth and yield in palm oil cultivation
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Since the development of the first semi-mechanistic oil palm model, OPSIM, the development of new oil palm models has increased in frequency, aiming to take into account aspects of oil palm physiology and the physical processes and causal relationships between the environment and the crop. This chapter describes the development of a new oil palm growth and yield model called PySawit. The chapter discusses the evaluation of PySawit’s accuracy when its predictions were compared with several measured parameters of growth and yield in oil palm aged 1–19 years. The chapter includes a full explanation of the methodology of the model and discussion of its results.
The use of insects in integrated weed management
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Seed predation by insects is a potentially promising approach to the regulation of weeds that could offset herbicide use as part of integrated weed management. Using the example of carabid beetles, as the most intensively studied grouping of insect weed seed predators, this chapter describes the current state of knowledge in this subject area and highlights future research trends. The chapter examines the interaction between weeds and predator communities and assesses how fields and landscapes can be managed to enhance weed seed predation. The chapter looks at the level of weed regulation that can realistically be expected from this approach, and provides a detailed case study from the United Kingdom.
The role of microbes in tea cultivation
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Tea crops can suffer from nutrient deficiencies, attack by a variety of pests and pathogens and climatic stresses, which result in considerable crop losses. However, the application of synthetic chemicals to alleviate crop loss has exerted a detrimental impact on the tea ecosystem. Plant growth–promoting microorganisms play an essential role in maintaining sustainable tea cultivation and ecosystem restoration, thereby promoting primary productivity and inducing systemic resistance of plants to diverse pests and diseases. Beneficial soil microorganisms may exhibit mechanisms such as phosphate solubilization, siderophore production, biological nitrogen fixation, potash mobilization, rhizosphere engineering and production of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase and phytohormone in plants. This chapter summarizes and discusses recent progress regarding the understanding of tea soil microflora and its significance to tea plantations. The selection of microbial bioagents might represent a reliable component in the management of significant tea diseases in order to achieve sustainable tea production.
Welfare of laying hens: an overview
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Although the majority of the world’s laying hens are still housed in conventional (‘battery’) cages, public concern for the welfare of laying hens is rapidly changing the methods by which eggs are being produced and marketed in many regions of the world. However, alternative housing systems have their own costs and associated welfare problems, as well as benefits. There are also various welfare concerns for laying hens which are not based solely on how adult laying hens are housed. In this chapter we provide an overview of the current state of knowledge on the major welfare issues for laying hens, including the welfare trade-offs involved with different housing systems, the behavioural requirements of laying hens, the issue of injurious pecking and skeletal health concerns. We also identify new and emerging issues that are directing future research in the area.
Viral metagenomics and sugarcane pathogens
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Plant viral metagenomics has recently proved effective for studying the collection of plant viruses. The advent of metagenomics-based approaches has led to the discovery and characterization of new plant viruses. This chapter describes the plant virus metagenomics methods developed during the last decade and their application in sugarcane pathology. The chapter includes recent studies that have used viral metagenomics-based approaches both to detect existing viruses and identify new viruses. It also looks at the use of these techniques to study the genetic diversity of viruses such as the sugarcane yellow leaf virus.
The use of bacteria in integrated weed management
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Annual grass weeds are increasing as a dominant weed species in the western United States, Canada and Mexico. Downy brome, one of the most widespread, invasive annual grass weeds, negatively affects cereal yields, reduces forage quality in grazing lands, degrades rangelands, and increases the fire frequency of western lands. This chapter reviews how naturally-occurring bacteria were screened to find those that suppress downy brome but do not harm native plants and crops, and how one such bacterial strain, Pseudomonas fluorescens strain ACK55, was identified as able to a reduce downy brome root formation, root growth, and tiller initiation. It then discusses long-term field trials in the western US, in which application of the bacteria resulted in almost complete suppression of downy brome for three to five years after one application, when desirable plants were present.
Closing yield gaps for small- and medium-scale oil palm producers: improving cultivation practices
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The proportion of small- and medium-scale growers in the Colombian oil palm sector has increased in recent years both in terms of land area planted and in terms of number of growers. However, a yield gap has been found among producers, which depends upon their size, with large-scale producers attaining average yields of 6.6 ton FFB/ha per year, higher than those obtained by small- and medium-scale producers. One reason that could explain this yield gap is the lack of adoption of technologies that could overcome yield-limiting factors. This chapter makes use of a detailed case study of strategies implemented by Cenipalma in Colombia to narrow the yield gap between large and small oil palm producers, including the use of organic matter on palm stands and improved irrigation. The chapter proposes future lines of research on further improving the efficiency of oil palm production at both large and small scales.
Sustainable soybean production research and practice: contrasting case studies from three soybean production areas
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Good agricultural practices (GAPs) vary within and among production systems. Improved production technology and favourable weather result in increased productivity in many parts of the world, but not everywhere. Our objective here is to address the question of whether we produce soybean sustainably. We focus on three case studies – Nebraska/U.S., Brazil and Uganda – to compare and contrast current production practices with research-based information on GAPs, while focusing on production system sustainability. In all three cases, abundant opportunities exist to overcome production constraints while improving sustainability.
Waste management and emissions in poultry processing
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A major contributor to emissions and to waste generation in food production is the poultry slaughter-processing plants, especially because one of the greatest sources of indirect emissions from food consumption in the European Union and the United States is the consumption of meat. Quantifying the effects of these emissions is crucial to the successful initiation of strategies to reduce the poultry-processing plant’s environmental footprint. Approximately 15% of poultry greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are generated from multiple sources during post-harvest operations. Operations such as bleed out, scalding and evisceration have the most significant impact on the poultry processing waste stream. The aim of this chapter is to review and analyse what is currently known about the environmental impact of conventional and non-conventional poultry production and processing and discuss where data limitations exist.
