Diseases affecting pigs: an overview of common bacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens of pigs
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Recent events such as the 2009 pandemic influenza outbreak, the continuous spread of African swine fever virus in Eastern Europe and the introduction of several new pathogens into the United States and their spread to Canada, Mexico, Central and South America have emphasized the ability of pig diseases to cross borders rapidly and the importance of global cooperation to improve the health and welfare of pigs. This chapter summarizes recent research on the causes and epidemiology of major bacteria, viruses and parasites found in pig production, focusing on those with a particular impact on safety and global production.
Peter Groves, University of Sydney, Australia
Disease management in poultry flocks
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Diseases in intensive poultry flocks may occur due to viral, bacterial, fungal, protozoal, metazoan or arthropod infections or infestations. This chapter describes disease preventative measures, health monitoring and disease investigation techniques, and the management of sick meat chicken flocks. This chapter covers dealing with the emergency of an outbreak of disease in the flock, including hygiene procedures and methods of disposing of dead birds. The chapter examines the challenges inherent in poultry disease control and looks forward to future trends in this area.
Simon R. Ellwood, Curtin University, Australia; and Hugh Wallwork, South Australian Research and Development Institute, Australia
Diseases affecting barley: net blotches
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This chapter reviews the current knowledge of spot form and net form of net blotch of barley with an emphasis on recent genetic studies and their contribution to our understanding of the range of host-pathogen genetic interactions. Principal differences between the two forms of the disease are explained together with common cultural control methods. An example of a practical approach in breeding for durable resistance in South Australia is provided, and we discuss what such experience and genetic studies imply for successful breeding strategies for stable resistance.
Xiang Liu
Food safety control on poultry farms: effective control of Campylobacter
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The zoonotic pathogen, Campylobacter, is the leading cause of foodborne illness worldwide. It colonizes the intestinal tract of chickens, its primary host. In chickens, this pathogen is considered commensal and does not cause illness or have adverse impacts on production performance. A number of methods aim at controlling Campylobacter in the farm. This chapter discusses the general features and epidemiology of Campylobacter, improving biosecurity in the farm, antimicrobial therapy and increased host resistance, boosting the immune response, and DNA vaccines for preventing campylobacteriosis. It is concluded that, along with biosecurity, preventative treatments for the birds can act synergistically to significantly reduce the risk of contamination.
D. Luján-Rhenals
Energy and water use in poultry processing
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Increasing poultry production also means increasing energy and water use in poultry processing. Assessing these inputs is critical to develop more efficient systems and requires analysis of individual steps in processing. This chapter reviews way of measuring and reducing water and energy us at different stages in poultry processing.
Dr Dr Bernhard Speiser
Direct plant protection in organic farming
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In organic farming, plant health is maintained primarily through preventive management practices. Nevertheless, there are crops and situations where such measures alone do not provide sufficient protection, and direct plant protection is therefore necessary. This chapter focuses on the substances which may be used for plant protection, as well as underlines the importance of indirect plant protection measures for organic farming systems. The chapter describes current practices in organic plant protection, identifies currently authorised materials and discusses the process of authorisation of materials in the European Union. It finally examines efforts to find replacements for copper fungicides and looks ahead to future trends in this area of research.
Dr Anna L. Hale
Ensuring and exploiting the genetic diversity of sugarcane
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The majority of cultivars in current commercial sugarcane breeding programmes trace back to a few key interspecific hybrids that were developed during the early 1900s. Sugarcane breeders have expressed concerns about the narrow sampling of ancestral clones in modern sugarcane breeding programmes, and this concern has prompted periodic attempts at so-called ‘base-broadening’ programmes. This chapter begins by providing an overview of sugarcane germplasm collections and then describes introgression-related research and breeding efforts focused on the use of Saccharum spontaneum, Erianthus and other species. It emphasizes the difficulties and challenges that need to be overcome in order to achieve successful outcomes from introgression breeding. Finally, a few possible future directions are considered.
Dr Chris Little
Sorghum diseases and their management in cultivation: stalk, root and other diseases
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Of all the diseases affecting sorghum, root and stalk diseases are among the most damaging and difficult to control. This is due to their hidden nature and the fact that their symptoms often resemble abiotic stressors such as drought or freeze damage. This chapter presents an overview of some of the main bacterial, viral and parasitic diseases affecting sorghum root and stalk, describing their common symptoms, environments and typical effects on yield. In each case, recommendations for effective management of the disease are given, including information regarding tillage practices, fertilizer rates, crop rotation and use of fungicides.
C. Jamie Newbold, Aberystwyth University, UK
Feed supplements for dairy cattle
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The manipulation of rumen fermentation to maximize the efficiency of feed utilization and increase ruminant productivity is of great commercial interest. This chapter reviews the beneficial effects sought through manipulating rumen fermentation in dairy cattle. It then considers a wide variety of approaches, including the use of dietary buffers, antibiotics, fat supplements and plant extracts, and summarizes the potential benefits and limitations of each.
Taffa Tulu, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia
Developments in surface irrigation techniques
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Surface irrigation has long been an important tool for farmers. This chapter will review the development of surface irrigation techniques. Section 2 provides a brief historical overview, and then Sections 3 and 4 consider the development of furrow, basin and border irrigation in detail. Sections 5 and 6 cover irrigation scheduling and efficiency, Section 7 reviews the many factors which play into the choice of an irrigation system and, finally, Section 8 discusses modelling of surface irrigation systems.
Dr K. Rajkai
Dynamics of water storage and retention in soil
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Water storage and retention is one of the most important ecological and agricultural properties of soil, since soil is the main water source for most plants. The present chapter discusses different ways of defining, measuring and modelling soil water retention capability, which varies according to the physical features of the soil. A detailed case study is presented, demonstrating how territorial patterns of soil water retention can be mapped and analysed. Given the time- and labour-consuming nature of such methods, we also show how readily available soil data can be used to estimate the water retention characteristics of large areas such as catchments. Finally, we review the main types of water loss and factors affecting water retention, with consideration of evapotranspiration, runoff and various soil properties.
Dr Charles Stark
Developments in feed technology to improve poultry nutrition
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Systematic evaluation of each stage of the feed manufacturing has the potential to identify opportunities for improvement in manufacturing efficiency and reduced nutrient variation in finished feed, ultimately resulting in lower cost sustainable poultry production. This chapter examines the role of automation technology in composing and delivering feed, and addresses the issues of batching, mixing and pelleting feed as well as means of assessing feed quality. The chapter suggests some future developments in the use of technology in poultry nutrition and directs the reader to further reading in this area.
Glen W. Almond and Emily Mahan-Riggs, North Carolina State University, USA
Factors affecting the reproductive efficiency of pigs
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Solving problems associated with reproductive failure in sow herds can be a challenge. It is critical to meet breeding targets on a routine basis, and to achieve the appropriate farrowing rates and litter sizes. Reproductive failure interferes with the consistent production of pigs, which ultimately results in the suboptimal number of pigs for market. This chapter will highlight some of the factors affecting reproductive efficiency, including gilt development, litter size, control of the weaning to oestrus interval and seasonal infertility. Attention is given to various management strategies which help producers to continue to be profitable.
C. R. Little and A. Y. Bandara, Kansas State University, USA; and R. Perumal, Agricultural Research Center – Hays, USA
Sorghum diseases and their management in cultivation: seedling, seed, panicle and foliar diseases
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As sorghum continues to grow in significance in large parts of the world, attention is given to the many different types of disease that can affect this crop, and how they might be successfully avoided or managed. All physical structures and tissues of the sorghum plant may become diseased with one pathogen or another, and different diseases can damage the plant at virtually every stage of growth. The present chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the main diseases affecting sorghum, describing the different conditions in which they proliferate, their common symptoms and their impact on crop yield. In each case, the potential for host resistance is discussed, and information is provided regarding effective disease management.
M. Causse, E. Albert and C. Sauvage, INRA, France
Developing tomato varieties with improved flavour
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Tomato fruit quality is a complex trait involving a number of components, including appearance, flavour, aroma and texture. There is a large range of genetic diversity in tomato for fruit quality components. Although a few major mutations may have a huge effect on fruit quality (notably the rin mutation), most of the components have a quantitative inheritance. Several Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) mapping experiments have been performed, mostly on interspecific progeny. Many loci and QTL have thus been detected, revealing some QTL cluster regions. Tomato is a model plant for fruit development and composition, and knowledge about its physiology is rapidly increasing. This chapter examines the use of QTL to identify and determine favourable sensory characteristics, exploring current technologies and suggesting future trends for research in this area.
