Suhas P. Wani, Kaushal K. Garg, Girish Chander and K. H. Anantha, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India
Improving water use in tropical rain-fed systems: the situation in India
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The quantity of available water and land has not increased since 1950, but the availability of water and land per capita has declined significantly due to an increased global human population. Global food security for this growing population requires careful management of water resources. In this chapter, we analyse the status of agricultural water use in tropical rain-fed areas, assess the potential for improvement and then propose a new paradigm to manage agricultural water efficiently by adopting various land, water, nutrient and crop management technologies.
Y. Nys, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), France
Laying hen nutrition: optimising hen performance and health, bone and eggshell quality
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Hen nutrition must address a number of different goals including maximising egg production, maintaining egg quality, extending the laying cycle and ensuring hen health and welfare. This chapter focuses on the dietary influences on eggshell quality and bone health. It looks first at the role of phosphorus and calcium in the diet. It then goes on to review other nutritional factors such as fatty acids, vitamins, magnesium and trace elements. After a review of dietary influences on egg yolk coloration, the chapter concludes by discussing the ways nutrition can promote hen health in such areas as the prevention of hepatic steatosis, osteoporosis, keel bone disorders and feather picking.
C. J. Swanton and T. Valente, University of Guelph, Canada
Key issues and challenges of integrated weed management
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In order to intensify agricultural productivity while at the same time enhance ecosystem services, it is necessary to evaluate carefully how current weed-management technologies are deployed, including herbicides and herbicide-resistant crops. Herbicide chemistries and herbicide-resistant crops have provided excellent technologies that have resulted in significant changes to the way weeds can be controlled. This chapter highlights several key components that must form the basis for an effective integrated weed-management strategy, including tillage, the importance of understanding weed emergence relative to the crop, critical periods for weed control, crop morphology, row width, nutrient management and crop rotation.
E. Simonne, M. Ozores-Hampton, A. Simonne and A. Gazula, University of Florida, USA
Improving water and nutrient management in tomato cultivation
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Agricultural practices for tomato production need to (1) fulfil the water and nutritional requirements of the crop for optimal production, (2) consider the environmental impact of production and (3) offer nutritious and safe tomatoes to consumers. This chapter focuses on irrigation and fertilization practices for field production of conventionally grown round (‘fresh-market’) and processing (‘Roma’) tomatoes, presenting the main US environmental regulations, together with related food-safety issues. Finally, this chapter describes challenges and successes in improving water and nutrient management practices in commercial fields.
Kenton Dashiell, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria
Key challenges in plant health in sub-Saharan Africa: stakeholder priorities
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This chapter comprises short summaries of research priorities from key stakeholders who have worked with the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) on plant health. Stakeholders were categorised into the following groups: international organisations (e.g. the FAO), universities, institutes working within national agricultural research systems (NARS) in sub-Saharan Africa, and donors/investors. Statements highlight such issues as: the importance of collaboration both at an institutional and individual level; the role of IITA in capacity building for example in training of NARS staff; the success of biocontrol techniques in IPM, many of them pioneered by IITA with its partners, particularly in managing major African crops such as cassava, maize and bananas; and the importance of effective monitoring/surveillance and robust phytosanitary arrangements to limit the spread of new diseases and insect pests.
Dr Candido Pomar
Meeting individual nutrient requirements to improve nutrient efficiency and the sustainability of growing pig production systems
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Precision feeding involves the use of feeding techniques that provide individual animals with diets tailored daily to production objectives (e.g. maximum growth). A method of estimating energy and nutrient requirements by integrating current relevant knowledge on pig metabolism has been developed and incorporated into a mathematical model. This chapter reviews recent research projects which indicate that feeding pigs a diet tailored daily to their individual requirements is essential to maximize nutrient efficiency and ensure the sustainability of the pig industry by reducing the excretion of nutrients and nutrient constituents and lowering feeding costs. This new nutritional approach represents a paradigm shift in pig feeding, because the optimal dietary nutrient level is no longer considered a static population attribute, but rather a dynamic process that evolves independently for each animal. Precision feeding is a highly promising avenue for improving resource use efficiency in comparison with conventional group phase-feeding programmes.
H. Spieß, B. Schmehe and C. Vollenweider, LBS Dottenfelderhof, Germany
Key issues in breeding and trialling robust cereal cultivars for organic farming
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This chapter provides an overview of key issues in organic crop breeding and presents objectives, activities and results of concrete organic cereal breeding projects. Organic crop breeding is a small but rapidly growing branch of organic agriculture. Its primary objective is to develop cultivars suitable for the conditions of organic farming systems, which include a limited and generally more diverse plant nutrient availability, higher pressures of weeds, diseases and pests as well as special product quality requirements. This chapter provides an insight into concrete organic crop breeding projects with a special focus on resistance breeding programmes and cultivar triallings for cereal crop diseases such as common and dwarf bunt of wheat (Tilletia caries, T. controversa), Fusarium head blight (Fusarium spp.), yellow stripe rust of wheat (Puccinia striiformis), loose smut of oats (Ustilago avenae) and barley leaf stripe (Pyrenophora graminea). The chapter also outlines future needs and strategies.
Duy Ngoc Do, McGill University, Canada; and Haja N. Kadarmideen, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
Genetic factors affecting feed efficiency, feeding behavior and related traits in pigs
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Feed resource efficiency contributes to sustainable production of pig meat, both economically and environmentally. This chapter describes different measures of feed efficiency and the underlying genetics of feeding in pigs, drawing on studies of genetic correlations of residual feed intake (RFI) with pig production traits and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) revealing the genetic architecture and biological mechanisms of feed efficiency. The chapter looks ahead to the future and recommends adoption of an integrative systems genomic approach to ensure accurate genomic prediction and a more comprehensive biological understanding of feed efficiency.
Istvan Rajcan and Jocelyne Letarte, University of Guelph, Canada
Improving the nutritional value of soybean
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Soybean is grown for its high oil and protein concentration and profile in the seed. Numerous studies have been carried out to determine the underlying genetics of soybean seed composition traits and develop molecular markers that can aid in the breeding of soybean cultivars with enhanced nutritional quality. This chapter considers genetics and breeding of soybean to improve the nutritional value of the seed as the end product. The chapter describes the protein content and profile of soybean seeds before considering breeding soybean for a modified fatty acids profile that could extend soybean oil’s shelf life or address various health or nutritional issues. Finally, the chapter explores how breeding could improve the contents of tocopherols, isoflavones and saponins in soybean seeds, which are known to have important health benefits for humans.
Dr A. L. Ridler
Improving the welfare of ewes
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Ewes are often grazed in large flocks in extensive pastoral production systems, and it is relatively uncommon for ewes to be individually identified or tallied. Given the relatively low economic value of adult ewes, health or production problems may go unnoticed for some time. Health problems affecting ewes may therefore go unchecked in large flocks or small flocks that are part of larger farming enterprises, and non-evidence-based strategies sometimes used by producers to prevent disease may potentially be more detrimental to ewes than the disease itself. This chapter considers major welfare considerations affecting ewes, including longevity, mortality, undernutrition and body condition score, environment and housing, lambing management and dystocia, vaginal prolapse, lameness and footrot, ectoparasites and on-farm euthanasia. This is followed by a consideration of future trends in research for improving the welfare of ewes.
Calvin Odero, University of Florida, USA
Integrated weed management in sugarcane cultivation
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Weeds reduce sugarcane yield by competing for water, nutrients and light. They may also act as alternative hosts for disease and insect pests and increase production costs and lower land value. Implementation of integrated weed management (IWM) in sugarcane is essential to reduce the negative impact of weeds to economically acceptable levels, and understanding of the critical period of weed control (CPWC) is important so that IWM strategies can be developed to maximize control measures. This chapter deals with an integrated approach involving different methods of effective weed management in sugarcane that can be adopted for sustainable production, involving cultural, mechanical and chemical weed control.
Dr Dr Peter Neuenschwander
Introduction: meeting challenges in plant health in sub-Saharan Africa
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This volume is a review of plant health research and its implementation by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and its collaborators worldwide to celebrate IITA’s fiftieth anniversary. It addresses plant health issues of global importance in sub-Saharan Africa, including hunger, poverty and threats to economic development and the environment. The volume addresses new and emerging plant health challenges in particular, including the effects of climate change, the significant increase in international trade which introduces invasive species, the rapid loss of biological diversity and new pest pathways. The volume’s overall goal is to encourage sustainable and productive agriculture in Africa, feeding into local value chains and improving the livelihood of Africans across the continent. This introduction to the individual chapters that describe specific plant health issues provides a historical context for plant health research and implementation and gives an overview of the structure of the text as a whole.