Weed management in sorghum cultivation
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Sorghum is, and will remain, an important crop in the USA, especially in marginal environments due to its low input requirements and high resilience. Weed management is a key production challenge for sorghum, and the herbicide tools available are very limited, particularly for post-emergence (POST) control of grass weeds. The weedy relatives such as shattercane and johnsongrass present challenges for selective control in sorghum due to genetic similarities. This chapter presents a number of weed management options and considerations for sorghum, and discusses the critical period for weed control, placing an emphasis on pre-emergence (PRE) control of grasses and other tough-to-control annual weeds. It is concluded that an integrated weed management approach, encompassing a strategic application of PRE and POST herbicides used in combination with non-chemical tactics, will be critical to achieving sustainable weed management in sorghum.
Weed control in cassava cropping systems
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Weed control in cassava fields appears to have received highly variable levels of attention on the different continents where cassava is grown, despite clear messages from farming communities on its importance. Moreover, although grasses and broadleaved weeds are perceived as a major problem in cassava cultivation, the crop is one of the few without concrete chemical and mechanical weed control options. This chapter will discuss the effects of weeds on cassava root yields, farmers’ perceptions of the importance of weed control and the control methods used in different cropping systems. The focus is primarily on Africa, due to the fact that the continent accounts for the largest portion of global cassava production, weed control is not as well developed there and weeds pose a larger threat to livelihoods in Africa than in South America or Asia.
The economics of precision agriculture
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This chapter reviews data on the use of precision agriculture (PA) in agronomic crops production, examines whether economic research has correctly predicted PA technologies adopted by farmers and identifies several PA technologies that recent economic research has identified as having profit and adoption potential. Data shows mechanized farmers adopted global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) guidance technologies rapidly. Those same data show that use of variable rate technology (VRT) grew more slowly. The review of the economics research shows that by the late 1990s economists understood that GNSS guidance and related technologies were likely to be widely adopted in the longer run and they were raising questions about the profitability of VRT. Studies over the last decade show that the most economically promising PA technologies include sensor-driven VRT N, agricultural robotics, artificial intelligence (AI) and big data, and PA for medium and small farms.
Using models to optimize poultry nutrition
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Today’s commercial poultry production is about making decisions and implementing them, the main objective being to maximize profit for the enterprise. Alternative courses of action should be thought of and the consequences of these actions need to be predicted. Animal nutritionists face various problems when formulating feeds for poultry. Advances in simulation modelling have made it possible to look into all aspects of production when formulating feeds for animals. This chapter deals with these issues and looks at the use of simulation models to optimize poultry production. The goal of nutritionists and modellers is to predict the responses of the poultry to nutrients. This chapter looks into this issue. The chapter also describes the methods used to predict the potential laying performance of hens and the environmental factors that affect the desired feed intake. Finally, this chapter also explains how models can be used to optimize feeding programmes.
Understanding the natural antibacterial defences of egg white and their regulation
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Egg white is poor in the nutrients needed by microorganisms and exhibits remarkable antimicrobial properties. Therefore, it participates in protecting both hatching and table eggs from bacterial contamination. This chapter offers a comprehensive overview of the natural defences of egg white and of key parameters controlling hygienic quality and bacterial growth in egg white. In Sections 2 through 4, major and minor egg white proteins with antibacterial properties are described, with particular emphasis on their mode of action and their relative importance. Section 5 discusses the physicochemical and environmental conditions influencing bacterial growth or the activity of antibacterial proteins. Section 6 then covers hen-associated factors influencing the natural defences of egg white. Finally, Sections 7 and 8 explore the physicochemical and antibacterial properties observed in egg white during egg storage and incubation. They also highlight innovative methods to maintain or increase egg white antimicrobial activities.
The development of sugarcane cultivation
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Sugarcane is considered one of the most efficient plants on the planet given its capacity to transform solar energy into chemical energy with high carbon fixation rates. It has traditionally been exploited for sucrose production, but has now also gained importance for energy and ethanol production from bagasse and molasses, two major co-products from sugar processing. This chapter provides an overview of the history of sugarcane and the variety of species, as well as a description of the features of the plant. The chapter introduces breeding, agronomic practices in sugarcane and milling. Finally, the chapter examines types of sugarcane cultivated today and looks ahead to future research and development in this area, and provides suggestions for further reading on this subject.
Supporting smallholders in improving wheat cultivation
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We present an overview of how research and development (R&D) can support smallholder wheat farmers (i.e. wheat farmers with limited access to resources and services), reviewing published research and presenting a case study based on our ongoing wheat technology transfer project in Kenya. Global wheat consumption is increasing rapidly, and most developing countries rely on imports to fulfil national demands. This presents an opportunity for smallholder wheat producers, but a range of factors limit their productivity, generally affecting female farmers more than male farmers. Transfer of research results to smallholder farmers’ fields has had significant impact, although slow. The case study aims to gather information to support effective knowledge and technology transfer.
Advances in understanding oil palm reproductive development
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As for many other crops, yield components of oil palm rely partly on the optimal implementation of its reproductive development. As a result, studies focusing on the mechanisms underlying sex ratio determination, inflorescence development or fruit maturation have rapidly multiplied, significantly improving our comprehension of these processes. Because the influence of the environment on plant development is multiple and since climate models predict large-scale changes in the areas where the oil palm is presently cultivated, current research is increasingly focusing on investigating the effects of such changes on both the physiology and the productivity of the plant, in a bid to help breeding schemes adapt to new requirements regarding stress adaptation traits.
The Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative
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With ever-growing demands for sugar and difficulties in expanding cane area to meet such demands, increasing cane productivity per unit area, but with a reduced ecological footprint, has become imperative. The Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) addresses these concerns. This chapter describes the origins of SSI, its basic principles and the significance of tillering architecture, as well as giving an account of SSI field trials in India. The chapter outlines the expansion of SSI to Africa and Latin America and looks ahead to future challenges and developments in this area.