Nicola M. Schreurs and Paul R. Kenyon, Massey University, New Zealand
Factors affecting sheep carcass characteristics
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This chapter describes the characteristics of a sheep’s carcass and explains the principles of carcass composition (the weight or proportion of muscle, fat and bone in the carcass). Understanding carcass characteristics and finding techniques for altering the characteristics are important for maximising returns to the producer, since carcass traits can both inform breeding objectives and moderate meat quality. This chapter examines the factors that influence a carcass’ dressing-out percentage (the relative proportions of carcass and non-carcass components in an animal’s body), carcass composition, distribution and partitioning of tissues within the carcass and carcass shape. The chapter evaluates the contribution that understanding carcass characteristics can make to meat production and considers directions for future research.
C. Hamelin, CCPA, France and F. Cisneros, DSM, Switzerland
Determinants of egg appearance and colour
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It is essential for the consumer to select those types of eggs that are safe, nutritious and tasty. In this chapter, we begin by giving an overview of consumer decisions about whether to eat eggs and if so, which eggs to purchase. This includes reviewing regional differences in preferences and purchasing decisions, and the significance of packaging. Subsequent sections focus on the three key parts of the egg: the shell, the albumen and the yolk. We discuss consumer preferences for each, and then review the factors that determine the appearance and colour of these parts of the egg.
Tesfaye T. Tesso, Dereje D. Gobena, Dechassa O. Duressa, Kraig Roozeboom and Krishna Jagadish, Kansas State University, USA; Ramasamy Perumal, Agricultural Research Center – Hays, USA; and Desalegn D. Serba and Dilooshi Weerasooriya, Kansas State Univer
Harnessing genetic and genomic resources to transform the production and productivity of sorghum
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Despite sorghum’s inherent yield potential, its remarkable adaptation to marginal environments and its extensive use in various food applications by smallholders in developing countries, sorghum has never received the attention it deserves and thus its productivity has remained low. This chapter highlights the opportunities for sorghum as food, feed and industrial feedstock and discusses potential focus areas where investment and coordinated research may be needed to transform sorghum productivity. The chapter also examines the major hurdles undermining sorghum productivity including the chronic shortage of financial support to bring about technological breakthroughs, the mistaken public perception of the crop as inferior and the effect that poverty has on the ability of smallholder farmers to benefit from technology. The chapter also provides perspectives on bridging the gap in yield potential to maximize productivity.
Chris R. Kerth, Texas A&M University, USA
Factors affecting flavour development in beef
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Many attributes of the eating quality, especially tenderness, of beef have received much attention in research over the years. However, it has been widely accepted that one of the major attributes that make beef unique is its flavour; in fact, recent research has shown that it is flavour that is the quality attribute that drives consumer demand for beef. This chapter will explain the basic science of assessing flavour along with the factors that impact the development of beef flavour. This will include animal nutrition and genetics, product storage and processing, cookery, and research methods commonly used to assess beef flavour.
Dr Carmen Gallo
Ensuring the welfare of culled dairy cows during transport and slaughter
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Every year, some cows are culled from dairy herds and sold through livestock markets and livestock dealers or sent directly to a slaughterhouse. Most of these cows are culled due to sickness or lameness, meaning that they are likely to experience pain and distress during marketing, transport and slaughter. This chapter reviews strategies for ensuring the welfare of these cows before and during transport and slaughter. We review the legislation and codes of practice surrounding the transport and slaughter of cows, consider important pre-transport conditions which can affect the welfare of cows during transport and at the slaughterhouse, and discuss the causes and signs of distress as well as strategies to avoid welfare problems.
Dr Dr Delia Grace
Detecting and preventing contamination of dairy cattle feed
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Dairy feed has direct and indirect impacts on the safety of milk and milk products; feed also has implications for animal health and welfare, and the profitability of the dairy sector. This chapter starts with a brief outline of the role of feed in dairy cattle diets, emphasizing the common hazards associated with different feed ingredients. We outline the impacts, diagnosis, governance and management of feed contaminates in general. We then review identification, diagnosis and prevention of some of the most important dairy feed hazards, namely aflatoxins, Salmonella bacteria, persistent organic pollutants, veterinary drug residues and heavy metals.
R. F. Park, University of Sydney, Australia
Diseases affecting wheat and barley: rusts
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Farmers using conventional fungicides for disease control face a number of challenges such as increased regulatory measures and the spread of fungicide resistance. This chapter sums up the wealth of research addressing this challenge, that has targeted understanding rust pathogens better, the deployment of conventional, genetically modified and gene-edited resistance, the use of agronomic factors and the management of fungicide resistance. The key to sustainable disease control appears to be the integrated use of all these methods.
Robert L. Zimdahl, Colorado State University, USA
Ethical issues in integrated weed management
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This chapter surveys the potential ethical issues and problems that surround weed science as a subdivision of agriculture. These include the implications of herbicide resistance, invasive species, the introduction of biotech/Genetically Modified Organisms and concerns about sustainability. This chapter focuses particularly on sustainability as an ethical goal of weed science, arguing that truly integrated weed management requires engagement with the broader ethical issues raised by the implementation of new technologies.
Jian-Qiang Ma
Ensuring the genetic diversity of tea plants
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Long-term cross-pollination has produced considerable heritable variation within and between populations of the tea plant and related species, resulting in a high level of genetic diversity. A good understanding and management of this pool of genetic resource diversity is of vital importance to tea plant improvement, since it directly affects the potential for genetic gain through selection. This chapter provides an overview of genetic diversity of tea plant, and its characterization and utilization. The chapter examines the origins and global distribution of tea cultivars, assessing the current status of tea genetic resources. The chapter explains the processes of tea germplasm evaluation and characterization and examines the exploitation and utilization of genetic diversity, looking ahead to future research trends in the area of ensuring tea’s genetic diversity.
Emily Miller-Cushon, University of Florida, USA; Ken Leslie and Trevor DeVries, University of Guelph, Canada
Ensuring the health and welfare of dairy calves and heifers
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Pre-weaning morbidity and mortality rates in dairy calves remain a challenge for dairy producers worldwide. Health challenges, along with housing and management, all have an impact on calf productivity and welfare. This chapter will review strategies for managing calving, improving calf vitality, successful colostrum feeding, prevention of neonatal disease, alleviation of pain during common procedures, provision of optimal housing, execution of accelerated feeding programmes, stress-free weaning, and maintenance of efficient rearing by optimal nutrition and housing of post-weaned dairy heifers. In each of these areas of emphasis, numerous recent advances will be presented. However, hurdles and bottlenecks to achieving meaningful improvements in the success of heifer-rearing programmes, particularly as they relate to calf welfare, will also be described and discussed.
D. Reynolds, Mississippi State University, USA
Defining and implementing best management practices in soybean production
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In order to optimize the profitability of soybean production while minimizing adverse effects on the environment, it is important to define and implement the most effective management, agronomic and technological practices. The present chapter considers the following components of soybean production: tillage systems, soil fertility, variety selection, agronomic practices and pest management. Such practices will, of course, vary between geographic regions; for instance, best tillage practice may be determined by soil type and environmental conditions. However, in each case, general practices that transcend geographic areas are described, with consideration given to how these practices might be adjusted to accommodate region-specific factors. The chapter concludes with recommendations for how these practices could be implemented within an overall management plan.
Wolfgang Knogge, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Germany
Diseases affecting barley: scald
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Scald (leaf blotch), caused by the hemibiotrophic pathogen Rhynchosporium commune, is one of the major diseases of barley worldwide. Typical disease symptoms consist of necrotic areas on the leaf blades. Yield losses are manifested as reduced kernel quality, size and number per ear. This chapter reviews the origins, epidemiology and other characteristic features of scald, and considers the agricultural consequences of the pathogen’s biology. It then considers resistance breeding programmes in which more than a dozen major resistance genes as well as quantitative trait loci have been identified, and discusses strategies to minimize the damage caused by the disease comprising agricultural practices and different fungicides.
