Lauren E. O’Connor and Wayne W. Campbell, Purdue University, USA
Nutritional composition and the value of pig meat
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Pork is a commonly consumed protein source which contributes various macro- and micronutrients to the diet of people living in the United States, some positively and negatively influencing indices of human health. This book chapter provides data about the nutritional content and current intakes of pork and pork products by people living in the United States as well as the effects of consuming pork on weight control, body composition, cardiometabolic health, cancer and sleep health. Pork, as part of a higher protein diet, can aid in weight control, have a favourable effect on body composition, and may improve sleep health. Cardiometabolic risk is not influenced by the consumption of pork as part of total red meat in human clinical trials, inconsistent with the observational evidence. Strong associations exist between processed red meats, inclusive of pork, and cardiometabolic morbidities and mortalities as well as cancer. More research is needed pertaining to the consumption of processed pork products on indices of human health.
Mark Trotter, Central Queensland University Institute for Future Farming Systems, Australia
Precision livestock farming and pasture management systems
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Precision livestock farming (PLF) focuses on individual animal monitoring and management. Precision pasture/rangeland management is concerned with monitoring and dealing with landscape spatial and temporal variability whilst considering the influence that animals bring to these systems. This chapter reviews a range of technologies currently applied or in development which facilitate this individual animal and refined landscape management across the spectrum of extensive grazing production systems. The chapter examines the challenges faced by the livestock industry and the potential solutions offered by precision management, focussing particularly on techniques currently applied in precision animal and pasture management. The chapter includes detailed case studies on using a basic farm GIS to determine sustainable long-term stocking rates, and integrating satellite multi-spectral imaging with plant growth modelling to manage livestock rotations. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and provides guidance on further reading.
James D. Ferguson, University of Pennsylvania, USA
Nutritional strategies to improve nitrogen efficiency and milk protein synthesis in dairy cows
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Dairy production is associated with significant losses of nitrogen to the environment, contributing to the degradation of air and water systems. These losses must be decreased to make dairy farming sustainable, and a primary means of doing this is to increase the conversion of feed protein into milk protein. This chapter considers the two nitrogen-utilising systems in the cow: the rumen microbiota and ruminant tissues. The more efficient both the rumen and tissue systems are, the lower the urinary nitrogen excretion. We review approaches to estimating rumen microbial protein synthesis, the protein and energy requirements of dairy cows and the use of milk urea nitrogen (MUN) to assess the nitrogen efficiency of dairy cows. We then consider the development of nutritional systems which account for rumen microbial synthesis, rumen-degradable and undegradable feed protein and endogenous protein supplies of amino acids based on utilisation of feed inputs.
Xinchao Wang, Xinyuan Hao, Lu Wang and Yajun Yang, Tea Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (TRI, CAAS), China
Mapping and exploiting the tea genome
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Long-term cross-pollination has produced considerable heritable variation within and between populations of the tea plant and related species, resulting in a high level of genetic diversity. A good understanding and management of this pool of genetic diversity is of vital importance for crop improvement, since it directly affects the potential for genetic gain through selection. This chapter provides an overview of genetic diversity of tea plant and its characterization and utilization and examines the origins and global distribution of tea cultivars, assessing the current status of tea genetic resources. The chapter explains the processes of tea germplasm evaluation and characterization and examines the exploitation and utilization of the genetic diversity of tea, looking ahead to future research trends in this area for ensuring this diversity.
Justin Fowler, University of Georgia, USA
Nutritional considerations for soybean meal use in poultry diets
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The poultry feed industry uses about 50% of the soybean meal (SBM) produced in the United States each year. The meal is valuable to the animal feed industry because it is an excellent source of amino acids that would otherwise be lost to the human food chain after the oil has been removed from the bean. This chapter assesses the nutritional content of SBM, as well as its anti-nutritive compounds, and considers the effects of genetic modification on SBM. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area of research.