‘Towards’ sustainability of dairy farming: an overview
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There are many challenges to be faced in making dairy farming sustainable for feeding 9–10 billion people by 2050. This chapter defines what sustainability may mean for the dairy industry and assesses the current sustainability of dairy farming today, before going on to consider visions for a sustainable short-term future. These include emerging technologies such as integrating an ethanol producing plant with a dairy and making use of fuel cells. The chapter speculates on the longer term future of the industry up to 2050 and beyond.
Variable-rate seeding systems for precision agriculture
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Variable-rate seeding (VRS) is the practice of adjusting the seeding rate or amount across a field in order to maximize yield and profit. This method of precision agriculture relies on site-specific data such as soil type, landscape position and yield maps. In the last decade, adoption of this method has dramatically increased as new planter technologies have emerged. This chapter summarizes current practices in VRS, reviewing the available technology and discussing the key strategies in its implementation. It also discusses the economic value of VRS, and the environments in which it could produce the greatest economic return.
Supporting smallholders in tea cultivation
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This chapter describes how smallholder organization can be strengthened to support tea cultivation. Smallholders are weak in terms of productivity owing to low yields and lack of working capital in comparison with large state-owned and private plantations. The chapter describes how the transition from a smallholders’ group to a smallholder-owned company can be managed, and reviews existing literature on smallholder development and lessons that can be learned in this area. It examines the ways in which smallholder-owned companies compete and form partnerships, and looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Sorghum as a food grain
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Grain sorghum is the fifth most produced cereal crop in the world, preceded only by rice, wheat, corn and barley, and it is a dietary staple for more than half a billion people in more than 30 countries. Sorghum is a principal food in areas of Africa and Asia as well as being used as a raw material for alcoholic drinks and beverages. This chapter describes the protein and starch make-up of sorghum and the effects of cooking and processing sorghum on its digestibility and nutrient availability. It also assesses the protein quality of sorghum for human use, describes the sensory and functional characteristics of food products containing sorghum and outlines the health benefits of sorghum.
The role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in tea cultivation
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Continuous application of chemical fertilizers in tea gardens may increase production, but it adversely affects the quality of tea. There is therefore growing interest in rhizosphere associates of tea, including symbionts such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). These colonize tea plant roots and support both growth and improvement in the quality-related parameters of tea. This chapter reviews the use of AMF-based bio-inoculants in tea cultivation. It begins by discussing the range of AMF associated with tea and their effects on the tea rhizosphere. We consider the development of an AMF-based bioformulation for use in tea plantations, and then review the effects of using such a bioformulation on both tea plant growth and tea quality.
Understanding post-harvest deterioration of mangoes
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Post-harvest deterioration in the quality of mangoes is determined in large measure by pre-harvest factors ranging from the cultivar grown to orchard management and harvest practices. This chapter describes the changes related to ripening in mangoes and the pre-harvest, in-harvest and post-harvest practices which can lead to deterioration or damage. The chapter also addresses measures that can be taken to modify mangoes to reduce the risk of deterioration and damage, including fruit thinning and individual fruit bagging or nets. The chapter discusses viable and cost-effective solutions to mango damage and deterioration and looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Sugarcane as a renewable resource for sustainable futures
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Sugarcane is not only the main source of sucrose but also the world’s most important energy crop with an important role in the global sustainability transition, owing to its high productivity, its concentration in developing and emerging economies and the wide array of commercial products that it can provide. This chapter describes the diversification of sugarcane production systems into multiple energy and non-energy products, improving economic competitiveness and environmental sustainability. The chapter examines how improved sugarcane production can contribute to social equality where good governance and inclusive institutions are designed and implemented. It also focuses on sustainability assessment, including the entire supply chain from cultivation through end use. The chapter finally describes the development of bio-refineries using sugarcane as feedstock and examines the ways in which efficient and effective use of sugarcane resources supports sustainable development pathways.
Sorghum tolerance to low-phosphorus soil conditions
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Many sorghum growing areas in Africa are affected by phosphorus (P) scarcity. In these areas small-scale farmers depend on sorghum for food security and income, but have difficulty accessing or paying for P fertilizer. With the expected future price increases for P fertilizer, this problem is likely to increase. Enhancing sorghum tolerance to low P soil conditions is therefore of great importance both now and for the future. This chapter first gives an overview of the worldwide P challenge, and then focuses on the challenges of breeding sorghum for low soil P conditions, taking breeding for smallholder farmers in West Africa as a case study. We summarize the implications for applied sorghum breeding in West Africa, and review the future trends and challenges (both breeding and agronomic/socioeconomic) in bringing benefits of sorghum low-P tolerance to West African farmers.
Use of probiotics and prebiotics in pig nutrition in the post-weaning period
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Prebiotics and probiotics have attracted considerable interest as alternatives or replacements for growth-promoting antibiotics and/or some heavy metals in diets for pigs, particularly in the post-weaning period where the newly weaned pig is subject to considerable challenges in its new environment. This chapter briefly reviews the microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract of the young pig and the important role it plays in the early stages of life. The chapter then defines probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics, in addition to reviewing the research conducted on the topic, including a case study where a probiotic product (Peribios™) has been used commercially to modulate the production around parturition. Finally, it looks ahead for possible future trends and offers suggestions on where to look for more information on the topic.
Sorghum breeding for biotic stress tolerance
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Sorghum breeding is poised to take advantage of remarkable advances in genomics and molecular technologies. Thus, while classical breeding methods have been successful in identifying and incorporating resistance to biotic stresses, this chapter will feature the use of the new tools and technologies that can inform, simplify and accelerate breeding of improved sorghums. We also aim to document many of the previously discovered genetic sources of resistance, since these will be of use with rapidly developing technologies for gene editing and gene transfer. We first review recent classical and molecular developments relating to the major biotic stresses of sorghum, which include diseases (fungal, bacterial and viral), pests, the witchweed, Striga, and nematodes. We go on to consider the structure and function of resistance of ‘R’ genes and their deployment.