Paul D. Ebner and Yingying Hong, Purdue University, USA
Dealing with the challenge of antibiotic resistance in pig production
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This chapter describes the practice of antibiotic use in food animal production, with a particular focus on pigs, and the various questions this practice raises. The chapter begins with a brief history of antibiotic use in livestock production before examining the current state of research focused on developing non-antibiotic means of controlling bacterial infections in livestock. Finally, the chapter provides a case study of research in phage therapy as a case study of a (re)emerging technology that could be utilized in biocontrol of bacterial pathogens in agriculture.
Maureen Bain, University of Glasgow, UK
Composition and properties of eggshell
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The eggshell provides convenient packaging for the transportation of the egg contents. Since the shell is fragile, it must be handled and transported with care. Cracked and damaged eggs lead to financial losses and pose a food safety risk. A greater understanding of the eggshell and its formation will allow breeders to select for hens that produce eggs with high-quality shells. This chapter describes the structure of the eggshell and introduces to our knowledge some of the advances about its composition and properties, which have resulted from the application of new molecular techniques, including proteomic and transcriptomic approaches. Where possible it suggests how these advances may allow us to address the major challenges in this area and contribute to sustainable egg production.
Janet M. Riley, North American Meat Institute, USA
Ensuring beef safety through consumer education
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For food safety in the US beef industry, 1993 was a watershed year because of the large outbreak of food-borne illnesses that were linked to ground beef. More than two decades later, microbial issues persist as areas of concern. While the industry has made great strides in reducing bacteria on raw beef products impacting consumer, safe beef handling behaviours remain a significant challenge. In this chapter, we review the history of consumer beef preparation practices and food safety advice, including the significance of the 1993 E. coli outbreak, the research determining the best advice to give to consumers and how awareness of food safety issues and food preparation behaviour has changed over time. We focus primarily on the situation in the United States, but global food safety education, awareness and behaviours are also considered.
Matt Liebman, Iowa State University, USA
Cultural techniques to manage weeds
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Widespread problems with herbicide-resistant weeds, environmental contamination by herbicides, and soil degradation due to excessive cultivation have led to an increasing need for integrated weed management strategies that make use of a wide array of cultural techniques to reduce weed population densities, biomass production, and competition against crops. Cultural techniques with demonstrated efficacy in particular farming systems include increases in crop population density; increases in crop spatial uniformity; alterations of planting date; use of transplanting rather than direct seeding; choice of highly competitive and allelopathic cultivars; mulching; and soil fertility and moisture management. These techniques are generally weaker than herbicides and mechanical control practices when evaluated individually. Nonetheless, when used in particular combinations, the cumulative effects of cultural tactics may be substantial and can lessen the burden of crop protection placed on chemical and mechanical controls.
Prof. Prof. M. R. Finckh
Disease and pest management in organic farming: a case for applied agroecology
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Disease and pest management in organic agriculture are based on a whole set of interlinked system management methods, including in certain cases, the use of organic pesticides and biocontrol organisms. In order to achieve the greatest possible natural biological control within a growing system, there is a need to apply a holistic biological systems management approach. Two case studies working towards these aims are presented in detail: a systems approach aiming at a soil regenerative potato cropping system (RePCRO) and evolutionary breeding for diversity in wheat. Both systems greatly increase overall resilience to unpredictable biotic and abiotic environmental challenges. We conclude that soil quality and health on the one hand and biodiversity on the other hand are inseparably connected to plant health management in organic agriculture. Addressing the whole production system starting with breeding for diversity and soil management for enhanced soil health will result in innovative plant health management options within highly resilient and sustainable agricultural systems.
Peter Von Fragstein und Niemsdorff, Universität Kassel, Germany
Cover crops in organic crop cultivation
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Cover crops (CCs) are close-growing crops providing protection for soil and seeding between periods of normal crop production. They are positioned in rotation between two main or cash crops, and not primarily grown for harvest. Although traditionally CCs have been terminated and incorporated into the soil, the emergence of conservation agriculture and no-till systems has led to greater emphasis on retaining CC residues as a precrop mulch for the following crop. This chapter considers recent research on the benefits of CCs in areas such as erosion and soil structure, nutrient cycling and control of weeds, diseases and pests. It then looks at the broader role of CCs in promoting biodiversity, and their role in carbon sequestration and reducing GHGs. Finally, it discusses some of the challenges in using CCs to optimize crop yields, and presents a number of key questions for the future of this practice.
Abraham Singels, University of Kwazulu-Natal and University of Pretoria, South Africa
Crop modelling to support sustainable sugarcane cultivation
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The chapter describes the use of crop simulation models to support research and management of sustainable cultivation of sugarcane. It supplies case studies of strategic applications, including benchmarking of crop productivity and resource use and assessing environmental impacts of current operations, new developments and future scenarios. The chapter describes the use of crop modelling support for operational management, including irrigation scheduling and yield forecasting. The chapter discusses strengths and weaknesses of different modelling approaches and their relevance for a variety of applications. The chapter looks ahead to opportunities for integrating crop modelling with new crop monitoring technologies and improved weather forecasts.
Dominiek Maes, Jeroen Dewulf, Filip Boyen and Freddy Haesebrouck, Ghent University, Belgium
Disease identification and management on the pig farm
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Endemic diseases constitute a major threat for a profitable and sustainable pig production worldwide. This chapter reviews the diagnosis and monitoring of pig diseases, and control measures that can be implemented on the farm. The most important issues to establish a diagnosis are discussed. Monitoring of pig diseases should focus on different parameters such as clinical signs and antibiotic usage, animal responses to infection and detection of pathogens, lesions in slaughter pigs, and feed and drinking water intake. Advantages and disadvantages of different levels of disease control are discussed. The importance of management and biosecurity is illustrated, with an overview of the components of external and internal biosecurity. The role of vaccination and antimicrobial medication is discussed, followed by future trends for improving diagnosis and disease control. Future research is warranted to better understand host–pathogen interactions and to develop better diagnostics, vaccines and control measures against infectious pig diseases.
Dr Iksoon Kang
Enhancing texture and tenderness in poultry meat
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The texture and tenderness of poultry meat are key factors in ensuring consumer satisfaction, and these qualities are significantly affected by how birds are treated before, during and after slaughter. This chapter begins by explaining how, after slaughter, the decline of muscle pH and the development of rigor mortis affect meat tenderness. We then examine the effect of the important process of chilling on meat tenderness. The problem of pale, soft and exudative (PSE) meat is considered, and the crust-freeze-air-chilling (CFAC) technique is given particular emphasis as a means of minimizing the occurrence of this defect. We then consider various processing techniques for improving the tenderness of poultry meat, including mechanical tenderization, muscle tensioning, electrical stimulation and marination.
Dr Maike Krauss
Conservation tillage in organic farming
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Conservation tillage in organic farming combines the principles of organic farming with the benefits of soil erosion control achieved by the conversion from ploughing to either reduced tillage or no-tillage/direct-seeding. This chapter reviews more than two decades of on-station and on-farm research. The chapter outlines the main benefits of conservation tillage before considering its main challenges. The chapter also contains a number of specific case studies from the field. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and offers detailed guidance on where to find further information about this subject.
Wendela Wapenaar, Simon Archer and John Remnant, University of Nottingham, UK; and Alan Murphy, Minster Veterinary Practice, UK
Control of infectious diseases in dairy cattle
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This chapter describes the developments to control infectious diseases in the dairy cattle industry, and outlines recent research in this area. A risk analysis approach is presented as a framework for managing infectious diseases at global and farm level. Disease hazards, and the release and exposure of these, are also discussed. The importance of disease detection, the use of diagnostic tests, their appropriate interpretation and surveillance are highlighted. The range of impacts of infectious diseases on the dairy industry is described and guidelines to estimate and evaluate risks of infectious diseases are provided. In addition, the challenges around successful implementation and effective communication of risk management on dairy farms are reviewed.
Thomas F. Döring, University of Bonn, Germany
Eco-functional intensification of organic farming
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Organic farming aims to increase productivity while maintaining a positive impact on biodiversity and using minimal resources. An urgent question of global importance is how organic agricultural systems can be improved with regard to the various functions of producing food, saving biodiversity and reducing resource use – in short, how organic farming can increase its multifunctional performance. This chapter offers a discussion of opportunities for and measures of eco-functional intensification (EFI) in organic farming, including material and energy flows, ecological regulation and technical developments. The chapter also summarizes and discusses general challenges of EFI.