Robert L. Gilbertson, Marcela Vasquez-Mayorga and Mônica Macedo, University of California-Davis, USA; and R. Muniappan, Virginia Tech, USA
Integrated pest management in tomato cultivation
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Pests and diseases contribute to about 40% of tomato yield loss in the field worldwide. This chapter will focus on how to combat pests and diseases using integrated pest management (IPM). The development of an IPM package for tomato involves the combination of multiple management strategies to address various pests and diseases, and will vary with region, production system and environment. For this chapter, we divide production into three parts: before the growing season, during the growing season and after the growing season. We present the major management strategies that are used during these parts of production, as well as the ones that are used for different production systems and, where relevant, environmental conditions.
J. M. K. Ojango, R. Mrode, A. M. Okeyo, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Kenya; J. E. O. Rege, Emerge-Africa, Kenya; M. G. G. Chagunda, Scotland’s Rural College (SRUC), UK; and D. R. Kugonza, Makerere University, Uganda
Improving smallholder dairy farming in Africa
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An estimated 80% of the milk produced in Africa is from smallholder farming systems where producers rear less than 10 head of cattle on land sizes that vary from 0.2 to 4 hectares. Smallholder farmers rear a wide variety of genotypes in a variety of mixed crop and livestock systems, reflecting the husbandry and management knowhow of farmers. Cattle feed resources, water, animal health, animal handling, breeding management and socio-economic factors limit productivity. Most countries in Africa rely on genetic improvement technologies realized in more developed countries, yet they lack national programmes geared to improve breeding and production efficiency. In addition to presenting a broad overview of the existing smallholder dairy production systems and management practices in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), this chapter highlights key challenges and opportunities in the systems, presents possible intervention options for sustainable change and the key regional organizations catalysing change in practices within existing systems.
Paolo Bàrberi, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Italy
Integrated weed management in organic cropping systems
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Weed management is a key challenge for organic production. Integrated Weed Management (IWM), that is, the combination of different tactics within a long-term management strategy, can keep weed abundance low. However, successful IWM relies on maximum diversification of the cropping system, which is rarely accomplished. This chapter presents examples of successful integration between preventive, cultural and direct tactics in an IWM strategy. It reviews IWM approaches for difficult cases such as intra-row weed control, the presence of problematic weeds and reduced-tillage systems. Finally, future advances which could promote the adoption of IWM in organic systems are discussed.
Ignazio Graziosi and Kris A.G. Wyckhuys, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Vietnam
Integrated management of arthropod pests of cassava: the case of Southeast Asia
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High-yielding varieties and improved agronomy have led to substantial increases in cassava crop productivity throughout Southeast Asia; however, in recent years, those advances are being jeopardized by recurrent outbreaks of several non-native arthropod pests and (insect-vectored) pathogens. In this chapter, we provide an up-to-date account of recently-arrived invasive pests that are impacting Asia’s cassava crops and are having substantial repercussion for cassava crop production in multiple Asian countries. We indicate how both invasive insects, secondary pest outbreaks and insect-vectored diseases are becoming of increasing importance in several of Asia’s prime cassava-growing areas. We describe country-specific and regional mitigation programs and responses of local farmers to escalating pest outbreaks, listing both curative and preventative management tactics. We outline future opportunities for Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and arthropod biological control, and lay the basis for multi-disciplinary efforts to safeguard the long-term productivity, sustainability and agro-ecosystem health of one of Asia’s primary agricultural commodities.
Babatima Djana Mignouna, IITA, Benin; P. Lava Kumar, IITA, Nigeria; Danny Coyne, IITA, Kenya; and Ranajit Bandyopadhyay, Alejandro Ortega-Beltran, Ranjana Bhattacharjee and David De Koeyer, IITA, Nigeria
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: yams and cocoyams
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A large proportion of the world’s yams, which are mostly indigenous to Africa, and the exotic taro and cocoyam are grown in West and Central Africa by resource-poor farmers. Surveys demonstrate recycling and build-up of pathogens and nematodes from one generation to the next because of their vegetative mode of propagation. Minisett techniques, organ culture, vine cuttings and so on, and the use of botanic seeds can alleviate these problems. The main pests are two types of nematodes, among which root-knot nematodes have increased recently, yam beetles, fungi and viruses, but many fungal pathosystems remain unexplored. Marker-assisted resistance breeding, particularly against yam mosaic virus, is using next-generation sequencing techniques and robust phenotypic screening. Virus-free material can be obtained by hot water treatment of seed tubers. There is a huge prospect of using genomics and transgenic approaches to accelerate the rate of improvement without affecting production and productivity.
Aruna C., B. Dayakar Rao, Vilas A. Tonapi and T. G. Nageshwar Rao, Indian Institute of Millets Research, India
Improving production and utilization of sorghum in Asia
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Sorghum was once a major crop in dry regions. However, its production area has decreased drastically, especially in Asia. In order to revitalize sorghum production, we must reorient sorghum research in the contexts of present and future demands, and resolve specific production constraints, thereby improving productivity. This chapter analyses the sorghum production system in Asia, comparing it to the global situation and identifying important constraints. It then reviews potential measures to improve sorghum cultivation in Asia, including genetic improvement, improved processing technologies, marketing strategies and policy measures.
A. G. Levin, Supplant Ltd, Israel
Improving fertilizer and water-use efficiency in mango cultivation
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The irrigation requirements of mango have not been adequately investigated, and very few studies have been conducted on regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) strategies at different phenological stages. The aim of this chapter is to suggest how research in the field of irrigation and fertilization can help solve the challenges faced by the mango industry and be translated into practical outcomes for farmers by making mango production more sustainable. In order to achieve this goal, based on an extensive and detailed review of the most relevant researches on these topics, the chapter identifies potential areas for applied research that can significantly contribute to more sustainable mango agriculture in small, medium and large mango farms in developed and developing countries. The chapter includes a detailed case study.
Dr Dr Muaka Toko
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: cassava
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The long history of cassava as a hardy crop, relatively free from diseases and pests’ attacks, ended in the 1970s when the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti and the cassava green mite Mononychellus tanajoa invaded Africa and devastated the crop to the point of wiping it out as was the case with P. manihoti, while losses from cassava bacterial blight caused hunger in some regions. Before these invasions, a dozen arthropods and four common diseases, some causing significant yield losses, had been recorded on cassava. This chapter considers the cases of P. manihoti, M. tanajoa, Stictococcus vayssierei, Zonocerus variegatus and four main diseases: cassava bacterial blight, cassava anthracnose, cassava leaf spots and cassava root and stem rots (the viral diseases being treated in Chapter 5 of this book). This narrow selection is justified, as proven control methods – biological, cultural and resistance breeding – can be adapted to control other cassava pests.
Ranajit Bandyopadhyay, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; Kitty F. Cardwell, Oklahoma State University, USA; Alejandro Ortega-Beltran, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; Fritz Schulthess, Rheinst
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: maize
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A range of insect pests and diseases compromise the quantity, quality and safety of maize, with a negative impact on the food security, income generation and health of African people. This chapter highlights work conducted by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) on key insect pests and fungal diseases of maize, with the aim of reducing their burden on African agriculture. At first, diagnostic research focussed on identifying key insect pests and diseases. As invasive pests and diseases such as downy mildew and larger grain borer appeared, appropriate technologies to manage them were developed. Further attention has been given to reducing post-harvest losses, generating integrated pest management options for stemborers and investigating the impact of aflatoxins on child health and scaling out a biocontrol solution. With the recent spread of fall armyworm across Africa, a large amount of work has been initiated for its control.
Thom Huppertz and Inge Gazi, NIZO food research, The Netherlands
Ingredients from milk for use in food and non-food products: from commodity to value-added ingredients
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The use of milk in a wide range of products has resulted in the development of a wide range of dairy ingredients for use in dairy and non-dairy foods, as well as non-food products. These ingredients range from commodity ingredients, for example, milk powder and whey powder, to milk protein ingredients, such as caseins, caseinates, whey protein ingredients, milk protein concentrates (MCPs) and milk protein hydrolysates. Furthermore, lactose and lactose derivatives, for example, lactulose, lactobionic acid and the prebiotic galactooligosaccharides, and milk fat globule membrane material fractions, may also be produced. This chapter reviews the main dairy ingredients and their applications.
Janne Lundén, University of Helsinki, Finland
Inspection techniques for poultry slaughterhouse operations: the case of the European Union
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Poultry slaughter includes complex and challenging operations from a food safety point of view. The food business operator (FBO) is responsible for identifying food safety risks and ensuring that food safety legislation is followed. This chapter considers the goals and prerequisites of successful food safety inspections, and then offers a detailed review of inspection techniques used in official control of poultry slaughterhouses, with a focus on the on-site inspection of facilities and operations. Common non-compliance issues are described, followed by discussion of the efficacy of control actions used by official veterinarians.