R. G. V. Bramley, CSIRO, Australia; T. A. Jensen, University of Southern Queensland, Australia; A. J. Webster, CSIRO, Australia; and A. J. Robson, University of New England, Australia
Precision agriculture and sugarcane production – a case study from the Burdekin region of Australia
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Precision agriculture (PA) involves the use of spatial information about crop performance and the biophysical characteristics of the production system at the field and sub-field scale, to optimise agronomic management decisions. This chapter uses the case study of a 26.7 ha field in the Burdekin sugarcane-growing region of Australia to illustrate how PA technologies might be used to enhance sugarcane production; in this case, a saving of A$330/ha in gypsum application costs through the use of variable-rate application (VRA). The chapter examines potential future prospects for further development of sugarcane PA including improved variable-rate fertiliser equipment, on-the-go sensing of commercial cane sugar (CCS) at harvest, detection and spot spraying of weeds, and a reduced risk of detrimental environmental impacts from sugarcane production through recognition that, under uniform management, areas that are low yielding have low efficiencies of fertiliser use and so may have increased risk of nutrient loss off-site.
Prof. Michel A. Wattiaux
Sustainable nutrition management of dairy cattle in intensive systems
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When measuring the sustainability of a dairy farm, one should take into account its technical and economic performance, its stewardship of natural resources, and the norms and policies of the society in which the farm operates. This means that managing dairy herd nutrition depends not only on meeting the nutrient requirements of the animals for full expression of their genetic potential, but also on the relationships between cattle nutrition, other components of the farm, the local economy and the aims of the dairy farm. In this chapter we discuss the importance of phosphorus and nitrogen in cow nutrition, the associated environmental concerns and a range of sustainable solutions to these concerns. We also address the carbon footprint associated with dairy farming by examining a case study of intensive dairy production systems in California and Wisconsin.
Pietro Rocculi, University of Bologna, Italy
New developments in packaging of eggs to improve safety and quality
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The correct choice of the packaging system is a key factor for maintaining high-quality characteristics of eggs during storage. In this chapter, the fundamental aspects of shell egg packaging are reviewed. In particular, a possible explanation of critical issues will be discussed to offer an innovative solution of active packaging through the combination of CO2 atmosphere and humidity absorber. The proposed solution permits better maintenance of egg freshness during storage with the contemporaneous increase/modulation of its functionality.
Graham R. Stirling, Biological Crop Protection Pty Ltd, Australia
Managing the soil biological community to improve soil health and reduce losses from nematode pests
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Plant-parasitic nematodes commonly cause yield losses of 10 to 20% in sugarcane, largely because varieties with resistance to key pests such as Pratylenchus and Meloidogyne are unavailable, rotation crops provide only temporary control and nematicides are prohibitively expensive. Given the inadequacy of conventional control measures, this chapter views nematode management from a systems perspective. It argues that plant-parasitic nematodes have only become pests because cane-growing soils have been exploited for many years and are physically, chemically and biologically degraded. Soil carbon levels have declined by 60–80% and since organic matter is the energy source that fuels the soil food web, the regulatory mechanisms that normally suppress nematode populations are no longer operative. Also, crops are unable to tolerate nematode damage, because their roots are growing in a suboptimal physical and chemical environment and are not functioning effectively. The only long-term solution is to restore the health of sugar cane soils. This means reducing tillage, addressing the compaction problems caused by harvest machinery and increasing soil carbon levels by retaining crop residues and amending soil with organic materials. These and other tactics required to build an active and diverse biological community capable of restoring soil health and suppressing nematode pests are discussed.
Dr Byron Zamasiya
Supporting smallholders in soybean cultivation: the example of Zimbabwe
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Low crop productivity due to soil fertility decline is a major challenge constraining maize-based smallholder farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa. The decline in soil fertility is largely due to continuous cropping without soil replenishment and reduced N2 fixation. In Zimbabwe, soybean has emerged as a key crop that has the potential to help to improve soil fertility and food and income security among smallholder farmers. The majority of research has focused on the biophysical side of soybean production. This chapter adds to existing literature by focusing on the opportunities and constraints for soybean cultivation by smallholder farmers. We review collaborative projects that have promoted soybean cultivation by smallholder farmers, and make recommendations regarding the training, financial and marketing systems required to support smallholder farmers further.