Nicole Thompson, Sugar Research Australia, Australia
Ensuring biosecurity in sugarcane cultivation
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Biosecurity in sugarcane cultivation is an important factor in maintaining and improving yields. It can refer to the day-to-day management of established pests, diseases and weeds, as well as preparing for unusual threats to the industry, and safeguarding agriculture and natural resources. This chapter focusses on the sugarcane industry’s preparedness for exotic pathogens, describing techniques such as pest risk analysis, quarantine control and surveys. The chapter discusses emerging technologies and examines and compares current guidelines. Finally, the chapter presents a case study of the 2006 sugarcane smut incursion in Australia.
Hernán Ceballos, Nelson Morante, Fernando Calle, Jorge Lenis and Sandra Salazar, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Colombia
Developing new cassava varieties: tools, techniques and strategies
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The significance of cassava as a crop in tropical countries means that developing improved varieties is key to the sustainability of cassava production. This chapter examines how understanding the utilization of cassava can inform breeding objectives for developing improved varieties of cassava. It addresses the ways through which cassava can be bred and selected to resist common pests and diseases and examines the selection criteria used for breeding. The chapter analyses in detail the correlation between phenotypic characteristics and traits of cassava, as well as including a discussion of the relevance of breeding value. The chapter suggests a number of potential future trends in research in this area.
Dr Carita Schneitz
Competitive exclusion treatment to control pathogens in poultry
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Competitive Exclusion (CE) describes the protective effect of the intestinal microflora against colonization of pathogenic bacteria. This review presents the background and current use of the CE concept to prevent Salmonella infections in poultry, by administration of cultures of intestinal origin to day-old chickens. This approach is a well-documented tool for effective mitigation of the risk for Salmonella infections in newly hatched chickens from being further spread horizontally in a flock or vertically in case of breeding animals. The administrated cultures compensate for the delayed development of the protective intestinal microflora in chickens hatched under hygienic conditions in modern poultry production.
Ivar Vågsholm, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden
Case studies on food safety control in the production of fresh poultry meat: effective control of Salmonella in Sweden
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Swedish control of Salmonella in poultry is very successful, with rare findings of Salmonella in meat and almost no human cases linked to Swedish poultry meat. This chapter presents the Swedish system for controlling Salmonella in poultry, with the aim of highlighting insights which may be helpful for the development of Salmonella control programmes in other countries. The chapter begins by reviewing of the history of Salmonella control in Sweden, from the Alvesta Salmonella outbreak of 1953 through to the national Salmonella control programme introduced in 2010. It then turns to the current Salmonella control program, which aims to deliver Salmonella-free food using the following measures: preventing and eliminating Salmonella contamination in poultry feed; preventing infection of the breeding pyramid; surveillance of the production chain at critical control points; biosecurity on the production site and, whenever Salmonella is found, taking action to remove it from the food chain.
J. A. Dahlberg, Kearney Agricultural Research and Extension Center – University of California, USA; and D. T. Rosenow, formerly Agricultural Research and Extension Center – Texas A&M University, USA
Classifying the genetic diversity of sorghum: a revised classification of sorghum
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This chapter provides a revised classification of sorghum. It sets out a generalized classification of cultivated sorghum from which a more precise working group can be defined to explain the variation within the chosen race. The classification is presented in a format that would be useful in breeding programmes as breeders look to incorporate exotic germplasm into their breeding lines and hybrids.
Andy Butterworth, University of Bristol, UK
Developments in humane slaughtering techniques for poultry
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Stunning of animals before slaughtering is now gaining global acceptance. It is being recognized as a humane slaughtering technique. This chapter discovers that cruelty to animals can be prevented and animals can be well protected by induction of unconsciousness as the first and enduring stage of the process of killing. Loss of consciousness will occur without pain. Most permitted killing methods comprise a set of effective stunning methods and this chapter describes the various stunning methods like electrical stunning, gas stunning, maceration, concussive stunning, to name a few.
Erin M. Goldberg
Enhancing the nutritional profile of eggs
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The nutrients contained within the table egg can be easily modified or enhanced through the hen’s diet. As such, the egg represents an economically viable functional food that can be utilized to deliver potent bio-active components into the human diet. In this chapter, we review the major targets of enrichment, with a particular focus on omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. We also discuss some of the potential downsides of such enrichment, including the impact on bird health and performance, increased the cost of ingredients and impact on the sensory profile, which affects consumer acceptability.
Carla Correia-Gomes, Scotland’s Rural College, UK
Changing patterns of disease affecting pigs: Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS) and Porcine Epidemic Diarrhoea (PED)
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Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome virus (PRRSv) and Porcine Epidemic Diarrhoea virus (PEDv) are two of the major viruses that affect pigs worldwide. This chapter focuses on the transmission, clinical presentation, evolution and spread of these two agents (PRRSv and PEDv), due to their importance in pig production worldwide and their evolution over the years. The chapter discusses in detail the agent, transmission, clinical presentation and evolution and spread of these two viruses in the pig population both worldwide, and more specifically, the United Kingdom. The chapter provides readers with an overview of the complexity of these two agents and how this influences their clinical presentation and evolution over time and space.
Dr Dr A. K. Ruud
Diseases affecting wheat: Septoria nodorum blotch
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Septoria nodorum blotch (SNB) is an important disease affecting wheat in many of its production areas around the world, and is caused by the ascomycete fungal pathogen Parastagonospora nodorum. Breeding for SNB resistance has been hampered by the polygenic and quantitative nature of the resistance, and the farmers often have to rely on fungicides to control the disease. In recent years, substantial progress has been made in understanding the P. nodorum–wheat pathosystem. Several host-specific interactions between necrotrophic effectors (NEs) and host sensitivity (Snn) genes have been identified and play major roles in SNB seedling resistance. Some of the NEs have been cloned and can be used to screen breeding material at the seedling stage. This chapter provides an overview of the molecular understanding of host–pathogen interactions, progress in understanding the genetics of host resistance and use of molecular markers and effector screening as promising tools in resistance breeding for this challenging disease.
Dr Dr Bart De Ketelaere
Egg quality: consumer preferences and measurement techniques
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This chapter addresses consumer perceptions of egg quality and how the quality characteristics of eggs can be measured by using a variety of instrumental techniques. First, we consider what features consumers connect with egg quality. Fast, non-destructive techniques for providing an objective assessment are then discussed. Such techniques are reviewed for the determination of eggshell quality (with a focus on the presence of cracks and/or dirt, strength and shell colour) and then for the determination of internal egg quality (with particular emphasis on freshness). Methods for detecting anomalies in eggs are also discussed. The chapter concludes by mapping consumer preferences to current state-of-the-art sensing technologies and then defining some future perspectives for research.
Dr Dr Delia Grace
Detecting pathogens in milk on dairy farms: key issues for developing countries
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Testing for pathogens in cow’s milk on dairy farms has assumed importance these days. Pathogen testing is done to ensure milk quality and milk safety and on-farm pathogen testing is being explored. This chapter discusses this crucial issue, first by identifying the rationale for on-farm pathogen testing. Next, the most important pathogen detection tests are described. Two case studies from Tanzania and India are presented; one deals with controlling disease in cattle and the other looks into how on-farm pathogen detection will improve milk quality and enable market access to smallholders. Finally, this chapter discusses future trends in on-farm pathogen testing.
Henk Ritzema, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Drainage systems to support sustainable water use
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In arid and semi-arid regions of the world, rainfall is supplemented by irrigation, and drainage is needed to prevent irrigation-induced waterlogging and soil salinization. Drainage systems are man-made systems that are only implemented when natural drainage is insufficient for a satisfactory form of agriculture. This chapter provides an overview of agricultural drainage systems, explains in detail the need for drainage and its benefits, and explores in some depth the challenges of making drainage work, including the construction of drainage infrastructure and ways of dealing with drainage effluent. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area of research and provides detailed guidance on further sources of information.