W. Tadesse, A. Amri, M. Sanchez-Garcia, M. El-Bouhssini, M. Karrou, S. Patil, F. Bassi and M. Baum, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Morocco; and T. Oweis, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Jo
Improving wheat production in the Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) region
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Wheat is the principal staple food in most countries of the Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) region, accounting for 45% of the region’s per capita calorie intake with an average wheat consumption of about 200 kg/capita/year. Wheat production in the region has increased both horizontally and vertically from 1961 through 2013. However, most of the countries in the region are still unable to meet their national demand. This chapter reviews the major challenges of wheat production, the available wheat production technologies and the ways forward to improve wheat production while conserving the natural base in the region.
Victor Galán Saúco, Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (ICIA), Spain
Mango cultivation practices for the subtropics
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Mango is well adapted to hot, tropical climates. However, it can also be grown in the mild subtropics, where cooler winter temperatures improve flower induction and cause early bearing and lower annual growth rates, which help to control size and favour high-density plantings. There are also disadvantages to growing mango in the subtropics: cold spells and low temperatures can damage vulnerable young trees or areas of young growth, or can induce flowering of very young trees at the nursery, causing premature ageing of inadequately managed plants. This chapter reviews the differences between mango cultivation in tropical and subtropical climates and explores the factors necessary for successful subtropical cultivation.
D. Barker, The Ohio State University, USA
Managing soil health for grassland
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Soil health is a holistic concept that includes all the processes affecting the ability of soil to provide the ecosystem services we require from grassland. The primary ‘service’ provided by grassland is forage for livestock, but additional secondary ‘services’ can include benefits such as environmental protection, protection of valued fauna and flora, aesthetic qualities and improved soil health. We have no single parameter for measuring soil health, but we rely on a number of indicators that are still being refined and developed for practical use. Furthermore, we invariably do not control those indicators directly, but rely on indirect mechanisms to improve soil health. This chapter considers some of the major issues and strategies for managing grassland soil, with a specific focus on management of soil fertility and fertilizer input.
Victor Olowe, Institute of Food Security, Environmental Resources and Agricultural Research (IFSERAR), Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta (FUNAAB), Nigeria
Improving organic agriculture in the developing world: Africa
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The continent of Africa accounts for 25% of the world’s arable land and yet produces just 10% of the global agricultural output. Against the backdrop of the challenges to agriculture in Africa, the African heads of states took a decision in 2011 to integrate organic agriculture into the mainstream agricultural systems of all member states by the year 2020. This chapter describes the current status of organic agriculture in Africa and sets out steps that need to be followed to improve organic agriculture in the continent, from advocacy to improved agricultural techniques and greater government investment.
J. P. C. Greyling, University of the Free State, South Africa
Improving the reproductive efficiency of sheep
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Sheep, in the form of mutton and lamb, fulfils, in large part, the world’s ever-increasing demand for animal protein. Large areas of the world are arid and semi-arid and are thus suitable for sheep farming, but there is only limited availability of pasture area. Therefore, sheep production must be increased for an efficient and a sustainable food supply. This chapter describes how sheep nutrition, animal diet and welfare, reproductive technologies and sheep production management techniques can all contribute towards achieving sustainable sheep production. The chapter concludes that, provided adequate nutrition is given and a strict animal health and reproduction programme is adhered to with a breed adapted to the specific environment, a lambing rate of 130–150% is achievable.
Nalini C. Gnanapragasam, Former Deputy Director (Research), Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka; currently Agricultural Tea Consultant - Malwatte Valley Plantations PLC, Sri Lanka
Insect pests of tea: caterpillars and other seasonal, occasional and minor pests
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This chapter focuses on seasonal, occasional and minor pests of tea, which cause damage to tea plants largely through feeding processes. The chapter considers a variety of factors associated with each of these pests, including their geographical distribution, appearance, the damage caused and their respective biologies and ecologies. It also looks ahead to future research into these pests, including understanding their habits and habitats, their sensitivity to temperature, humidity and climate change in general.
Kenneth Nordlund, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
Management of dairy cows in transition and at calving
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Most of the clinical disease events in a dairy cow’s life occur during the transition period, defined as the period three weeks before and after calving. It is believed that almost all cows experience some immune dysfunction during the peripartum period, and that this combined with nutritional disturbances or certain management practices leads to a variety of metabolic and infectious disease events. This chapter addresses the best way to monitor the health and management of cows during the transition period and discusses a number of factors that can affect herd transition health, including the intrinsic characteristics of the cows, limitations and challenges associated with the housing and environment in which cows are placed and interactions with caregivers. While this chapter does not focus on nutrition per se, many of the risk factors will manifest themselves as changes in the availability or need for nutrients.
Rajiv Kumar Sharma , Global Wheat Improvement Program – CIMMYT, India
Improving wheat cultivation in Asia
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It has been estimated that wheat production in South Asia needs to grow at the rate of 2-2.5% annually until the middle of 21st century to feed its population. This chapter reviews some of the key issues which must be addressed in order to improve wheat cultivation in Asia. We begin by considering how the genetic diversity of wheat crops can be both improved and exploited, then review the improvement of breeding techniques. Strategies for dealing with biotic and abiotic stresses, improving quality, and improving cultivation practices are also covered. Finally, we offer a case study on improving wheat cultivation in India.
Richard M. Fulton, Michigan State University, USA
Maintaining the health of laying hens:
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Biosecurity plays a pivotal role in maintaining the health of poultry. Biosecurity is the protection of birds from disease-causing agents. This chapter reviews the range of biosecurity measures required to maintain the health of laying hens. It talks about separation of birds which is an important measure. It reviews disease identification and detection, including the identification of specific diseases and vaccination regimes for prevention or treatment. Finally, this chapter discusses in detail the common diseases of egg-laying chickens, some of them being respiratory diseases, diseases related to the nervous system, the intestinal system, etc.
John Gowing, University of Newcastle, UK
Improving water productivity in rainfed agriculture: challenges and opportunities for small-scale farmers in dry lands
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There is growing global recognition of the need to improve agricultural water management if we are to achieve sustainable food production systems which ensure future food security whilst maintaining ecosystem services, strengthening capacity for adaptation to climate change and averting degradation of land and soil quality. This chapter reviews state-of-the-art knowledge on how to increase water productivity in rainfed agriculture. It examines concepts, methods, constraints and examples drawn from both developing and developed countries, with a particular emphasis on small-scale farmers in the dry lands of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), and West Asia and North Africa (WANA).
Prof. Prof. Paul H. Hemsworth
Humane transport, lairage and slaughter of sheep
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Contemporary public concerns about and policy debates on animal production focus on conditions that guarantee food security, public health, environmental quality and animal welfare. This chapter reviews the main welfare issues associated with management of sheep post-farm gate, including transport by road and by sea, and holding facilities, handling and stunning of sheep at abattoirs. The chapter argues that welfare monitoring at each stage of the post-farm gate production process is essential, together with provision of optimal thermal and spatial conditions in holding facilities and proper training for stockpeople on handling sheep to safeguard animal welfare. Finally, the chapter suggests a number of areas for future research.
K. Stafford, Massey University, New Zealand
Improving the welfare of lambs
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High lambing rates and maintaining high standards of lamb survival, health, nutrition and growth are essential for farm profitability, depending on the final product of sheep farming. The value assigned to lambs, the environment, farming tradition and economics of sheep farming will influence flock fecundity and how the flock is managed around lambing, as well as the welfare of lambs. This chapter examines the main issues affecting the welfare of lambs, including the handling and training of lambs from birth, causes of lamb mortality, techniques for marking lambs, and issues regarding the weaning of lambs and controlling infectious diseases in the lamb population. The chapter describes possible future trends in research in this area and provides guidance on where to look for further information on the subject.
Dr Rafael Augusto da Costa Parrella
Improving sorghum cultivation in South America
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Sorghum production in Brazil has expanded significantly in recent years, with a current planted area of close to one and a half million hectares. Sorghum provides an excellent source of grain to feed cattle, poultry and swine, as well as forage for cattle, especially in situations of drought and conditions of low soil fertility. It can also be used in bioenergy production. In this chapter we review the history of sorghum production in Brazil, and then consider the improvements necessary to ensure that sorghum production can continue to meet demand. Particular emphasis is given to the need to develop adapted sorghum cultivars which will grow well in tropical soils and produce crops suited to their particular uses.