Noam Alkan, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), Volcani Center, Israel; and Anirudh Kumar, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), Volcani Center, Israel and Indira Gandhi National Tribal University (IGNTU), India
Post-harvest storage management of mango fruit
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As soon as a high-quality fruit and good yield are achieved, the mango fruit is harvested and the post-harvest-handling venture begins. It is estimated that, from harvest to plate, more than one-third of the fruit yield is lost. The purpose of this chapter is to review existing information and research outcomes in the preservation of fruit quality and reduction of post-harvest damage and loss by adopting suitable technologies and knowledge during post-harvest operation, storage management, transportation and marketing of mango fruit.
Martin A. J. Parry, João Paulo Pennacchi, Luis Robledo-Arratia and Elizabete Carmo- Silva, Lancaster University, UK; and Luis Robledo-Arratia , University of Cambridge, UK
Photosynthetic improvement of wheat plants
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The light-driven assimilation of CO2 in photosynthesis is the primary determinant of the biomass of wheat. The current theoretical maximum efficiency of photosynthesis in wheat is 4.6%, but in practice it rarely exceeds 2% and averages less than 1% in the field (Zhu et al. 2008). Improving this conversion efficiency represents a key opportunity to not only increase yield, but also to decrease the demand for land and increase the efficiency with which other resources are used. This chapter reviews some of the key factors determining photosynthetic performance and explores the options for improving the photosynthetic capacity and efficiency of wheat by selecting for a range of important traits.
Kerry Walsh and Zhenglin Wang, Central Queensland University, Australia
Monitoring fruit quality and quantity in mangoes
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This chapter explores quality of mango from the perspectives of the grower, the packer, the retailer and the consumer. The chapter examines specifications for fruit at harvest maturity and at commercial maturity (eating stage), as well as technologies for monitoring relevant attributes, including machine vision in estimation of canopy flowering, temperature logging for heat sum fruit maturation models and tools for estimation of fruit size, colour and dry matter content. It discusses the importance of dry matter content in an eating quality specification for guiding harvest decisions. It also addresses use of machine vision in the context of estimating fruit number and fruit size in the orchard and estimating surface defects in the packhouse. Finally, the chapter discusses postharvest tools for measuring temperature, colour, firmness and ethylene and CO2 content. The chapter finally includes an example decision support system that uses heat sums and dry matter levels to guide in the decision to harvest.
Dr D. F. Chapman
Plant-animal interactions in grazing systems
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This chapter reviews the interactions between plants and animals that govern the production efficiency of temperate pasture-based livestock production systems. These interactions operate at different temporal and spatial scales, and are highly variable. We take as our case study the dry matter intake (DMI) of animals grazing pasture because DMI is central to most of the interactions. We consider management, plant, sward and animal factors affecting DMI, and review management practices and plant breeding objectives that have sought to increase it. We conclude that there is very limited scope to alter DMI in pasture-based production systems operating near the optimum for long-term financial and environmental sustainability. Rather we propose that plant breeding should focus on plant structural characteristics that favour consistent attainment of optimal post-grazing herbage mass because we can be confident this will increase total herbage accumulation, pasture utilisation and herbage nutritive value.
Luis Augusto Becerra Lopez-Lavalle, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Colombia
Molecular approaches in cassava breeding
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In cassava, as for other major crops, molecular markers can reveal the genetic basis for both qualitative and quantitative phenotypic changes. This chapter examines the genetic diversity of cassava, the process of marker-assisted selection (MAS) and the application of genome sequencing to cassava. The chapter looks ahead to the future potential of genetic engineering of cassava.
Thomas F. Döring and Ulrich Köpke, University of Bonn, Germany
Organic grassland
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Organic farming makes up an increasing share of agricultural and food systems. Within organic agriculture, grasslands are of particular importance because of their multiple benefits to soils, crops, livestock and ecosystems. In this chapter, we review the multifunctionality of grasslands in the context of organic agriculture, with a special focus on crop rotations. Generally, differences between organic and non-organic systems are smaller for grasslands than for arable systems. However, marked differences between the production systems do occur with respect to nutrient management, particularly nitrogen. As nitrogen losses constitute one of the most important challenges for organic grassland management, we review current knowledge on the possibilities to contain such losses. Further we present two case studies, from the United Kingdom and Germany, showing that trade-offs between different aims, for example productivity and biodiversity conservation, are not restricted to conventionally managed grasslands but frequently occur in organic grassland systems as well.