Understanding and improving water-use efficiency and drought resistance in tomato
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The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is both a well-established genetic model for plant biology and a horticultural cash crop of increasing importance to human nutrition. Tomato is mainly cultivated under irrigated conditions, so water use is of considerable significance for healthy plant growth and adequate yield. This chapter reviews recent advances in tomato physiology, with particular emphasis on the promising convergence between developmental physiology and water relations. It also endeavours to integrate recent findings with selected earlier studies, and includes a case study of the potential of the wild species Solanum pennellii as a source of drought-resistance for cultivated tomatoes.
Understanding the behaviour of dairy cattle
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In recent years, I have developed the necessary tools to gain a thorough understanding of cow behaviour in intensive management systems. This improved understanding can facilitate the design of new, sustainable management systems, which promote cattle welfare. In this chapter, I provide an overview of the study of cattle preferences and behaviour. I consider the importance of understanding the perceptual world of cows, and then how the preferences and emotions of cows are revealed through their social, nutritional and reproductive behaviour; their movements; and their responses during transport and slaughter. Careful research to identify cows’ emotional responses to increasingly artificial environments should facilitate the identification of systems that are more conducive to high levels of welfare.
The domestication, spread and uses of sorghum as a crop
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Although only a minimal component of human food in developed countries, sorghum remains the fifth most important cereal crop in terms of production and acreage. This is due to its robustness as a cereal crop, biotic and abiotic tolerances, and diversity of both varieties and uses. This chapter describes the diversity of sorghum and its related species, its anthropocentric origins, spread and domestication as well as reviewing its utility as both a source of nutrition for humans and domestic animals. The chapter also examines the population genetics of global sorghum and the crop’s relationship to its wild relatives.
Understanding feed and water intake in poultry
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Feed and water efficiency are two vital economic and agricultural traits. Selection for phenotypic feed efficiency has tremendously improved livestock productivity over the past 50 years. However, there have been a number of undesirable changes in the regulation of energy homeostasis and probably water balance associated with this success. Feed and water efficiency encompasses complex mechanisms regulating feed and water intake, energy expenditure, water retention and excretion, and intermediary metabolism related to nutrient and water utilization and partition. Knowledge of these should be used to guide more effective selection. This chapter focuses first on feed intake regulation, offering a review of current understanding of both central feed intake regulation and peripheral and hormonal regulation. It then turns to the issue of the regulation of water homeostasis. It aims to facilitate further progress by asking new questions which may help in developing mechanisms-based strategies to improve both feed and water efficiency.
Preventing and managing lameness in dairy cows
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Lameness in dairy cows is a major economic and welfare problem worldwide. Despite its importance there are still significant gaps in the published evidence-base, particularly on the subject of disease pathogenesis, treatment and herd interventions. None-the-less, using a systematic approach involving quantifying lameness levels, analysing recorded lesions causing lameness, evaluating risk factors and prioritising interventions it is possible to support producers in the process of improving herd foot health. This chapter reviews the published evidence underpinning control programmes for the prevention and management of lameness in dairy cows.
The nutritional and physiological functions of egg yolk components
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Eggs are of particular interest in nutrition because they contain all the nutrients necessary for human health, except for dietary fibre and vitamin C. The aim of this chapter is to discuss current trends in the study of nutritional and physiological functions of egg yolk. In particular, we will focus on the bioactive components derived from egg yolk (focusing on proteins/peptides and lipids), issues related to egg cholesterol and recent applications of IgY. Research on other areas such as sialic acids and lutein is covered, although in less detail. To place these trends in context, a brief overview of background knowledge about egg yolks is also provided. This chapter updates and expands on the review provided by Hatta et al. (2008).
Producing quality milk from sheep
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This chapter describes the sheep dairy industry and begins by analysing the advantages and disadvantages of different sheep breeds for production of high-quality sheep milk. The chapter addresses in detail various issues arising from the dairy farming of sheep, including frequency of milking, the nutritional needs of pregnant and lactating ewes, the weaning of lambs, photoperiod and season. It also examines milk quality and the common problem of mastitis in ewes and possible prevention and management strategies for the condition. The chapter concludes with future directions the sheep dairy industry might take and points the reader towards further reading on the subject.
Understanding and improving the shelf life of tomatoes
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The shelf life of tomatoes is regulated via a myriad of physiological, biochemical and environmental processes. Tomato, a climacteric fruit, undergoes increases in respiration and ethylene production at the onset of ripening; once the ripening process is initiated it cannot be reversed. Ripening is associated with marked changes in gene expression, regulating the biosynthesis of a large number of catabolic enzymes, including cell wall hydrolases implicated in fruit softening. This chapter explores the advantages and disadvantages of cultivating ripening-impaired tomato mutants and genetically engineered genotypes characterized by inhibition of the ripening process. It shows how control of tomato diseases during both pre-harvest and post-harvest operations can avoid devastating losses, and considers the use of ethylene inhibitors, such as aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG), and 1-MCP, post-harvest management through modified atmosphere packaging, temperature and humidity control, and off-vine ripening of mature green tomato fruit during transit or the marketing chain.
Trickle irrigation systems
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Trickle irrigation is the practice of dripping water into soil at very low rates, using outlets placed closed to the plant to ensure targeted application to the root zone. Since the 1950s, trickle irrigation technology has become increasingly advanced and widespread. It is believed that the technique will become still more important with the depletion of existing water resources and the long-term effects of climate change. The present chapter focuses on surface trickle irrigation, presenting a summary of the basic components of the technology, before discussing the main advantages and disadvantages of the technique. Trickle irrigation makes use of water in a highly efficient way, in that it avoids typical causes of water loss and allows poorer-quality water to be used. However, trickle irrigation systems are costly to install and challenging to maintain. There is a need to develop cheaper, small-scale trickle irrigation systems that are better suited to smallholder needs.