Dr Dr James P. Legg
Diseases affecting cassava
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Cassava diseases are major production constraints wherever the crop is grown. Although diseases will continue to pose a challenge to cassava producers in the immediate future, tremendous progress is being made in developing control tactics. These range from biotechnological approaches for enhancing disease resistance to viruses to the application of biocontrol suppressors that help cassava plants resist infection from soil-dwelling fungal pathogens, and initiatives to enhance global cooperation in the implementation of robust phytosanitary measures preventing the spread of pathogens to previously unaffected territories. In this chapter, we describe the characteristics of some of the key diseases of cassava, highlight methods that are currently being applied to control them and discuss some of the promising new areas for research on cassava disease control.
Elizabeth Parkes and Olufemi Aina, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria
Breeding, delivery, use and benefits of bio-fortified cassava
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Cassava’s high caloric value, as well as its ability to tolerate dry conditions and poor soils, makes it a key food security crop in developing countries, particularly in Africa. It serves as a rich source of carbohydrates, and also contains appreciable amounts of calcium and vitamin C. However, heavy reliance on cassava as the main source of food without additional intake of protein and vitamin-mineral rich food sources can lead to nutrient deficiencies. In particular, vitamin A deficiency is a serious nutritional problem in areas with heavy reliance on cassava as a food. In this chapter, we review the HarvestPlus breeding programme for increasing the nutrient density of cassava. We then consider strategies for promoting the use of pro-vitamin A varieties by farmers and consumers. Finally, we discuss the levels and bioavailability of carotenoids in yellow-fleshed cassava after processing operations.
Jonathan Statham, Bishopton Veterinary Group and RAFT Solutions Ltd, UK
Dairy herd health management: an overview
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The importance of ensuring animal welfare and food security, of combating antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and of increasing food production, all contribute to the need for preventative medicine. Herd health management (HHM) involves the delivery of a more coordinated approach, where management interventions are prioritized and the veterinary surgeon acts as a central hub for the farm team. This chapter reviews the development of the HHM strategy and the reasons for implementing it in dairy herds. This chapter also discusses the three key stages of measurement, monitoring and management, before emphasizing the potential benefits of the system.
Eric R. Gallandt, University of Maine, USA; Daniel Brainard, Michigan State University, USA; and Bryan Brown, University of Maine, USA
Developments in physical weed control
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Physical weed control is the key method for reducing negative impacts of weeds in organic cropping systems, and remains important even on many conventional vegetable farms. Inter-row cultivation is generally effective, but controlling intra-row weeds remains a challenge. Well-timed use of torsion, finger and tine weeders can control intra-row weeds, with impressive efficacy observed when the tools are combined or ‘stacked’. However, selectivity of intra-row tools depends in part on maintenance of a size differential between crops and weeds, which is particularly challenging in slow-growing, direct-seeded crops. Recent advances in GPS and camera-based guidance system technologies permit high working rates, and increasingly precise, close-to-the-row tool adjustment. Innovative tool design, parameter-based values for adjustment and choice of tool, and advances in mechanistic understanding of weed seedling mortality and crop injury could elevate physical weed control to a level of performance farmers have grown to expect from modern herbicides.
Graeme W. Bourdôt and Michael G. Cripps, AgResearch Limited, New Zealand
Biological weed control in temperate grasslands
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This chapter provides a critical review of international research on biological weed control as it applies to weeds of temperate grasslands. The chapter outlines the ways in which ‘classical’ biocontrol agents, due to their natural ability to spread and find their host plant, are appropriate for the grassland on a steep terrain not readily accessible with farm machinery. ‘Bioherbicides’, by contrast, require the use of tractors, sprayers or spreaders and are therefore restricted to land accessible with farm machinery. Based on the published literature, including many historical reviews and the authors’ own research experience, the chapter identifies the constraints to, and opportunities for, the effective biological control of weeds in the world’s temperate grasslands.
Dr Dr Caroline Moffat
Diseases affecting wheat: tan spot
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Tan spot is a major fungal disease of wheat worldwide and a significant economic challenge facing growers. Here, we summarise common disease management strategies, including cultural practices, fungicide control and varietal resistance. We review the host–pathogen interaction and genetics of disease resistance, and discuss current tan spot research as well as future research trends towards a long-term solution. We include an example of tan spot management in Brazil and present a case study of the successful adoption of effector-assisted breeding in Australia.
D. J. Ambrose, University of Alberta, Canada and J. P. Kastelic, University of Calgary, Canada
Breeding and management strategies to improve reproductive efficiency in dairy cattle
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Although high reproductive efficiency is critical to sustainable dairy farming, reproductive failure is the primary reason for culling dairy cows in many countries. Yet, high milk production and high first-service conception rates often co-exist in well-managed dairy herds. The use of artificial insemination (AI) to improve the genetic merit of dairy cows started as early as the 1930s, and because of the widespread use of AI in the dairy industry, accurate oestrus detection and timely and skilful performance of AI are of paramount importance to optimize reproductive efficiency if cattle are bred following detection of oestrus. This chapter presents various strategies to improve fertility in cows from simple methods of increasing oestrus detection efficiency to cross-breeding. It suggests ways to improve reproductive efficiency and manage both cow nutrition and the production environment to ensure the best reproductive results.
Dr Dr Erin N. Rosskopf
Bioherbicides: an overview
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Weed control is one of the greatest concerns in agriculture and land management. Chemical control methods are widespread, but there are many invasive species for which these are not economically feasible. In addition, there are social, economic and political drivers that work towards reducing the overall use of pesticides. This chapter considers the use of bioherbicides as an alternative method for weed control. We review the use of products based on natural compounds derived from plants or microbes, the classical approach to microbial bioherbicide application, and the use of an inundative approach which applies an endemic pathogen in much greater quantity than would be found naturally. Finally, we discuss how bioherbicides can be integrated into weed management programmes and the institutional changes needed for biological control adoption.
John H. Sanders, Purdue University, USA; Botorou Ouendeba, former Director of the 3N Program, Niger; Ababacar Ndoye, former Director of the Institute of Food Technology, Senegal; and Niaba Témé, Institute of the Agricultural Economy (IER), Mali
Introducing new technologies and market strategies for sorghum producers in developing countries: the Sahel case
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Sorghum producers are faced with the simultaneous problems of low yields, difficult access to inputs, and are at the bottom of the marketing chain hence the lowest prices received. So a yield increasing strategy needs to confront all of these constraints. This chapter reports on the field research of a programme combining both agronomic and economic components. The programme initially included four Sahelian countries and then focused on Mali as it moved from the pilot to the scaling-up process. In this chapter, we focus particularly on the introduction of new sorghum technologies and the improvement of marketing strategies, as well as the ability of the system to respond to emerging problems.
Ranjith Ramanathan, Oklahoma State University, USA and Richard A. Mancini, University of Connecticut, USA
Beef colour development and variation
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Meat colour is a very important visual sensory attribute that influences purchasing decisions. Post-mortem muscle is biochemically active and any deviation from the ultimate post-mortem muscle pH can influence meat colour. More specifically, changes in pH can affect the key determinants of meat colour such as metmyoglobin reduction, oxygen consumption, and lipid oxidation. Recently, much research focus has been on the role of mitochondria in meat colour. The use of ‘omics’ technologies such as genomics, proteomics and metabolomics will help to better understand biochemical changes occurring during the conversion of muscle to meat. This chapter will discuss factors affecting beef colour, key biochemical reactions that influence beef colour and the role of mitochondria in beef colour.
John McNamara, Washington State University, USA
Biochemical and physiological determinants of feed efficiency in dairy cattle
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The energetic, physiological or metabolic efficiency of an animal depends on various factors, including the ingredients and physical form of the animal’s diet; the bacterial population in their digestive tract; and the interactions between their hormones, receptors, organs and metabolism patterns. In this chapter, we give a brief review of the physiology and biochemistry of the cow, and then offer an overview of the development of the biology of lactation as a research field, with particular emphasis on the growing role of genetics. Section 4 then discusses a case study on the biochemical determinants of feed efficiency in dairy cows, and finally Section 5 explores the effects of genetic variation on metabolism.
G. D. Sinniah, Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka
Diseases affecting tea plants
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Tea plantations are attacked by a number of pathogens which reduce yields and shorten the lifespan of tea bushes. This chapter reviews major diseases which pose a threat to tea production. It considers recent advances in disease diagnosis, understanding of host-pathogen interactions and management strategies. Finally, it aims to pinpoint gaps in our knowledge and provide guidelines for future research programmes.