Prof. C. Jamie Newbold
Nutritional strategies to minimize emissions from sheep
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Agricultural production accounts for 10–12% of global annual greenhouse gas emissions, with livestock production (including sheep) being the most important contributing factor within this sector. The largest single contributor to agricultural greenhouse gas emissions is methane produced during enteric fermentation. This chapter describes the various approaches available to minimizing enteric emissions from sheep, including plant-based approaches and the use of additives in grazing sheep. The chapter also examines host-driven effects on the rumen and suggests future lines of development and research in this area.
Dr F. Ortega
Persistence and yield stability of temperate grassland legumes for sustainable animal production
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Forage legumes are essential for sustainable production systems, but their positive environmental and economic effects cannot be realized unless they also show persistence and yield stability. These are complex traits which depend on the interaction of different biotic and abiotic environmental factors with the genetic background of the sown species/cultivar. This chapter surveys the global cultivation of forage legumes and considers important challenges to achieving persistence and yield stability. The chapter includes a case study on the improvement of persistence in red clover by recurrent selection for general adaptation to the environment, and then discusses physiological studies on drought stress tolerance in white clover and broad-leafed birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.). Finally, the chapter considers potential trends in future research into improving the persistence and yield stability of forage legumes, in the face of increasing biotic and abiotic stresses.
Pamela L. Ruegg, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
Minimising the development of antimicrobial resistance on dairy farms: appropriate use of antibiotics for the treatment of mastitis
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Mastitis is the most prevalent bacterial disease among dairy cows, and the majority of antimicrobials given to dairy cows are for the prevention or treatment of this disease. Thus, a thorough understanding of mastitis is necessary when considering the appropriate use of antibiotics. After reviewing how antimicrobials are currently used on dairy farms, this chapter considers recent research on the prevalence and development of antimicrobial resistance in mastitis pathogens. It then shows how consistent diagnostic protocols and recording systems, attention to medical history, appropriate choice of antibiotics and control of treatment duration can all contribute to minimizing unnecessary use of antimicrobials and promoting effective treatment of mastitis.
Kellye Eversole and Jane Rogers, International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium, USA; Beat Keller, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Rudi Appels, Murdoch University, Australia; and Catherine Feuillet, Bayer CropScience, USA
Sequencing and assembly of the wheat genome
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The genome sequence is an essential prerequisite for defining the complete gene catalogue of an organism, and it provides a framework for identifying and understanding the function of variants associated with phenotypic traits of interest. For wheat, these traits include disease resistance, crop yield improvement, protein content, quality factors and resistance to abiotic stressors such as drought or poor soils. This chapter reviews the challenges posed by the structure and composition of the wheat genome and how they are being addressed through genome sequencing strategies. It describes the sequencing approaches and resources that have been generated to date and provides some examples of how they are used. The chapter also discusses the road map of the International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium for the completion of a reference sequence that will meet the needs of breeders and researchers seeking to improve crop varieties and to understand the dynamic genome environment and complexity of the world’s most important crop.
Nicolas Tremblay, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada
Modelling and decision support systems in precision agriculture
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Decision support systems (DSSs) are computerized systems, including models and databases, for decision-making purposes. In a precision agriculture (PA) framework, spatial and temporal requirements for DSSs are of particular importance but dealing with uncertainties and human aspects leading to adoption should not be dismissed. This chapter examines the key issues associated with deploying DSSs in PA before moving on to consider their human and social aspects. The chapter provides a number of detailed case studies on the application of DSSs, with an emphasis on nitrogen management. Finally, the chapter considers research options for DSSs to improve productivity in a PA framework, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Sung Woo Kim, North Carolina State University, USA
Meeting amino acid requirements in pig nutrition
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Protein is one of the major components of the pig’s body, and dietary protein is the sole source of essential amino acids required for the protein synthesis for body maintenance, growth and reproduction. The protein synthesis is limited when there is a deficiency of any amino acid, and it is therefore important to ensure that feed meets the amino acid requirements of pigs at their various growth stages. This chapter reviews the principles and practical aspects of meeting the amino acid requirements of pigs, with information organized according to the growth stage and physiological status.