The impact of climate change on wheat insect pests: current knowledge and future trends
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Assessments of sustainability of wheat production systems under climate change must eventually include projected impacts on pests, weeds and diseases. Generating these projections is challenging because of the various mechanisms by which climate change can influence prevalence and impacts of these biotic constraints on production are diverse, and data are limited. This chapter reviews the literature on the potential impact of climate change on principal insect pests of wheat, the different methods that have been employed to assess likely impacts, and the gaps in knowledge that exist. It suggests a research agenda to address these gaps.
Transport and lairage of pigs
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Defects in meat quality cost the swine industry millions of dollars each year. Reduction in stress prior to slaughter can help alleviate these costs. This chapter describes the main events that may contribute to pre-slaughter stress and their impacts on animal welfare and pork quality, from on-farm loading facilities and handling to transportation, lairage and handling at the slaughter facility. The chapter evaluates the effects of different pre-slaughter events on animal welfare and pork quality, and describes what producers, truck drivers and slaughter facilities need to do in order to mitigate these factors.
Sheep nutrition: formulated diets
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The primary feeds for sheep are renewable and contain high concentrations of components that are not suitable for human consumption, making sheep farming sustainable. In some economies, maize, barley, sorghum, wheat, soya beans, rapeseed and their by-products are inexpensive enough to be fed strategically during some stages of the life cycle of sheep. This chapter provides a general overview of sheep nutrient requirements, discusses the measurable components of sheep feeds that supply those nutrients (including fermentable fibre), and suggests practical methods of combining feed ingredients to achieve functional supplements and diets.
Site-specific weed management
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Weeds vary in species and density across fields, but an attempt at uniform management is typically implemented. In this chapter, we review the definition and underpinnings of site-specific weed management, and discuss how information about weed spatial and temporal variability can be used to determine if weed management strategies should be varied by location. We consider how data regarding weed distribution can first be collected using satellites, aerial platforms and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and then verified (ground-truthed) by scouting. We also review the advantages of site-specific weed management, as well as the major factors which stand in the way of its adoption.
Trends in exploring wheat and barley germplasm for novel disease resistance traits
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Wheat and barley are major food crops grown for human consumption worldwide, yet the sustained production of these important cereals continues to be threatened by rapidly evolving fungal pathogens. This chapter highlights recent advancements in phenotyping, genotyping and other breeding technologies that have the potential to speed up the discovery and utilisation of new sources of disease resistance for wheat and barley. Technologies covered include Focused Identification of Germplasm Strategy (FIGS), speed breeding, genome-wide association studies and genomic selection. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
The effect of incubation temperature on embryonic development in poultry
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The aim of this chapter is to examine the specific effects of exogenous and endogenous heat on embryonic growth during different stages of incubation, with an emphasis on controlled incubation temperature studies. The chapter explores the challenges inherent in establishing a temperature recommendation for incubation of poultry eggs, and considers forms of pre-incubation holding as well as the outcomes of both early and late incubation temperatures. Finally, the chapter addresses the connection between incubation temperatures and poultry immunology, as well as thermal manipulations and the potential impact on moderating post-hatch heat stress in chicks. Suggestions on where to find further information is provided as well as suggestions for future lines of research in this area.
Setting and reviewing standards for organic farming
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One of the cornerstones of organic farming is the fact that it is governed by clear standards which are legally protected in many parts of the world, but there is concern that the current certification system does not fully safeguard the objectives and principles of the movement and encourage further improvements in sustainability. The chapter provides a brief history of organic standard development, and introduces the values and principles of organic farming that have guided this process. The chapter discusses advantages and disadvantages of the different types of rules currently used to achieve common objectives, such as prohibitions or obligations to use specified inputs and practices. The chapter explores whether trends in sustainability assessment could help to close the gap between ambition and rules, concluding that research can improve the evidence base, evaluate the impact of standards and produce a better understanding of the barriers that prevent new producers from converting to organic farming.
Safety management on the poultry farm
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Transmission and colonization of poultry pathogens and infectious diseases can be controlled, and the colonization of major zoonotic pathogens in the poultry can be minimized, through better farm safety management, phytosanitary measures and a pre-harvest Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. Such safety management practice can also significantly reduce food safety challenges that are present during post-harvest processing and packaging, improve the microbial quality of poultry products, better protect consumer health and mitigate environmental contamination. Appropriate control of pest and wildlife infiltration and a well-designed, low-stress environment are fundamental to maintaining optimal flock health. Safety training and education of breeders, farmers, suppliers and workers are essential to produce healthy birds while ensuring that poultry farming remains sustainable and economical.
Sampling and detection of Salmonella in eggs
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The detection of Salmonella in the edible internal contents of eggshells provides the most incontrovertible and epidemiologically relevant evidence that laying flocks might pose a threat to consumers. Accordingly, dependable tests for Salmonella in eggs remain essential for achieving public health objectives. Research has helped explain how eggs are contaminated by Salmonella, where the pathogen is deposited and how it potentially multiplies during egg storage, and what types of assays are best able to find contaminants. However, effective utilization of egg testing results is constrained by the methodological challenges of rapidly detecting contamination, which occurs at extremely low cell numbers and prevalence.
The cellular basis of feed efficiency in poultry muscle: mitochondria and nucleic acid metabolism
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Feed is one of the most significant costs involved in animal production, and feed efficiency is therefore a very important genetic trait in animal agriculture. In poultry, a clear link between breast muscle mitochondrial function and feed efficiency has been reported. This chapter provides an overview of the mitochondrial processes which occur in muscle cells, presents the evidence that enhanced mitochondrial functions lead to high feed efficiency, and then considers the role of enhanced nucleotide metabolism and muscle cytoarchitecture in the feed efficiency of broilers.