Michael J. Goss, University of Guelph, Canada; Adrian Unc, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada; and Wilfried Ehlers, Georg-August University, Germany
Improving water management in organic crop cultivation
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Managing water for crop production requires capture and storage of water in the soil, which must also be protected from damage by raindrop impact and excess water. These actions ensure that the soil will benefit from increased organic matter content and be protected by harvest residues, living plants or a mulch of dead shoot material. This chapter describes actions to deal with excess water and offset water shortage through irrigation, and addresses issues concerning the water cycle, statics and dynamics of water in soil, the field water balance, soil evaporation, crop transpiration, crop water use, and water use efficiency. The chapter considers new developments and requirements in relation to future demand for food production without any risk to the natural environment or human welfare, and explores the potential to develop improved practices that allow soil organisms to protect crops from water shortage.
Ilkka Leinonen, Newcastle University, UK
Life cycle assessment (LCA) of intensive poultry production systems
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Life cycle assessment provides a useful tool for identifying where significant improvements can be made to achieve environmental sustainability in agricultural production. Potential strategies for improving the environmental performance of intensive poultry systems are discussed in this chapter. These include improving feed efficiency by using additives such as enzymes in feed or alternatively improving the efficiency of birds through genetic selection, use of alternative feed ingredients, such as locally grown protein crops and agricultural by-products, as a replacement for South American grown soya, and considering other management options, such as improving poultry housing and adopting new strategies for manure management
Michael Stear, Karen Fairlie-Clarke, and Nicholas Jonsson, University of Glasgow, UK; Bonnie Mallard, University of Guelph, Canada; and David Groth, Curtin University, Australia
Genetic variation in immunity and disease resistance in dairy cows and other livestock
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For most diseases of economic importance in livestock, resistance can be considered to be a complex or quantitative trait with limited evidence of negative correlations with resistance to other diseases. Attention to such traits allows the selection of healthier and more productive animals. This chapter reviews the sources of variation in resistance to disease, and then considers three strategies for selecting for resistance: by directly selecting for resistance to important diseases, based on the incidence of disease or a disease-related marker; by selecting for animals with strong innate and/or adaptive immune responses to a specified challenge to achieve a broad-based disease resistance; and by selecting for animals that perform well in an environment in which disease is endemic. The discussion also covers high-density SNP chips, improved sequencing methodologies and genome-wide association studies (GWAS)
B. M. Hargis and G. Tellez, University of Arkansas, USA; and L. R. Bielke, Ohio State University, USA
Gut health and susceptibility to enteric bacterial diseases in poultry
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Most pathogens of poultry and other vertebrates enter the body via a mucosal portal of entry, and for the vast majority, this means either the respiratory or gastrointestinal tract (GIT). This chapter surveys the main bacterial pathogens found in the GIT of poultry, and examines the process of symbiosis between prokaryotes and the host in the gut. The chapter analyses the impact of these bacterial pathogens on the biology of the host and the effect of dysbiosis in poultry. It examines the effects of inflammation of the GIT on anaerobiosis, assesses the role of mucins, and addresses the effect of gut infections on dietary disruption as well as the impact of airborne infections of enteric bacteria on poultry.
Brian Fairchild, University of Georgia, USA
Hot weather management of poultry
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Maintaining an environment that minimizes stress on poultry is a significant part of obtaining a healthy bird that reaches its full genetic potential. One challenge that producers face is preventing heat stress and maintaining performance in hot weather conditions. By keeping bird body temperature, which slightly increases from 39°C to 41.1°C as the chick grows and develops, in the normal range, the bird will continue to grow, develop and efficiently utilize the feed that it consumes. The focus of this chapter will be on the principles of poultry management that farmers can implement in their poultry houses during hot weather to prevent heat stress and maintain normal bird body temperature. Ventilation, evaporative cooling and management practices that influence the ability of the farmer to keep birds cool will be reviewed.
Dr Abie Horrocks
Integrated pest management in wheat cultivation
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This chapter provides an overview of integrated pest management (IPM) in wheat cultivation. IPM uses biological, cultural and chemical methods in a compatible way. A wide variety of biological control agents contribute to pest control in wheat and successful IPM strategies require looking at the system as a whole, rather than treating pest problems in isolation. The New Zealand-based participatory project outlined as a case study emphasises how direct access to experts by farmers is critical for the successful adoption of IPM. IPM is not a rigid recipe for successful pest control, because strategies implemented from farm to farm may vary even though the IPM principles on which they are based do not. Research that supports IPM needs also to be flexible and dynamic.
David R. Clements, Trinity Western University, Canada
Invasive weed species and their effects
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An invasive weed exhibits a tendency to spread rapidly to occupy new niches. This chapter describes ten examples of situations in which invasive weeds directly affect agriculture. The chapter also examines indirect effects, and discusses how climate change and globalization interact to promote invasions. The chapter explores the potential contribution of integrated weed management (IWM) to managing and controlling weed invasions, and provides extensive further reading on the topic.
Margaret E. Graves, Dalhousie University, Canada; and Ralph C. Martin, University of Guelph, Canada
Grassland management to minimize the environmental impact of dairy farming
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Minimizing the environmental impact of dairy farming with perennial forage systems management is a complex process. The aim is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (enteric methane, nitrous oxide from soil and carbon dioxide from equipment and fertilizer use), adapt to the effects of climate change, reduce nitrogen and phosphorus losses into the environment, improve soil health, promote biodiversity and optimize land use. Well-managed forage systems can reduce methane emissions and nitrate leaching, and minimize feeding of concentrates, which have a greater impact on the agro-ecosystem. This chapter explores emerging strategies such as management-intensive grazing and novel forage species, cultivars and mixtures. The chapter also presents research based and applied case studies of intensive grazing for dairy cows.
Prof. Francesco Tei
Integrated weed management in tomato cultivation
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Weeds pose a major threat to agriculture and cause crop yield losses in a big way. What needs to be done to counter the threat of weeds? This chapter discusses many measures to tackle the problem of weeds, especially in tomato cultivation. One of the most important is Integrated Weed Management (IWM). IWM combines direct and indirect weed control strategies to effectively tackle the problem of weeds in tomato cultivation. This chapter then looks into the preventive steps to be taken and discusses methods like crop rotation. Chemical weed control is another important aspect. The chapter also presents case studies on how research has been used to improve tomato cultivation in practice.
Prof. Fredy Alpeter
Genetic improvement of sugarcane by transgenic, intragenic and genome editing technologies
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The grand social, economic and environmental challenges of the twenty-first century are demanding the acceleration of the genetic improvement of sugarcane to sustainably produce sugar and biofuel and to support the emerging bio-based economy. This chapter focuses on the contributions and future potential of biotechnology including enabling technologies, transgenic, intragenic and genome editing approaches for the improvement of agronomic sugarcane traits as well as metabolic engineering to develop value-added products and biofuels.
John Moran, Profitable Dairy Systems, Australia
Improving smallholder dairy farming in tropical Asia
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This chapter reviews the importance of smallholder dairy farmers in Asia. It assesses their needs and the obstacles they face in improving dairy production. The chapter discusses ways of benchmarking performance and examples of initiatives to support smallholders. It identifies both constraints faced by smallholder dairy farmers in Asia and ways of addressing them to ensure sustainable increases in production and yield.
Professor Professor Sammy Aggrey
Genes associated with functional traits in poultry: implications for sustainable genetic improvement
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Poultry production primarily focuses on the supply of saleable products. Meat and eggs are classified as production traits and are the focus of improvement in poultry breeding organizations, while the functional traits of birds have received much less attention. However, over the past decade, the decline in some functional traits and increased awareness of poultry welfare has led to increasing interest in including functional traits in genetic improvement programmes. In this chapter, we first consider the key functional traits of reproductive capacity, skeletal integrity, cardiovascular fitness and disease resistance. We review how advances in molecular biology and sequencing of the chicken genome have made it possible to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and gene variants associated with functional traits, and discuss how these traits are genetically related to production traits. We consider how this information can be used to implement sustainable genetic improvement of poultry.
J. Upton, E. Murphy and L. Shalloo, Teagasc, Ireland; M. Murphy, Cork Institute of Technology, Ireland; and I.J.M. De Boer and P.W.G. Groot Koerkamp, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Improved energy and water management to minimize the environmental impact of dairy farming
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As demand for animal products such as milk increases, the livestock sector places increasing demands on already scarce resources such as land, water and fossil fuels, while also contributing to environmental problems such as climate change. In this chapter, we consider how dairy farms can manage both energy consumption and water in order to minimize their environmental impacts. First, section 2 offers an overview of the current situation with respect to energy, and covers current usage, existing efficiency incentives and consumption modelling. Section 3 then presents two groups of strategies for addressing energy consumption: those which primarily aim to save on-farm energy costs, and those which aim to reduce not only costs, but also energy consumption and emissions. Section 4 reviews the results of these different groups of strategies, and makes recommendations for the development of dairy farming technology. Finally, section 5 addresses the issue of sustainable water use.