P. Lava Kumar, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; James P. Legg, IITA, Tanzania; Maria Ayodele, IITA, Nigeria; George Mahuku, IITA, Tanzania; and Alejandro Ortega-Beltran and Ranajit Bandyopadhyay, IITA, Nigeria
Disease surveillance, diagnostics and germplasm health in crop protection
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Diseases caused by a range of established and emerging pathogens such as bacteria, fungi, oomycetes and viruses are among the persistent factors for the reduction in crop yields across sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Most damaging diseases are caused by introduced exotic pathogens and by locally evolved pathogens infecting introduced crop species. Expansion of the geographic range of established pathogens and introduced new pathogens has caused destructive epidemics and pandemics in large swaths of farmlands during the last three decades in SSA. Since establishment in 1967, IITA has prioritized disease control of its mandate crops and made remarkable progress during the past 50 years to negate their destructive impact through breeding for host resistance, integrated control tactics and preventive management. This chapter summarizes advances in disease control and ongoing efforts in disease diagnostics, surveillance and germplasm health protection.
Dr Susan A. O’Shaughnessy
Deficit irrigation and site-specific irrigation scheduling techniques to minimize water use
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Today, more than ever, efficient use of water by the agricultural sector is critical to sustaining national and global food security in both irrigated and rainfed regions. Implementing deficit irrigation (DI) strategies and site-specific irrigation management can improve crop water productivity without significantly reducing yield. Under some conditions, these management practices can also result in water conservation, while advanced technologies can facilitate environmental stewardship. This chapter describes the main DI strategies used in agriculture and reports on results from current studies using DI strategies, as well as the status for site-specific irrigation management and its role in minimizing agricultural water use.
Dr Dr D. R. Woodfield
Balancing pasture productivity with environmental and animal health requirements
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Plant breeders face the significant challenge of developing high-performing pasture and supplementary feed crops that maintain the profitability of temperate grassland farming systems while reducing the environmental footprint and animal health issues. This chapter provides examples of where new cultivars, new species and interspecific hybrids are being developed to meet these genetically challenging environmental targets. These strategies include efforts to reduce agricultural emissions through selection for soluble carbohydrate, lipids and condensed tannins. We also provide examples of where the limited genetic variation available for conventional selection has resulted in transgenic approaches for traits with dual productivity and environmental benefits. The ability of some plantain cultivars to reduce nitrate leaching in grazed systems suggests that exploration of newer species could be beneficial. We also highlight the need for further collection of scarce genetic resources. Lastly, we provide examples of where forage breeding can directly and indirectly improve animal health and welfare.
Nikhil Ghosh Hajra, Organic Tea and Agri-horticultural Consulting, India
Cultivation, production and marketing of organic tea
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This chapter provides an overview of the development of organic and biodynamic tea production in different producing countries, exploring cultivation practices, the global market for, and trade in, organic tea, and research priorities. The chapter assesses the pattern of yield trend after conversion from conventional to organic production. It provides a discussion of the development of target markets for organic tea, distribution channels and the volume of organic tea traded in the world market.
William James, formerly Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS)-USDA, USA
Beef carcass inspection systems
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This chapter provides an overview of the purposes and importance of meat inspection programmes in addressing hazards to both human and animal health. Subsequent sections cover the design, implementation and results of ante- and post-mortem inspection, and provide a review of some important procedures used by Veterinary Services to inspect cow heads, viscera and carcasses.
Paul H. Hemsworth, University of Melbourne, Australia
Defining and ensuring animal welfare in pig production: an overview
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Raising pigs for consumption involves the exercise of control over the quality and duration of their lives, and it is widely accepted that there is a duty to exercise this control humanely. This chapter begins by reviewing three conceptual frameworks which can be used to consider and assess animal welfare, and discusses the development of public opinion on the subject. It then concentrates on common welfare concerns raised by pig production practices, including those related to housing, stereotypies, injuries and surgical husbandry procedures. The chapter concludes by considering opportunities to safeguard pig welfare.
Lynn Post, Food and Drug Administration, USA
Detecting antibiotic residues in animal feed: the case of distiller’s grains
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The purpose of this chapter is to review the methods for detection of antibiotic residues in animal feed, using the example of distillers’ grains. There is a growing concern about the use of antibiotics in the process of which distillers’ grains are a co-product. Antibiotic residues in distillers’ grains may contribute towards antimicrobial resistance in animals and humans. This chapter reviews the use of distillers’ grains as animal feed and provides an overview of multiresidue methods for analysing residues in feed, with particular attention to ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry and orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry. It also discusses the extent to which antibiotic residues have been found to survive in feed, and considers how the risk of antimicrobial resistance can be assessed
Diogenes L. Antille, National Centre for Engineering in Agriculture, University of Southern Queensland, Australia; Tim Chamen, Controlled Traffic Farming Europe Ltd, UK; Jeff N. Tullberg, National Centre for Engineering in Agriculture, University of South
Controlled traffic farming in precision agriculture
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In the past few decades, there has been a continuous drive towards the development and adoption of larger, and more powerful, agricultural machinery. Larger machinery is often related with timeliness, higher work rates and lower labour requirements, which has led to significant improvements both in efficiency and productivity, but a drawback of this trend has been the associated increase in machinery weight. This chapter defines and outlines the requirements of controlled traffic farming systems, examines the sustainability of controlled traffic farming and examines the feasibility of coupling controlled traffic farming with precision agriculture.
Sadia Iqbal and Michael G. K. Jones, Western Australian State Agricultural Biotechnology Centre - Murdoch University, Australia
Developments in diagnostic techniques for cereal pathogens
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Cereal pests and diseases can significantly reduce potential crop yields. Correct and timely identification in-field is key to their control. This chapter summarizes and evaluates some of the many available methods for detection of pests and diseases, ranging from classical methods of plant pathology, such as visual or microscopic recognition, to new DNA sequencing technologies. We discuss how protein-based-diagnostics that rely on specificity of antibodies, such as variations on ELISA detection and dipstick or lateral flow devices, have been extended to protein profiling by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. However, nucleic-acid-based amplification techniques using various forms of polymerase chain reaction are now widely implemented, including isothermal amplification and in-field pathogen detection. The chapter shows how the molecular diagnostic techniques are being rapidly supplemented with image-based diagnostics, which rely on hyperspectral imaging, applied via satellites or drones for regional- or field-scale monitoring of disease incidence and progression.
Francesca Chianini, Moredun Research Institute, UK
Bacterial and viral diseases affecting sheep
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Numerous infectious diseases are known to affect sheep. Some of these, known as zoonosis, are transmissible to humans, while some must be reported to government agencies in order to allow monitoring of potential outbreaks and ensure that appropriate action is taken to limit losses. This chapter aims to provide an overview of the main classical and emerging conditions that can cause damage to the sheep farming industry, and to review currently available diagnostic tools, treatments and vaccines.
Dr D. R. Panthee
Developing disease-resistant tomato varieties
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Tomato is known to be afflicted by at least 200 different disease-causing organisms from most major pathogen classes – bacteria, fungi (including Oomycota), viruses and nematodes. Despite decades of conventional breeding and selection, there are still a large number of diseases caused by these pathogen classes that make tomato production challenging in various parts of the world. Current advances in tomato genetics and genomics can be combined with conventional plant-breeding methods to introgress the gene of interest and expedite the breeding process. This chapter summarizes the historical aspect of tomato variety development and describes in detail the current status of application of technology towards the development of disease-resistant varieties. The chapter covers tomato diseases caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses and nematodes.
G. J. Thoma, University of Arkansas, USA
Assessing the environmental impact of swine production
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The swine production industry has reduced environmental impacts during the past 50 years due to productivity gains. However, there are increasing demands on our resource base, and we need robust tools to continue to support the best decisions in the face of environmental challenges. This chapter presents a review of the environmental sustainability impacts of swine production, focused at the farm level because the majority of environmental impacts occur by this stage of the supply chain. Two case studies comparing European and US swine production and the adoption of gestation pens to replace gestation stalls are presented demonstrate the application of life cycle assessments (LCA).