Thermal adaptation and tolerance of poultry
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Fowls are endothermic species controlling body temperature (Tb) within a relatively narrow range, despite moderate to extreme changes in environmental conditions. Tb is recognized as the main characteristic that reflects thermal status. Significant developments in the genetic selection of domestic fowl enhanced performance-improved feed efficiency and increased metabolic rate, leading to low capability to balance energy expenditure and maintain body water balance under extreme environmental conditions. This chapter will focus on the effect of combinations of environmental conditions (temperature, ventilation, relative humidity) on thermal status and performance parameters of broilers, turkeys and laying hens. Furthermore, it will offer the use of epigenetic temperature adaptation during embryogenesis as a tool to improve thermotolerance and performance.
Wheat pests: introduction, rodents and nematodes
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Three major groups of organisms cause biotic stress in wheat: pests, diseases and weeds. This chapter and the chapter that follows are about wheat pests. Three major pest taxa affect wheat: rodents, nematodes and arthropods. Rodents and nematodes are introduced in this first chapter, along with unique features of pests and wheat pest management. Insect and mite arthropod pests are introduced in the second chapter.
Traceability in the beef supply chain
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Traceability, or rapid access to knowledge of the history, treatment and location of cattle and beef products through supply chains, is of paramount importance to food safety investigations, corrective actions and product recalls. This chapter defines traceability as applied to beef before describing in detail methods of unique identification for cattle, such as radio-frequency identification and DNA profiling. The chapter explores the traceability of beef offered by barcoding and provides a case study of cattle and beef traceability through a supply chain from farm to retail using a distributed network, along with detailed suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Responsible and sustainable use of medicines in dairy herd health
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As well as having a moral obligation to safeguard animal health and welfare, veterinarians and dairy producers also have One Health responsibilities to protect human health and the environment from the risk of antimicrobial resistance and the food chain from medicine residues. This chapter describes the regulatory control of medicines in the United Kingdom and European Union, and discusses the wider implications of antimicrobial use in dairy production and the need for change in the way we view and use medicines. The chapter proposes how medicine prescribing practices might be changed in the dairy industry, and reports data showing that certain critically important antimicrobials can be phased out over a relatively short period, whilst simultaneously improving animal health, welfare and milk production.
The use and abuse of cereals, legumes and crop residues in rations for dairy cattle
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The production of animal feed requires a significant amount of water, competes with food production through the allocation of arable land, and restricts organic matter availability for soil health. Once feed is consumed, inefficient conversion then contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and other pollution. When choosing feed sources and feeding methods, it is therefore essential to consider context-specific trade-off analyses and optimization strategies, and to take into account the relationships between use of natural resources, feed products and the livestock in question. This chapter will review key elements in trade-off analysis and explore opportunities for and limitations to making better use of existing feed resources and producing more feed biomass of higher fodder quality with reduced environmental foot print.
Supporting smallholders in organic crop cultivation: the case of East Africa
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The value chains of several vegetables and other crops in Eastern Africa are growing in volume and value and are potentially making an impact on the livelihood of the involved producers, processers, transporters, retailers and sales-sites. This chapter reports the outcomes of selected ProGrOV case studies in East Africa involving farmers, students and scientists together with advisors from organic organizations in developing and testing agroecological practices for the intensification of kale, maize, sweet pepper and tomatoes for organic markets. After outlining the methodology of the field study approach, the chapter examines challenges and innovations in pest, weed and soil fertility management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
The use of growth promoters in pig nutrition
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This chapter will describe the use of growth promoters in pigs, specifically growth hormone (GH) and beta-adrenergic agonist (BA), with the latter focussing on ractopamine. After introducing each growth promoter, their individual effects on growth and feed efficiency will be described, followed by sections on their mechanisms of action and effects on muscle fibre type and meat quality. Lastly, the recent studies on the use of the two growth promoters in combination will be described along with consideration of their future use commercially in relation to issues of global food security.
The effects of housing systems for laying hens on egg safety and quality
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Since the turn of the century, there have been rapid shifts worldwide in the housing and management systems used for laying hens. These have been mandated partly as a response to consumer concern for hen well-being. However, factors such as the quality, safety and price of eggs are also very important to consumers. In this chapter, we examine the impact of different housing systems on the safety and quality of eggs. Sections 2, 3 and 4 concentrate on safety, and review recent research about how hen housing and flock management affect indicator populations, food borne pathogens, and chemical contamination. Section 5 then considers the quality of both the egg’s shell and its interior. We also note how different research settings and methods have produced apparently contradictory results, and make recommendations for the direction of future research.
Poultry meat quality: an overview
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Meat quality is a complex issue, with different requirements from consumers and processors. Consumption quality is based on an assessment of subjective sensory qualities, nutritive value and assurance that animal welfare issues have been respected. In contrast, processing quality is mainly based on objective physical and/or chemical features. This chapter summarizes current research on poultry meat quality. Aspects of poultry meat quality (ingredients, nutritive-physiological value, hygiene and toxicology, physical and technological properties, sensory characteristics) are defined, factors affecting these aspects are named and methods for determining the aspects are described in detail. Indicators of meat maturation such as pH or conductivity are described as the main basis for consumption and processing quality of the meat. Attention is also drawn to poultry meat as an enriched food (for example, with n-3 fatty acids), to the incidence of and probable reasons for quality aberrations and to hygienic risks.
Recent advances in understanding the role of vitamins in pig nutrition
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Requirements for vitamins in modern intensive swine production are still based on genetically outdated lines of pigs and production conditions which have changed dramatically during the last 30 years. This chapter describes recent advances related to the role of vitamins and their importance for some aspects of oxidative mechanisms, especially in relation to the development and competence of the immune system. The chapter outlines the potential contribution of both fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins and offers new perspectives on the relationship between vitamins and antioxidation capacity.