Lilian Elgalise Techio Pereira and Sila Carneiro da Silva, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil; Cory Matthew and Ignacio F. López, Massey University, New Zealand; and André Fischer Sbrissia, Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, Brazil
Grazing management for sustainable grazing systems
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Grasslands play a key role in soil, water and biodiversity conservation and deliver numerous other ecosystem and cultural services. This chapter defines key terms associated with grassland grazing systems, with a particular emphasis on the meaning of grazing management and sustainable intensification. The chapter outlines current knowledge regarding major effects of grazing management on above- and belowground plant responses. The chapter then discusses how the mass flow of herbage can be manipulated through grazing management targets. Selected major effects of grazing on soil C and N stocks are then presented in the fourth section, and the chapter highlights how grazing strategies that maximise animal performance also have the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to potential future research aimed at sustainable improvement of grassland and animal productivity within a context of global climate change.
Sang Mok Sohn, Dankook University, South Korea
Improving organic agriculture in the developing world: Asia
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Traditional Asian farming methods are often seen as being close to organic production, but there is a need for considerable research and farmer education if the sector is to develop in accordance with scientifically led organic knowledge and to fulfil its potential. This chapter describes key crops grown in Asia and the current state of organic production in Asia, focussing particularly on rice production systems. The chapter examines types of organic rice farming and organic vegetable production. Finally, the chapter deals with the challenge of improving organic agriculture in Asia.
E. K. Doyle, University of New England, Australia
Improving sheep wool quality
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Wool is a natural fibre produced by nearly 500 different sheep breeds. Mean fibre diameter is the most important wool quality parameter and has the largest influence on the value of wool. Wool fibre competes with synthetic, cellulosic and cotton fibre consumption, and currently makes up 1.2% of world fibre production. This chapter considers five key areas where the wool industry needs to increase efficiency and improve the management of sheep in order to maintain market share and remain competitive. We review the utilisation of breeding values, health and welfare management for improved wool quality, optimisation of nutritional management, adoption of precision sheep management and improving consumer awareness of the provenance of wool products. The focus of the chapter is the quality of Merino wool.
Jacques Le Gouis, INRA, France and Malcolm Hawkesford, Rothamsted Research, UK
Improving the uptake and assimilation of nitrogen in wheat plants
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Nitrogen is a critical macronutrient with a major influence on wheat grain yield and end-use quality. The key challenges are to detect and use genetic variability to breed for more efficient wheat varieties. For this, traits related to nitrogen capture by the root system, then nitrogen assimilation and finally nitrogen remobilization from source organs to the grain are to be considered. The possibility of using these traits will depend on the available genetic variability and the identification of molecular markers associated with relevant chromosomal regions. Future major research trends include the developments in high-throughput phenotyping and characterization of the response to combinations of environmental factors.
Peter Paulsen, Frans J. M. Smulders and Friederike Hilbert, University of Veterinary Medicine, Austria
Food safety management on farms producing beef
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The production of safe, high-quality beef requires both good farming practices and additional measures targeted against specific hazards to human or animal health. This chapter provides an overview of good farming practices for beef cattle farms, with particular discussion of biosecurity, animal welfare and the importance of clean cattle policies. Hazard-specific control measures are then presented for one important hazard: E. Coli O157. Finally, existing quality assurance programmes for beef production are briefly reviewed.
Dr Dr Peter Neuenschwander
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: fruit and other tree crops
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This chapter reviews control methods for the main pests affecting fruit and other tree crops. It describes the use of classical biological control for mango, papaya, cacao, coconut and citrus. Mango mealybug, Rastrococcus invadens, has been controlled with great success across West and Central Africa by two parasitoids. On papaya, the spiralling whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus has been controlled by two serendipitously introduced parasitoids. Papaya mealybug Paracoccus marginatus from South America was brought under control within one year by another parasitoid. These results were compromised by the invasion of the tropical fruit fly Batrocera dorsalis. The resulting mis-use of pesticides was replaced by bait sprays and parapheromones, a parasitoid introduced in Benin and Cameroon, and management of the African weaver ant Oecophylla longinoda. A new species of phytoseiid mite was introduced against the coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis. On cacao, Phythophthora megakarya was controlled by managing shade trees, soil cover, and applying fungicides. Cultural control measures were developed for cashew.
Ben Tyson
Ensuring biodiversity in dairy farming
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Dairy farming may affect the biodiversity of microbial species, grass or pasture species, soil, native vegetation, and other flora and fauna on the farm itself. It can also affect aquatic, downstream estuarine and coastal biodiversity because of the nutrients, pesticides and sediments transported away from the farm through surface runoff and groundwater. This chapter will address the impacts of dairy farming on biodiversity, approaches to biodiversity enhancement, measures for enhancing biodiversity and strategies for engaging farmers in biodiversity enhancement. It then reviews a number of case studies to illustrate these issues.
Gaspar H. Korndörfer, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Brazil
Improving nutrient management in sugarcane cultivation
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A nutrient management strategy which relies on the total replacement of all nutrients in the biomass is not sustainable from an economic or environmental point of view. This chapter therefore reviews more sustainable strategies for nutrient management in sugarcane cultivation. It begins by discussing the benefits of crop rotation, green manure and trash retention, before a detailed consideration of cane fertilization with nitrogen and other macronutrients, micronutrients and silicon. The potential uses of cane processing residues are considered. Finally, foliar diagnosis is reviewed as a tool to evaluate the nutritional status of a crop.
Munir J. Mohammad Rusan, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Jordan and International Plant Nutrition Institute (IPNI), USA
Fertigation techniques for efficient water and nutrient use in agriculture
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Irrigated agriculture constitutes about 20% of the total cultivated land in the world, has much higher crop productivity compared to rainfed agriculture and contributes significantly to meeting the challenge of feeding the world. However, water resources are very limited, especially in the arid and semi-arid regions where irrigated agriculture is most practised. This chapter describes how fertigation (application of nutrients through irrigation water) acts as a powerful and efficient tool to optimize the efficient use of both water and nutrients. The chapter examines the advantages and limitations of fertigation, the prerequisites for successful and efficient fertigation, and the equipment available for fertilizer injection. The chapter also covers fertigation under greenhouse conditions and how the principles of the ‘4 rights’ (4R) can be applied to nutrient stewardship. Finally, the chapter addresses monitoring of soil, plant and water under fertigation, and looks ahead to future research in this area as well as providing guidance on further reading.
Randy C. Ploetz, University of Florida, USA
Integrated disease management in mango cultivation
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Mango, Mangifera indica L., is affected by a great number of fruit, foliar, stem and root diseases. This chapter covers diseases that seriously impact the crop. Their significance, geographical distribution and history are outlined, and the symptoms, causal agent(s) and epidemiology of each are detailed with emphasis on their management. Insect pests, nutritional disorders and other non-disease items are not considered.
Nalini C. Gnanapragasam, Former Deputy Director (Research), Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka; currently Agricultural Tea Consultant - Malwatte Valley Plantations PLC, Sri Lanka
Insect pests of tea: shot hole borers, termites and nematodes
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The tea plant (Camellia sinensis (L) O. Kuntze) is a perennial crop and every part of the plant is prone to infestation by some pest over its lifetime. The prevalence and occurrence of the pest is primarily determined by the specific agro-climatic conditions, the type of cultivar and the cultural practices adopted within a given specific location. This chapter briefly describes the biology and ecology of important pests attacking tea in the different tea-growing areas of the world and the type of damage/injury induced, focusing on shot hole borers, termites (both live wood and scavenging varieties) and nematodes.
Xin Sun and Eric Berg, North Dakota State University, USA
Factors affecting the colour and texture of pig meat
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In pork, colour and texture are the two most significant factors influencing consumer perceptions of quality. It is therefore important to understand the many factors that can affect pork colour and texture, because these factors influence purchasing decisions. Furthermore, those in charge of marketing pork must be informed regarding the assessment methods available to monitor, evaluate and categorize pork colour and texture. In this chapter, we will explore the biological and environmental factors that affect colour and texture in pig meat. We will then introduce and discuss existing and potential methods for assessment of the colour and texture attributes of pig meat.