Dr Dr Steven C. Ricke
Alternatives to antibiotics in preventing zoonoses and other pathogens in poultry: prebiotics and related compounds
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Despite efforts to develop control measures to reduce the contamination of poultry products, food-borne illness remains a major concern to processors and consumers. Various interventions have been applied in both postharvest settings and preharvest live bird production. Prebiotics are compounds that, when consumed by birds, favour microorganisms in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract that are considered beneficial to the host and also limit food-borne pathogen colonization. This chapter reviews the groups of prebiotic and related compounds currently in use, as well as potential candidates for future application. In addition to traditional prebiotic compounds such as fructooligosaccharides, other less conventional sources such as guar gum will be discussed together with combinations of prebiotics and probiotics (synbiotics). Finally, opportunities exist to structurally refine prebiotic compounds to enhance their activities and improve their delivery to target sites in the GI tract.
Dr N. M. Schreurs
Animal and on-farm factors affecting sheep and lamb meat quality
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Ensuring meat quality is key returning value from sheep production around the world. Meat quality attributes inform customers’ purchasing decisions and define the eating experience of the consumer. Meat quality incorporates appearance traits such as the meat or fat colour and palatability characteristics such as tenderness, juiciness and flavour. This chapter examines possible on-farm factors that may affect meat quality of mutton and lamb. The chapter includes a discussion of future trends in research on sheep meat quality.
Jennifer Fleming
Controversies surrounding the impact of the fat content of beef on human health
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Whether ‘red’ or ‘processed meat’ intake is related to adverse health outcomes in the US population and other developed countries is an often-debated concept. Beef frequently is a focus of such discussions because of its contribution to saturated fat in the diet. This chapter examines the evidence for a connection between beef intake and cardiovascular disease, and beef intake and the development of diabetes. It also reviews the fatty acid composition of beef and outlines the dietary recommendations considered best supported by the evidence.
Amy-Lynn Hall, United States Food and Drug Administration, USA
Detecting and preventing chemical residues in pig meat
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The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) new animal drug approval process evaluates veterinary drugs intended for use in food-producing animals for safety and effectiveness. As part of the human food safety evaluation, new animal drugs are evaluated for microbial food safety, toxicology and residue chemistry. The chapter summarizes the evaluation process that includes the assignment of tolerance(s), withdrawal periods and milk discard times. It also establishes the criteria for violative residues, that is, residues above the established tolerance limits which may have potential adverse health effects in humans.
Dr Virgilio Gavicho Uarrota
Advances in understanding cassava growth and development
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Understanding the physiological basis for cassava growth and development supports key strategies for the crop’s sustainable management and its genetic improvement. Key components to consider are leaf area index, plant architecture, total biomass yield, photosynthetic rate, root bulking and root quality. This chapter aims to highlight advances in understanding cassava’s fundamental physiological traits. It offers a detailed review of the growth and development of the plant’s main structural components as well as the physiology and control of carbon partitioning between source (leaves) and sink (roots) for optimizing yields. The factors which make cassava well adapted to coping with climate change are discussed, and attention is also given to understanding of the rapid post-harvest physiological deterioration of cassava’s roots, a feature that has profoundly influenced the ways that cassava is managed before and after harvest.
Roberto Roson, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, Italy
Assessing the cost of supplying water for agriculture: the food supply cost curve
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As part of a ‘Regional Initiative on Water Scarcity in the Near East and North Africa (NENA) Region’, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has been proposing a practical tool for the assessment of investment projects called the Food Supply Cost Curve (FSCC). This chapter describes the concept of the FSCC, and outlines what steps need to be taken to practically implement an FSCC-evaluation exercise. It concludes by commenting on some preliminary findings obtained at the FAO when the FSCC had been employed in some countries in the Near East and North Africa.
Dr Frederick Schreurs
Commercial products promoting plant health in African agriculture
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The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) usually delivers its products free of charge to national programmes and farmers, but in two projects described in this chapter, most costs were transferred to users through commercialization. This chapter explores the development and application of the biorational insecticide Green Muscle®, based on an entomopathogenic fungus against African locusts and grasshoppers and Aflasafe®, a registered product based on a non-toxigenic fungus that replaces aflatoxin-producing fungi in the soil biome and protects crops and users from aflatoxin poisoning. The chapter describes commercialization principles for these products, presenting a model user benefits and cost analysis of a biopesticide. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this field.
Hardev S. Sandhu, University of Florida, USA
Cultivating sugarcane for use in bioenergy applications: key issues
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Sugarcane (a complex hybrid of Saccharum spp.) has high biomass and sucrose accumulation in its stem, making it a favourable feedstock for bioenergy production. This chapter reviews the key issues and challenges faced when expanding sugarcane cultivation for bioenergy, namely, competition with food crops, loss of biodiversity, potential increase in pest problems, water, air and soil pollution, yield maximization, susceptibility to drought and cold, and the issues posed by sugarcane’s complex genome. We discuss how these issues are being addressed through research into genetic improvement, improved understanding of agronomics and improved pest management practices. Case studies from Brazil and the United States offer a brief overview of sugarcane development for energy production in these two countries.
Vijesh Krishna, Georg-August University of Göttingen, Germany; Alwin Keil, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), India; Sreejith Aravindakshan, Wageningen University, The Netherlands; and Mukesh Meena, Indian Institute of Soil and Wa
Conservation tillage for sustainable wheat intensification: the example of South Asia
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Conservation tillage (CT) is one among the prominent agronomic innovations proposed to address stagnant wheat yields in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia. A review of recent literature and an analysis of farm household datasets indicate that the magnitude of economic impact of CT wheat, albeit being generally positive, varies widely across the region. The technology is yet to become popular among the smallholders, the diffusion constraints being system- and location-specific. This chapter highlights the relevance of locally adapted CT practices and related scaling pathways to address the prevailing diffusion constraints in the diverse agro-climatic and socio-economic settings of the heterogeneous farming community.
P. Moroni, Cornell University, USA and Universit à degli Studi di Milano, Italy; F. Welcome, Cornell University, USA; and M.F. Addis, Porto Conte Ricerche, Italy
Aetiology, diagnosis and control of mastitis in dairy herds
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Mastitis is one of the most economically important diseases in dairy production. Associated costs include treatment, culling, death and decreased milk production, and cow welfare is also compromised. This chapter reviews the indicators of mastitis and the contagious and environmental pathogens which cause it. It then discusses how mastitis can be managed and controlled on dairy farms, including consideration of dry cow therapy and the use of antibiotics.
Chenghai Yang, USDA-ARS, USA
Airborne and satellite remote sensors for precision agriculture
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Remote sensing provides an important source of information to characterize soil and crop variability for both within-season and after-season management despite the availability of numerous ground-based soil and crop sensors. Remote sensing applications in precision agriculture have been steadily increasing in the last two decades due to improvements in spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions of airborne and satellite remote sensors. This chapter will provide an overview of manned aircraft–based airborne imaging systems and high-resolution satellite remote sensors that have been used for precision agriculture. Numerous airborne multispectral and hyperspectral imaging systems and high-resolution satellite sensors are discussed, and application examples are provided to illustrate how remote sensing imagery has been used in precision agricultural applications. Some challenges and future trends on the use of airborne and high-resolution satellite sensors for precision agriculture are discussed.
M. Djanaguiraman, P. V. V. Prasad and I. A. Ciampitti, Kansas State University, USA
Crop management practices for grain sorghum: an overview
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Sorghum is a versatile crop, produced in more than 100 countries. However, the productivity of sorghum in developing countries is much lower than that in developed countries, due to their non-adoption of improved crop management practices. Improving the production potential of sorghum in developing countries is of critical importance due to its implications for food security. This chapter presents a variety of standard crop management techniques, including discussion of optimum planting conditions and the management of nutrients and water, and considers how practices may differ across major sorghum-producing areas such as India, West Africa, Australia and the United States. It is concluded that greatly improved yields can be obtained by matching genotype with environment and using best management practices.
Adebayo Abass, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Tanzania; Wasiu Awoyale, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Liberia and Kwara State University Malete, Nigeria; and Lateef Sanni and Taofik Shittu, Federal Univers
Breeding cassava to meet consumer preferences for product quality
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New, high-yielding varieties have transformed cassava from a low-yielding, famine-reserve crop to a high-yielding cash crop for both rural and urban consumers in Africa. The opportunity provided by this high yield in terms of lower production cost per hectare has made cassava a potential crop for large-scale or commercial-scale production. This chapter looks at the range of uses of cassava and what this means for target properties in breeding new varieties. It reviews the range of quality preferences amongst farmers, and a range of nutritional, sensory, processing and product properties that could be used in setting future breeding priorities for cassava.