Understanding poultry behaviour
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In the context of poultry production, behavioural studies have been particularly useful for optimizing management strategies and understanding the welfare of commercially raised poultry. This chapter aims to provide an overview of the contributions that the study of animal behaviour has made to poultry science, and to provide general guidance on the design, execution and interpretation of behavioural research. We begin with an overview of commonly used research methods and methodological challenges that should be considered before behavioural data is collected. Next, we provide specific examples of how behavioural approaches have been used to explore the importance and consequences (positive and negative) of perch access. We offer some thoughts on current and future trends in applied ethology and conclude with a list of resources on the topics covered here.
The nutritional role of eggs
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Eggs are an affordable, accessible and nutrient-dense form of food, and as such make a valuable addition to human diet. This chapter begins by reviewing the nutrient composition of chicken eggs. It then considers the relationship between egg consumption and human health and disease. This includes reviewing current research on the connection between egg intake, cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Eggs are also considered as part of a high-protein diet for the promotion of weight loss. Finally, some additional potential health benefits of eggs are briefly reviewed, and directions for future research are suggested.
Welfare issues affecting free-range laying hens
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Free-range laying hen production systems involve providing flocks of hens with the chance to use minimally controlled outdoor areas, rather than keeping them in intensive, environmentally controlled, indoor housing. Such systems are considered more natural and ethical. However, highly productive modern genotypes, selected for cage production, are harder to manage in large flocks and outdoor environments. To sustainably improve free-range housing and management, we must understand how hens behave in these systems, the welfare challenges they face and what modifications will, in practice, adequately address hens’ needs. This chapter reviews the following areas of significance and concern: individual differences in range use, behavioural expression on the range, correlations between ranging and health variables, parasite loads, adequate nutrition, grass impaction, feather pecking and cannibalism.
The challenge of sustainable water resources management under water scarcity
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Historically, water control developments were mostly small-scale, locally managed and hydrologically independent, with annual rainfall, runoff and recharge setting the limits to annual use. In recent decades, the vast expansion of irrigation (the largest water user with about 70% withdrawal worldwide) has resulted in dramatic increases in water consumption. The escalation of water scarcity, further impacted by climate change, is posing huge challenges for sustainable water resources management. A solution, which has prominently influenced the agenda of planners, policy makers and financial institutions, for improvement of irrigation technology is replacement of traditional ‘inefficient’ techniques with ‘modern’ irrigation systems, assuming that significant amounts of water can be saved and released for other uses. This chapter reports case studies which demonstrate that, most of the time, water consumption increased with ‘modernization’ of irrigation. We argue that restoring a balance between sustainable supply and consumption of water first requires physical control of water allocation and consumption.
Regional strategies in sustainable water management for irrigation: the eco-efficiency approach
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This chapter addresses a variety of challenges associated with regional water management, including the resolution of conflicts between sectors in order to resolve ‘demand versus availability’ equation and the symbiosis needed between agronomy and engineering in order to optimize the performance of irrigation networks. The chapter explores the adoption of the eco-efficiency approach as a modern management concept and indicator of sustainable water use, and presents a case study to demonstrate how the eco-efficiency approach has been applied over a large irrigation district located in Puglia region (Southern Italy). The chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Welfare standards for laying hens
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Consumers regard animal welfare as an important attribute of the food they eat. Sellers have to pay due attention to animal welfare before selling food like eggs or poultry to people. There are many welfare standards for laying hens and this chapter looks into some of these standards like commercial welfare standards and global standards. The way in which these standards are implemented is important to ensure quality in production and this chapter looks into this important aspect.
Progress in understanding viruses affecting sugarcane
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There are currently around ten diseases of sugarcane known to be caused by viruses. In recent years our understanding of these diseases has greatly benefited from access to low-cost sequencing technologies which have revolutionized virus discovery, improved our understanding of genetic variation in viral populations, improved diagnostic options, and helped us to understand gene functions and identify gene targets for control. This chapter will address the broad themes of virus discovery, genetic variation, diagnostic technologies and control. The chapter presents case studies describing the impact of two major viral diseases in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia.
Proximal soil surveying and monitoring techniques
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The understanding of soil fertility is fundamental to agricultural production. However, soils can show great variation both spatially and temporally. This chapter outlines the key challenges faced in monitoring such variation and the solutions that have been developed and further employed to aid in optimizing crop production. Sampling methods are described, with a focus on proximal soil sensing where a sensor is placed in the soil or at a very short distance from the soil surface. These types of sensors provide information which is particularly useful in developing high-resolution soil maps for use in precision agriculture. A wide array of sensors is presented followed by a section on how such sensors may be integrated into agricultural management. An overview of future trends in research and development in this field is also included.
Organic mango production: a review
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In recent years the demand for organic mango, along with the health concerns of consumers, has increased. Few technologies are currently available to support organic mango production systems in the main mango-growing regions. This chapter explains current technologies for field sustainable and organic mango production and postharvest processing. The chapter describes the importance of climate and soil selection, selection of cultivars and rootstocks and soil preparation and planting. The chapter addresses issues arising from the management of established mango orchards including weed control, irrigation and pest and disease management. Finally, the chapter compares organic and conventional systems of mango production.
Viruses affecting African crops and their vectors
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Plant viruses are one of the major constraints to crop production in Africa. Consequently, research into understanding and managing viruses has been a major theme of IITA’s work over its 50-year history. This chapter reviews the progress made in characterizing the major viruses affecting bananas, cassava, maize, cowpeas, soybeans and yams, and in developing management options. The viruses covered include cassava mosaic and cassava brown streak diseases, maize streak disease, maize lethal necrosis and banana bunchy top disease. The chapter identifies virus vectors and discusses emerging techniques and future perspectives for plant virus management in Africa. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Weed ecology and population dynamics
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Agricultural trends, including a global rise in herbicide-resistant weed genotypes and a growing demand for food produced with minimal external synthetic inputs, are driving producer interest in reducing reliance on herbicides for weed management. An improved understanding of weed ecology can support the design of weed-suppressive agroecosystems. This chapter explores current scientific knowledge of ecological levels of organizations, including populations, communities and agroecosystems, relevant to the study and management of agricultural weeds. A population dynamics framework for targeting management tactics to specific weed life stages is presented, and its applicability to solving real-world weed management problems is demonstrated in a case study of mitigating the invasive potential of an exotic bioenergy crop species.