J. Bell
Improving water management in sorghum cultivation
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Grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) is a drought tolerant crop that has been grown across the American Great Plains since the early twentieth century, primarily as a feed crop. Sorghum’s deep, fibrous root system provides greater root volume and therefore potential access to a greater soil water volume enabling sorghum to withstand greater periods of water stress if there is ample stored soil water. This chapter examines dryland production of sorghum and sorghum irrigation methods, including deficit irrigation. The chapter also addresses the relationship between soils and irrigation management.
Pekka Huhtanen, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden
Feed evaluation and formulation to maximise nutritional efficiency in dairy cattle
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This chapter reviews the evaluation of energy and protein value of ruminants’ feedstuffs. It emphasises the importance of accurately estimating feeding values to optimise production. The chapter discusses experimental methods and models used to evaluate the energy and protein values of feeds. The advantages and weaknesses of static empirical models and dynamic mechanistic models are discussed. The chapter emphasises the need to evaluate models using large data sets from productions studies to improve the accuracy of predictions of production responses.
Dr Dr Ignace Godonou
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: vegetables
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In many West African countries, vegetable production is a key sector of urban and peri-urban agriculture. However, production is undermined by biotic constraints, mainly arthropod pests, disease-causing organisms and plant parasitic nematodes. In an attempt to combat this, farmers frequently use broad-spectrum and highly toxic pesticides. However, farmers’ coping strategies against pests and production constraints remain largely ineffective. This chapter reviews some key biotic constraints and presents a number of alternative management strategies. For instance, IITA identified and developed biopesticide Bba5653 to control Plutella xylostella on cabbage. Attempts were made to develop botanical pesticides such as cassava peels against root knot nematodes. In Benin, natural enemies of aphids were recorded, with Lysiphlebus testaceipes emerging as a promising element in aphid management strategies. We conclude that there is a need to increase farmers’ awareness of the side effects of highly toxic pesticide use and to offer training on the use of biopesticides and botanicals and the preservation of pests’ natural enemies.
Mingyang Huang and Yu Wang, University of Florida, USA; and Chi-Tang Ho, Rutgers University, USA
Factors affecting pork flavour
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Pork-related products such as bacon, sausage and ham comprise a large portion of the meat products sold in today’s market due to their desirable flavour. The application of various processing methods such as cooking, curing, deboning, grinding, canning and application of additives or spices during processing greatly contribute to the characteristic aromas of specific pork-related products. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an integrated overview of the essential flavour constituents in pork products and the presumptive factors affecting pork flavour. Despite large differences among animal species, genetics, and methods used in processing and cooking, this chapter will attempt to focus on consensus odorants that have been studied by at least two independent groups, and will emphasize the heat-induced formation of pork odorants’ pathways.
Jeffrey Rushen, University of British Columbia, Canada
Housing and the welfare of dairy cattle
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In modern dairy farming, lactating cows and un-weaned calves are often housed indoors, in a restricted space, at high density, and/or separate from other animals. Such housing conditions affect the welfare of the animals by creating risks of illness and injuries and placing restrictions on behaviour. This chapter will examine issues arising from the physical and social aspects of dairy cattle housing, with a focus on the most current and controversial issues in the area. Sections 2–5 focus on the different housing systems available for lactating cows and on the advantages and disadvantages of these alternatives. Sections 6–8 then review the issue of housing for un-weaned calves.
Peter J. Gregory and Christina K. Clarke, University of Reading, UK
Establishment and root development in wheat crops
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Good establishment lays the foundations for wheat yield. Here, we have used the term ‘establishment’ to encompass development and growth prior to the elongation of the main stem. We describe how the seedling root system establishes and then outline how four agronomic practices (time and depth of sowing, seeding rate and soil moisture conditions) affect the initial growth of the plant. We present a case study from Australia on how embryo size and seed mass affects early growth, and conclude with some recent ideas as to how root systems might be optimized in different soils to increase production.
Dr Dr Stefan Hauser
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: banana and plantain
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Many smallholder farmers in humid sub-Saharan Africa rely on bananas and plantains (Musa spp.) as major staple food and income generating crops, with only a negligible portion traded internationally. Banana and plantain production is mainly threatened by various pathogens and pests. This chapter describes the major diseases including fungal diseases (Fusarium wilt, black sigatoka), viral diseases (banana bunchy top and banana streak virus), bacterial disease (banana Xanthomonas wilt) and pests such as nematodes and weevil, affecting bananas and plantains.. The chapter also describes measures used to manage and control these diseases and pests.
Margaret Sexton, Primary Industries and Regions, South Australia (PIRSA), Australia
Egg washing to ensure product safety
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The structure of eggs poses specific problems for washing, especially in large commercial operations. However, washing is a valuable process, both to make eggs look clean and to reduce the bacterial load on the shell. This chapter reviews those properties of eggs that are relevant to the washing process and then shows how important cleaning principles can be applied to the special case of washing of eggs to improve product safety.
V. Pérez and J. I. Hormaza, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea La Mayora (IHSM La Mayora – CSIC – UMA), Spain
Exploiting the mango genome: molecular markers
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As in other crops, the development of molecular tools is allowing significant progress in understanding different aspects of mango biology. This chapter reviews advances made in the use of different molecular tools in mango in the last decades, including biochemical markers and DNA research. The chapter looks ahead to current and future developments in the field, including next-generation sequencing and localization of genes of interest for breeding purposes. The chapter offers suggestions for further reading on the subject.
A. S. Ross, Oregon State University, USA
Genetic and other factors affecting wheat quality
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Wheat quality derives from interactions between the components of the kernel. In turn these components are themselves collections of multiple sub-components. Many components are under genetic control and are modulated, if not profoundly influenced, by growing conditions. This chapter focuses on the three main polymeric components of wheat grain: protein, starch, and fibre, as these are arguably the primary contributors to wheat flour functionality. It explores the relationship between sustainable wheat production and wheat grain quality and milling performance as well as analysing in detail the protein, starch and fibre composition of wheat grain.
Susanne Støier, Leif Lykke and Lars O. Blaabjerg, Danish Meat Research Institute – Danish Technological Institute, Denmark
Humane slaughter techniques for pigs
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For pigs, the day of slaughter includes a variety of potentially stressful elements, and this leads to animal welfare concerns. This chapter reviews how recent research can be applied in the development of new technologies and procedures to ensure a high level of welfare for pigs, while also increasing production efficiency, product quality and operator working conditions. Areas addressed include electrical and CO2 stunning methods, correct sticking procedure, group-based handling and the surveillance and documentation of animal welfare levels on the day of slaughter.
Moshe Lapidot and Ilan Levin, Institute of Plant Sciences – Volcani Center, ARO, Israel
Genetic resistance to viruses in tomato
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The cultivated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) constitutes a major agricultural industry: it is grown worldwide and, in terms of vegetable crop production, is only second to potato. Tomato plants show a wide climatic tolerance and are grown in both tropical and temperate regions around the world. Viral diseases are responsible for heavy yield losses and are one of the reasons that in many locations tomato production has shifted from open-field to protected production. The three most important tomato viruses in terms of production losses are Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV), Tomato mosaic virus (ToMV) and Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV). This chapter describes the development of genetic resistances to these three viruses in tomato.
Grant Dewell, Iowa State University, USA
Ensuring the safety of feed for beef cattle
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The unique ruminant digestive system of beef cattle enables them to eat and digest a wide range of feed products, including by-product or alternative feeds not utilized in other livestock production systems. It is important to ensure that the various feed products provided to cattle will not pose a food safety risk to the people who consume beef products. This chapter will provide an overview of the three major areas where food safety risks can be introduced via feed material: purchase of contaminated feed products, contamination during storage and contamination of feed due to mixing or delivery errors. In each case, measures to prevent unacceptable risk are also briefly considered.
Alma Delia Alarcon-Rojo and Ana Luisa Renteria-Monterrubio, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Mexico
Ensuring safety in chilling and freezing of poultry meat
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Poultry is the most traded meat worldwide, and its consumption has increased almost continuously since 1965. In order to achieve sustainable production, the poultry industry must continue to develop its methods and technologies, and in doing so must take into account the standards of safety required by consumers. This chapter presents a review of safety practices and potential risks associated with chilling and freezing of poultry meat. It covers relevant research on the improvement of poultry safety during chill processing, post-slaughter handling risks and procedures, and the most important poultry pathogens and their control.
Dr Andreas W. Ebert
Ensuring the genetic diversity of tomatoes
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This book chapter describes key issues regarding genetic diversity of tomatoes, including taxonomy and mating system. Figures on global ex situ conservation of tomato germplasm are provided and the world’s largest collection in the public domain, held by AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center, is described in some detail. This chapter also deals with the policy framework for the conservation, access and benefit-sharing mechanisms of plant genetic resources (PGR). It describes how the policy framework and stricter phytosanitary requirements affect the exchange and use of PGR. Ways to strengthen sharing of PGR for food and nutrition security and climate change adaptation are discussed.