Michael Abberton, Badara Gueye, Tchamba Marimagne and Folarin Soyode, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria
Conservation and distribution of cassava
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Significant germplasm collections of cassava (Manihot esculenta) have been established in international and regional genebanks and have been used extensively by plant breeders. This chapter describes both ex situ and in situ techniques of conserving cassava genetic material. The chapter demonstrates in detail that approaches to conservation are only rarely through true (botanical) seed but rather as a field collection which is regenerated every two years, as in vitro plantlets or, in the future, cryopreservation. The chapter analyses techniques of data collection and management in genebanks and germplasm distribution. It presents the case having a large potential for in situ conservation approaches with respect to wild relatives of cassava which have hitherto been unrealised.
M.B. Zhang
Advances in understanding soybean physiology and growth
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Soybean is one of the world’s most widely grown and economically significant crops, having an extensive range of end uses. Understanding soybean growth and physiology is paramount to maximising its productivity and optimising its yield. This chapter highlights recent advances in understanding soybean development, and the genetic factors underpinning the molecular mechanisms that drive it. The main physiological, molecular and bioinformatic approaches used to progress this rapidly growing research area are also outlined. Outcomes that improve the understanding of soybean growth and development could aid in the targeted selection of superior varieties, helping to maximise yields in an array of environmental conditions. Moreover, using soybean as a model species can assist in improving food security, soil health and agricultural sustainability via the enhanced understanding of legume nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Optimising these processes can help in reducing the use of expensive, often polluting, nitrogen-based fertilisers in agriculture.
Dr Dr R. J. Bryson
Challenges and prospects for fungicidal control of wheat diseases
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As one of the world’s ‘big three’ cereal crops, wheat has a highly significant role to play in global food security, and therefore the prevention and management of diseases affecting wheat is of paramount importance. In this chapter, we consider the current status of global wheat production, the impact of crop loss on food security and the emergence of the current regulatory environment surrounding pesticides. We then discuss the current status of the global fungicide market, and some of the major issues in its future longevity: the development of resistance to active ingredients, the impact of legislation that may restrict or remove active ingredients from the market and the rising costs of developing new active ingredients. As a result, the highly risk-averse European regulatory environment is in danger of severely limiting innovation, and an integrated agronomic approach is necessary if we are to achieve global food security.
Frederik C. Botha, Sugar Research Australia and the University of Queensland, Australia
Advances in understanding of sugarcane plant growth and physiology
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Crop yield in sugarcane is the result of how well the source leaves can supply the assimilates needed for the growth and filling of the harvestable plant. This is the source–sink relationship, which in sugarcane is still poorly understood. This chapter discusses the significant advances made in this area in the past few decades, as well as suggesting future trends in research such as high-throughput genomic, metabolomic and phenotypic analyses that could allow refinement in crop and metabolic modelling, as well as improved breeding and production strategies.
Jean-Louis Chopart, AGERconsult, France (Section 3.2 contributed by M. T. Sall, B. Ahondokpe, and G. Walter, Senegalese Sugar Company, Senegal)
Advances in sugarcane irrigation for optimisation of water supply
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A long-standing water deficit outside the pre-harvest stage may reduce sugarcane yield and, as climate changes, irrigation presents a major challenge to improving sugarcane crop performance and extending cultivated areas. This chapter describes the water requirements of sugarcane and current irrigation practices, as well as suggesting ways of adjusting and optimising sugarcane irrigation that can make it more sustainable, including decision-making tools. The chapter includes detailed case studies of irrigation practices in Réunion Island (France) and Sénégal as examples of contrasting environments. It looks ahead to future developments and brings forward proposals for improving irrigation efficiency and sustainability for smallholders.
Dr Chengjun Wu
Advances in flood-tolerant varieties of soybean
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Flooding is a serious abiotic stress that drastically causes soybean yield loss around the world. As a result, a large number of studies have been conducted to understand soybean responses to flooding on agronomic, morphological, physiological and molecular levels. This chapter summarizes current understanding of flooding impact and the natural adaptation of soybean to flooding. The chapter also evaluates current and future flooding survival strategies, including the use of genetic engineering to improve flooding tolerance, and various agronomic techniques for the management of flooding stress. It is concluded that an integrated approach is likely to prove most effective in preventing and mitigating the effects of flooding on soybean growth and yield.
Luis Garrote, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Climate change and water resources for agriculture
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Population growth and climate change increasingly challenge water supply systems, and population dynamics, growing demands, pollution, land use changes and other factors frequently produce the failure of some water supply systems. Climate change is believed to augment the existing pressure on water resources. This chapter presents an introduction to the effects of climate change on water resources and analyses their impacts on agriculture. The chapter focuses on several major challenges: the estimation of climate change impacts on rainfed agriculture and water resources, the analysis of current and future water availability, guidelines for climate change adaptation policies in agriculture and water resources and the selection of climate change adaptation options. The chapter also includes a detailed case study analysing water availability for several Southern European basins. The chapter looks ahead to future research topics and provides some suggestions for further reading.
Georg Goergen and Peter Neuenschwander, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Benin; and Danny Coyne, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Kenya
Conserving and exploiting biodiversity in crop cultivation in sub-Saharan Africa
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Under relentless global population growth the key challenge is to increase agricultural production while preserving biodiversity and reducing the pressure on ecosystems and natural resources. As a first step, the development of sustainable agricultural practices requires thorough understanding of all biodiversity components and their interlinkages in agricultural and natural environments. This chapter outlines how the application of taxonomic expertise can successfully resolve important agricultural pest problems. The chapter describes the development of the insect collection at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and offers specific examples to demonstrate the importance of an accurate diagnosis. The chapter considers how best to exploit scientific collections, reviewing new challenges and opportunities and the importance of protecting as well as using biodiversity.
Dr William A. Dozier
Advances in understanding and improving the role of amino acids in poultry nutrition
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Dietary amino acids are central to optimizing growth performance, meat yield, and egg production of poultry. This chapter addresses amino acid digestibility coefficients for feed ingredients, digestible amino acid requirements of poultry based on production efficiency, and the role of supplementation of crystalline amino acids on nitrogen balance and ammonia output of poultry. In addition, knowledge gaps in the scientific literature related to amino acid responses of poultry will be discussed.
M. A. Price, University of Alberta, Canada
Biological types of cattle: carcass and meat quality
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This chapter describes the domestication of cattle and the origins of many breeds found in the world today. The breeds are grouped into biological types, based on their size, muscularity and propensity to fatten, and the commercial role of each type is discussed. The relationships between biological types and carcass and meat quality are examined, and the breeds are identified as repositories for specific traits of value to the beef industry. Traditional methods of improving carcass quality through phenotypic trait selection and opportunities to improve meat quality through the application of genomics are discussed.
Alexander C. O. Evans, University College Dublin, Ireland; and Shenming Zeng, China Agriculture University, China
Causes, prevention and management of infertility in dairy cows
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Reproduction and fertility are central components to successful dairy enterprises, and an appropriate management and understanding of the physiological events needed for fertility is crucial to sustainable dairy farming. This chapter discusses the physiology of the main impediments to fertility and management issues that need to be addressed in order to ensure good fertility of dairy cows. It deals with parturition and uterine health, the importance of the post-partum environment and the role of oestrus, as well as methods of establishing pregnancy and the effect of heat stress on cows’ fertility. The chapter also examines fertility of heifers and the impact of genetics on fertility, and provides suggestions for further reading in this area.
Michael Wachendorf, University of Kassel, Germany
Advances in remote sensing for monitoring grassland and forage production
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Obtaining cheap, appropriate and timely information on vegetation will be essential for sustainable and economically viable management of grassland and forage swards in the future. Remote sensing (RS) offers new possibilities to monitor vegetation repeatedly and at large scale, but so far, only a few applications exist. This chapter describes the most important sensor types, reviews the developments in sensor performance over recent decades and identifies significant advances for grassland research and practice. The development of systems with complementary sensors is presented as a promising research area, which will help to overcome the limitations of single sensors and provide better information about grassland composition, yield and quality. Thematic maps of farm fields are suggested as the central outcome of RS and data analysis. These maps could represent the relevant grassland features and constitute the basis for various farm management decisions at the strategic, tactical and operational levels.