Progress in understanding fungal diseases affecting sugarcane: rusts
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Rust fungi (Uredinales or Pucciniales) are a globally distributed order of obligate parasitic fungi occurring on vascular plants. The typical symptom is a ‘rust-coloured’ (often orange or yellow) pustule on a plant leaf. Economically, rust fungi cause enormous crop losses, including in sugarcane. This chapter summarizes current knowledge of sugarcane rusts in terms of relevant background biology, pathogen dispersal, disease identification, environmental conditions favouring disease, crop loss, host-plant resistance and control measures. The chapter focuses on the history, identification and control of three varieties of rust: brown, orange and tawny.
Sustainable control of gastrointestinal nematode parasites affecting sheep
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The threat of anthelmintic resistance has loomed over recommendations to control gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in sheep for several decades, and in some regions GIN is threatening the sustainability of sheep farming. This chapter describes the current state of options to achieve sustainable control of GIN in sheep, covering general principles of worm control and methods specific to controlling GIN, including nematophagous fungi, condensed tannins, copper oxide wire particles and vaccines.
Sustainably meeting the nutrient requirements of grazing sheep
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In order to be sustainable, sheep rearing systems must be sufficiently flexible to respond to variable conditions and feed availability. This chapter argues that sustainable sheep management works with the resources available at a given place or time and learns from the sheep themselves. The chapter further describes how sheep cope with a variable supply of nutrients, and examines in detail (including via a case study) the importance of understanding the potential variety and usefulness of forages. The chapter also addresses how animals learn about forages, and concludes that sheep production can be made sustainable by providing diverse forages suited to the local environment and by managing the experiences of animals so they learn to combine appropriate mixtures of plants as sources of nutrition.
Surveillance and monitoring of weed populations
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To implement integrated weed management more effectively, the temporal and spatial distribution of weed populations in a field need to be determined. Weed species tend to be patchy and this influences the ability to calculate average weed densities when conducting a survey. This chapter reviews current and evolving practices for the scouting and mapping of weed populations both during and across growing seasons. It considers the use of scouts on the ground; UAVs with cameras flying over the fields; and advanced software and computer-based tools to detect, identify and record weed species. The use of regional and global scales to understand changes in the occurrence of herbicide-resistant or invasive weed populations is also discussed.
Sugarcane genome sequencing and genetic mapping
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Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is one of the most important crops for producing sugar and bioethanol, and breeding for superior sugarcane cultivars would benefit significantly from available genetic and genomic resources. This chapter explains the difficulties of sequencing and mapping the genome of sugarcane and strategies to overcome these difficulties. The chapter outlines progress on sugarcane sequencing, genetic mapping of simply inherited and complex traits. The chapter then focuses on the mapping of a gene controlling sugarcane brown rust resistance, Bru1, which exemplifies the concepts of marker-assisted selection. Finally, the chapter discusses prospects for future research in sugarcane genome sequencing and genetic mapping.
Validating indicators of sheep welfare
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Until recently, assessment of sheep welfare has received little attention, perhaps because sheep have traditionally been managed extensively and their relative behavioural freedom has led to perceptions of fewer or lower risks to their welfare. However, extensively managed sheep are still vulnerable to welfare challenges, and intensive systems and their attendant welfare impacts are becoming increasingly common. Regardless of the production system, practical and validated indicators of both negative and positive experiences that influence sheep welfare are required to facilitate the identification, prevention and mitigation of negative welfare impacts and to enhance welfare wherever possible. In this chapter, a process is outlined for identifying welfare indicators that are valid and practical for use on-farm, during transport or before slaughter. The chapter includes a case study on the validity of body condition score as an indicator of hunger and points to the need for research to validate indicators of specific states identified as posing risks to sheep welfare.
Probiotics, prebiotics and other feed additives to improve gut function and immunity in poultry
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Poultry producers have been cautious in the application of probiotics, due to mixed experiences of their effectiveness and lack of knowledge regarding the scientific basis for their modes of action. Prebiotics have been more readily accepted because they can be added without any significant change to traditional practices. Recent research has increased our knowledge of the effects of both types of treatment, their possible modes of action, and the strengths and limitations of their use. We are beginning to understand why some products may give variable outcomes and what may be done to further validate the performance of existing products and develop a new generation of more reliable and effective probiotics and prebiotics.
Restoring degraded grasslands
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Grazed grasslands are complex ecosystems, and careful and responsible management is essential for their growth and maintenance. This chapter examines the inter-relationship of species, microbial activity, nutrients and environmental factors in restoring and maintaining their health, sustainability and productivity. The chapter outlines the key factors in restoration of degraded grasslands, such as promoting both the ecosystem’s biogeochemical processes and internal grass mechanisms that gradually alter grassland species composition. The chapter also looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Precision weed management systems
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Weed populations in arable fields are often spatially and temporally heterogeneous, and high-density weed patches require intensive weed management. In areas with no or few weeds, input for weed control can be reduced. This chapter describes manual and geographic information system–based weed mapping approaches and sensor-based weed identification technologies and their application to create weed maps. It also describes the adoption of patch sprayers based on application maps and real-time sensor information. This chapter shows that site-specific weed control in cereals, oilseed rape, sugar beet and maize using Global Navigation Satellite System-controlled patch sprayers can reduce herbicide input by 20–60%. It looks ahead to the development of precision farming technologies for mechanical weeding, including automatic steering systems for intra-row hoeing and robotic inter-row weeding.