Dr Dr Peter Neuenschwander
Improving plant health in sub-Saharan Africa: conclusions and future challenges
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This chapter provides concluding comments for ‘Critical Issues in Plant Health: 50 Years of Research in African Agriculture’, a book focussing on research carried out by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) to improve the health of crops in Africa. In addition, it also outlines future challenges faced in improving plant health in sub-Saharan Africa for IITA. IITA projects and their impacts are discussed in relation to issues such as biological control, resistant varieties, cultural and environmental control, biorational control (including use of botanicals and entomopathogens) and chemical control. The impact of IITA projects on combining techniques in integrated pest management (IPM) is also covered. Lastly, an overall assessment of projects is made, and IITA’s plans for the future are included, as are recommendations for the future.
Robert Pym, University of Queensland, Australia; and Robyn Alders, University of Sydney, Australia
Helping smallholders to improve poultry production
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Small-scale family poultry farming is practised by a large proportion of smallholder families in the rural and peri-urban areas of most of the world’s developing countries. By enabling improvements in disease control, breeding and genetics, and management and nutrition through smallholder poultry development projects which incorporate a participatory farming approach, value chain assessment and appropriately focused training and extension programmes, such projects have the potential to impact very meaningfully on poverty alleviation, household nutrition and food security, the health and education of children and the empowerment of women as the principal poultry keepers. These outcomes constitute a number of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.
David Mengel, Kansas State University, USA
Improving soil and crop nutrition management in sorghum cultivation
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This chapter provides an overview of the nutrients needed, quantities of nutrients used and concepts of nutrient management commonly utilized in commercial grain sorghum production. The chapter describes how these concepts can also be applied to subsistence production as practised in much of the developing world where sorghum is grown. The chapter focuses on the management practices and techniques utilized for the essential mineral nutrients commonly observed to be deficient in sorghum production. These include: N, P, K, S, Fe, Mn, Zn and Cl. The chapter will discuss soil and other conditions under which deficiencies may occur; methods to assess nutrient availability and nutrient sources, both chemical fertilizers and also common by-products which can be used as nutrient sources; and preferred methods and time of applications.
Michael S. Lilburn, Ohio State University, USA
Enhancing the nutritional quality of poultry meat
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The pattern of poultry meat consumption has changed considerably, and these days, there has been a significant increase in the consumption of poultry meat products that are easily purchased and/or prepared. Genetic selection has largely helped to meet the market demand for increased poultry meat for achieving growth rate and improved protein accretion, particularly with respect to the breast muscle or white meat portions of the carcass. The objective of this chapter is to review the basics of poultry carcass growth and development and the fundamentals of lipid metabolism. The aim is also to discuss new research developments in the matter of enhancing the nutritional quality of poultry meat.
Stevan Z. Knezevic, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
Flame weeding techniques
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Flaming as a vegetation control method began in the mid-1800s. It is based on utilizing heat for plant control, and has the potential to be used effectively for at least six agronomic crops (field corn, sweet corn, popcorn, sorghum, soybean and sunflower) when conducted properly at the most tolerant crop growth stage. There has been increasing interest in integrating flame weeding with conventional cropping systems, and where herbicide use is undesirable, such as in cities, parks and other urban areas. In this chapter, we review flame weeding requirements, the mechanism by which it reduces weeds and the potential uses of the technique. We also consider its advantages and disadvantages, including its potential environmental impacts.
Manuele Tamò, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Bénin; Léonard Afouda, Université de Parakou, Bénin; Ranajit Bandyopadhyay, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; Harry Bottenberg, United States Agency
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: legumes
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The yield potential of cowpea and soybean is severely constrained by several biotic stresses, negatively impacting on the livelihoods of farming communities. Resistant germplasm is often the first line of defence against plant pathogens inducing foliar diseases like Asian soybean rust, but needs to be accompanied by proper resistance management plans, including understanding and monitoring of pathotype formation. This chapter shows how combatting soil-borne pathogens, nematodes and particularly insect pests requires a truly integrated approach, which can vary in the assembly of its options depending on the nature of the organism. IITA scientists and collaborators have developed a range of interventions, often discovered only after thorough ecological and biodiversity studies, as in the case of flower thrips and pod borers in cowpea. Our research has resulted in a strategy using tolerant varieties, establishing and preserving natural enemies on wild host plant refugia, and intervening at the field level with biorational pesticide applications.
Edward C. Rojas, Hans J. L. Jørgensen, Birgit Jensen and David B. Collinge, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
Fusarium diseases: biology and management perspectives
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World cereal production faces the challenge of increasing productivity while reducing its environmental footprint. Diseases like Fusarium head blight that reduce yield and quality of the harvest are controlled mainly with agricultural practices and fungicides. These measures have been shown to be inefficient or unsustainable. After reviewing the current knowledge about Fusarium fungi–cereal interactions, this chapter describes how progress can be built over current agricultural practices in integrated pest management plans. The methods described include increasing genetic resistance by exploiting the full extent of the advantages of new technologies, as well as looking for new fungicide molecules that aim for specific fungal metabolic pathways during infection at an early stage. The chapter addresses the disease cycle of Fusarium head blight, host–pathogen interactions, genetic resistance, the role of mycotoxins, the impact of the disease on yields and loss of crop quality, and techniques of disease management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
John M. Gonzalez, Sara M. Ebarb, Kelsey J. Phelps and Michael E. Dikeman, Kansas State University, USA
Effects of metabolic modifiers on beef carcass composition and meat quality
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Metabolic modifiers are compounds that are either fed to animals or implanted to improve rate of gain, feed efficiency, dressing percent, carcass meat yield, visual meat quality, shelf life or meat palatability. This chapter presents a general review of the effects of metabolic modifiers on carcass composition, fresh meat quality and cooked meat palatability. Emphasis will be on those metabolic modifiers that are approved for use in cattle in the United States and other developed countries. The main types of modifier discussed are anabolic steroid implants, beta-adrenergic agonists, vitamins D3, E and A, and somatotropin.
Dinesh D. Jayasena, Uva Wellassa University, Sri Lanka; and Cheorun Jo, Seoul National University, Republic of Korea
Enhancing the flavour of poultry meat
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Understanding the chemistry of poultry meat flavour and factors affecting poultry meat flavour is vital in order to produce the most flavourful and consistent product possible by preserving and/or enhancing the flavour of poultry meat. This chapter describes different mechanisms and chemical compounds responsible for poultry meat flavour and off-flavour development and explain the main factors affecting poultry meat flavour, which can be manipulated to enhance the flavour of poultry meat.
Bernard L. Schroeder, University of Southern Queensland, Australia; Andrew W. Wood, Tanglewood Agricultural Services, Australia; David V. Calcino and Danielle M. Skocaj, Sugar Research Australia Limited, Australia; Alan P. Hurney, Edmonton, Australia; and
Good planting and cultivation practices in sugarcane production
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Plant crop establishment provides an opportunity to ensure that best management practices (BMPs) are identified and implemented or continued on-farm. If it is not done well, the ensuing crop could be negatively affected. This chapter focusses on a philosophy of BMP associated with sugarcane farming systems and explores how this enables good decision-making when crop establishment practices and activities are being considered and implemented by a grower. The chapter addresses the need for best practice crop establishment planning for sugarcane crop cycles, implementation of crop establishment plans, residue management, rectification and soil amelioration activities, fallow and sugarcane planting strategies and sugarcane cultivation practices and weed control.
Xinguo Mao, Institute of Crop Science , Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China; Delong Yang, Gansu Agricultural University, China; and Ruilian Jing, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China
Improving drought and heat tolerance in wheat
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Changes in global climate have increased the variability of precipitation, and have made episodes of drought and/or high temperature more common. These stresses, often occurring in combination during grain filling in arid or semiarid areas, are considered the two most common environmental limitations to wheat growth and yield potential. Therefore, the improvement of drought and heat tolerance, as well as grain yield, is of great importance in selecting wheat cultivars. This chapter aims to assess the genes involved in drought and heat tolerances, and the promising physiological traits that may assist in traditional genetic improvement for increased tolerance to drought and heat stress in wheat. It focuses on advances in our understanding of the molecular markers associated with physiological traits, and the roles of various important genes in determining a wheat plant’s response to heat and drought stresses.
J. M. Clarke
Durum wheat: production, challenges and opportunities
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Durum wheat is principally used for the manufacture of pasta, couscous and, to a lesser extent, in the production of bulgur and bread. This chapter explores the challenges and opportunities of durum wheat production in the twenty-first century, addressing globally important production as well as describing approaches used to mitigate production constraints and the progress realized through these approaches in breeding in recent years. The chapter also examines future trends in this area in the form of emerging breeding technologies.
M. L. W. J. Broekhuijse, Topigs Norsvin Research Center B.V., The Netherlands
Factors affecting the reproductive efficiency of boars
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Efficient artificial insemination (AI) is essential for future challenges in the pig industry. Core business for AI companies worldwide is diluting semen from high fertile breeding boars, and by that inseminating many sows. Efficient use of AI boars with high genetic merit is important to maximise dissemination of the genetic progress made in the breeding nucleus. An overview of factors affecting the reproductive efficiency of boars is presented. Boar semen is the most important carrier of genetic progress.
Stephen B. Smith, Texas A&M University, USA
Factors affecting fat content and distribution of fat in cattle and carcasses
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Beef cattle are highly efficient at depositing fat, and they deposit fats in a specific order: first abdominal, then seam (intermuscular), then subcutaneous and finally marbling (intramuscular, interfascicular) fat. The development and composition of these fat deposits are influenced by the diet of the cattle. This chapter addresses the origin of adipocytes, the ontogeny of fat development, factors influencing fat development and, finally, factors influencing fatty acid composition of fat depots.
B. Kaur
Genetic engineering of tomato to improve nutritional quality, resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses, and for non-food applications
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Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is an excellent plant model for unravelling physiological processes, fruit quality and shelf-life determinants, such as stress-responsive signalling, pathogenicity and ripening in climacteric fruits. Consumer awareness of tomato as a phytonutrient source of lycopene, β-carotene, flavonoids and vitamin C has intensified tomato research. The genome of inbred tomato Heinz 1706 cultivar has already been deciphered, genetic linkages for fruit quality have been characterized and tomatoes have been genetically engineered to enhance fruit quality and abiotic/biotic stress tolerance. Furthermore, tomato is a model for vaccine production. This chapter shows how genetic dissection using fruit-ripening mutants, new transgenic plants and molecular breeding has created a road map for the further unravelling of the regulation of genes governing fruit quality attributes as well as fundamental metabolic processes. Precision in engineering plant genomes has enabled development of novel tomatoes with marketable traits beneficial to human health.
Joel Ira Weller, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Israel
Genetic factors affecting fertility, growth, health and longevity in dairy cattle
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Inclusion of secondary or ‘functional’ traits in breeding objectives began in earnest only in the late 1990. By 2009, production traits accounted for less than 50% of the indices in most advanced countries. Breeding for fertility, health traits and herd life (HL) was hindered due to difficulty of measurement and analysis and generally low heritability. Statistical methods have been developed that overcome these problems. The advantages and limitations of breeding for disease traits and HL via selection on correlated traits and via cross-breeding are discussed. Methodologies for detection and analysis of the actual segregating genes that affect functional traits are presented.
Gregory B. Penner, University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Disorder of digestion and metabolism in dairy cattle: the case of subacute rumen acidosis
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Excessive fermentation in the rumen as a result of energy-rich diets decreases ruminal pH and leads to a digestive disorder called ruminal acidosis. This chapter examines one kind of acidosis, subacute rumen acidosis (SARA), and includes a detailed case study on SARA risk in the post-partum phase of the transition period. The chapter comprehensively analyses SARA and steps that can be taken to minimize it, and looks ahead to likely future trends of research in this area.
Javier Sánchez-Martín, Salim Bourras and Beat Keller, University of Zürich, Switzerland
Diseases affecting wheat and barley: powdery mildew
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Powdery mildew pathogens are among the most important cereal disease-causing organisms, and can result in significant losses in yield and reductions in grain quality. They pose a significant challenge for barley and wheat agricultural production systems. This chapter aims to provide an overview of current knowledge on wheat and barley resistance to powdery mildew. First, we introduce basic biological concepts on disease epidemiology and management strategies which target mildew. We then present emerging trends and technologies used in mildew resistance breeding and research and discuss how these could be combined into effective disease management strategies in the near future. Finally, we propose additional directions for achieving durable resistance based on deep understanding of the basic molecular mechanisms of cereal-mildew interactions.
S. B. Goodwin, USDA-ARS, USA
Diseases affecting wheat: Septoria tritici blotch
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Septoria tritici blotch (STB) is one of the most common and economically important diseases of wheat worldwide. This chapter evaluates various methods of disease management, considering the key developments of recent decades, the major challenges encountered and the future trajectory of this work. Fungicides have been the primary means of disease management since the 1980s, but resistance has rendered some compounds ineffective. Qualitative or quantitative resistance genes have now been found on all 21 wheat chromosomes, giving a rich but complex source of genes for plant improvement. Molecular markers are now available for many resistance genes making marker-assisted selection for increased resistance an achievable goal for the future. The first STB resistance gene has now been cloned, but the mechanism of resistance remains a mystery. Despite the huge progress made during the past twenty years, STB remains a destructive disease that is likely to require substantial future efforts for its control.
Hari D. Upadhyaya and Mani Vetriventhan, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India
Ensuring the genetic diversity of sorghum
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Sorghum is a staple food crop for millions of the poorest and most food-insecure people in the semi-arid tropics, and ensuring its diversity and conservation is therefore important for global food and nutritional security. This chapter discusses the taxonomy of sorghum, in situ and ex situ germplasm conservation and diversity, the factors shaping sorghum diversity, geographical distribution of sorghum germplasm, germplasm gap analysis, and the use of cultivated and wild genepool of sorghum to enhance crop yields and broaden the genetic base of sorghum cultivars.
T. B. Rodenburg, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Ensuring the welfare of broilers: an overview
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Genetic selection for highly efficient, fast-growing broilers has had negative effects on broiler welfare, and the high stocking densities used in some broiler production systems also have a negative impact on welfare. This chapter examines the welfare problems arising from these two factors, and reviews how both factors have been addressed within the European Union. Two case studies are then provided, examining the welfare effects of hatching environment and early feeding, and of alternative broiler production systems.
J. L. N. Maciel, Embrapa Wheat, Brazil
Diseases affecting wheat: wheat blast
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This chapter describes the characteristics, origin and spread of the causative agents of wheat blast, based on the experience of managing this disease in Brazil (where the first wheat blast epidemic was reported, in 1985, which still causes great losses). Although many aspects of the disease’s occurrence and control remain unknown, some advances have been made. It has been proposed that the origin of wheat blast was through the clonal propagation of an epidemic lineage of Pyricularia oryzae, derived from populations of the fungus growing on an unknown species within the family Poaceae. Recently, it was reported that wheat blast is caused two fungal species, Pyricularia oryzae, patothype Triticum, and a new species that has been described as Pyricularia graminis-tritici. Assays conducted under controlled conditions showed that Pyricularia graminis-tritici isolates were more virulent to Brachiaria (Urochloa sp., ex Brachiaria sp.; a pasture species common to Brazil) than many isolates of Pyricularia oryzae, pathotype Triticum. In addition, it has been determined that insensitivity to strobilurin fungicides is completely distributed in the Brazilian population of the causative agents of wheat blast.
M. Djanaguiraman
Growth, development and physiology of grain sorghum
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A thorough understanding of how grain sorghum develops is essential in determining how best to manage this crop. Grain sorghum has three predictable phases of growth: vegetative (planting to panicle initiation); reproductive (panicle initiation to flowering) and grain filling (after flowering to maturity). This chapter describes each of the phases in detail, observing how each stage is affected by factors such as genotype, temperature and photoperiod. Climatic conditions for optimal growth, as well as the effects and physiological basis of drought, high temperature and elevated carbon dioxide tolerance, are discussed. Due to climate change, sorghum-producing areas are facing increased exposure to water deficits and extreme temperatures, making comprehension of plant response to environmental stresses even more necessary. It is concluded that the use of high-yielding varieties and proper management practices will be essential to the future of this crop.
Jennie E. Pryce, Agriculture Victoria and La Trobe University, Australia; and Yvette de Haas, Wageningen UR, The Netherlands
Genetic selection for dairy cow welfare and resilience to climate change
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Narrow breeding goals focused on milk production traits have been detrimental to the reproductive performance and health of dairy cattle. There is, therefore, a need to develop breeding strategies that balances both production and non-production traits. In this chapter, we discuss the principles behind breeding goals and multi-trait selection. We review practices of selecting for milk production, energy balance and fertility, and then consider newer breeding objectives such as health traits, reducing the environment impact of dairy cattle and ensuring that cattle will be able to endure a changing climate. Finally, we discuss the use of modern genomic selection and gene-editing techniques.