Larry McDougald, University of Georgia, USA
Parasites affecting poultry
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Parasitic infections and infestations are a major challenge to poultry production worldwide. This chapter comprehensively surveys parasites affecting poultry, divided into the broad categories of protozoa, flagellates and worms as well as arthropods including lice, bedbugs, flies, beetles, mites, fleas and ticks. The chapter examines diagnosis, control, management and disinfection for each of the major parasites associated with poultry farming. It also addresses the pathology, epidemiology and molecular biology of the major parasitic infections, and suggests lines of future research and enquiry in this field.
James E. Wells and Elaine D. Berry, US Meat Animal Research Center, USDA-ARS, USA
Pathogens affecting beef
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Mankind has long recognized that animals harbour disease. Zoonotic pathogens are agents from animals that cause disease in humans. This chapter reviews the zoonotic diseases related to cattle. It describes zoonotic parasites and viruses and the pathogens related to cattle. Historically, good management practices and animal husbandry have improved the safety of beef supply. Therefore, pathogen control using good animal management and biosecurity practices, as well as the use of vaccines, is explained.
John J. Burke, USDA-ARS, USA
Sorghum breeding for abiotic stress tolerance
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Sorghum is a major global crop for food, feed and biofuel. Globally, domesticated sorghum is often grown on marginal lands and in environments exposing the plant to temperature extremes and water deficits. Although sorghum exhibits better abiotic stress tolerances than many crops, significant sorghum yield losses are experienced annually in response to unfavourable environments. This chapter focuses on methods for identifying diversity among germplasm collection. It then shows ways of exploiting germplasm diversity to improve soybean responses to low temperature and water-deficit stress.
Prof. Sisir Mitra
Mango cultivation practices in the tropics: good agricultural practices to maximize sustainable yields
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Mango is grown in more than 100 countries and is a commercially important fruit for many countries in the tropics. However, mango cultivation faces various problems which require urgent attention if sustainable production is to be achieved. This chapter reviews the factors which affect mango productivity in the tropics and the significant constraints facing mango production in these areas. We discuss constraints related to soil, climate, orchard management, irrigation and nutrition, and in each case present strategies for addressing these constraints and promoting sustainable mango cultivation.
Dan S. Long, USDA-ARS, USA
Site-specific nutrient management systems
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Site-specific nutrient management systems were created to manage for spatial and temporal variability in biophysical factors that determine the availability and demand of crop nutrients. These systems differ among geographical regions in the information utilized and the way they operate to accomplish their common purpose: namely, improve nutrient use efficiency and balance trade-offs between profitability and environmental concerns. This chapter looks at system inputs that are used to inform site-specific nutrient management, illustrates system processes and outputs with examples from the Midwestern and Western U.S., and identifies trends and further developmental needs.
Ian Batey, formerly CSIRO, Australia
Measuring wheat quality
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Wheat quality depends on the genetic make-up of a particular wheat sample. The environment in which it is grown then influences this quality potential. This chapter describes the effects of protein and starch on wheat quality, and the way these components give rise to wheat properties considered important to quality. The chapter examines methods of measuring flour quality and the importance of variety identification, as well as describing likely future trends in this area of research.
Dr Dr Steven P. C. Groot
Organic seed production, certification and availability
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Through evolution, plants produce seeds with variation in speed of germination and, for instance, dormancy to spread the risk of germinating in the wrong season. Although domestication and breeding has created crops with more rapid germinating seeds, compared with their wild relatives, for many crops the variation in performance is such that upgrading and seed treatments are needed to create starting materials for commercial crop production. Measures are needed during the production itself, and during harvesting, cleaning and drying. In this chapter we will report on various factors that influence organic seed quality and availability, on methods for seed sorting, upgrading and storage, on methods of seed sanitation that are applicable for organic seeds and on seed certification systems. We will point on research that has been performed in the past and resulted in commercially available methods for upgrading of seed quality and on promising new research lines.
Prof. Prof. Sandra Edwards
Organic pig production systems, welfare and sustainability
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Organic pig production systems seek to produce pig meat in a more ethical and natural manner. This involves adherence to standards relating to accommodation, feeding, health management, husbandry and behavioural freedom which differ from conventional pig production practice. To be sustainable, organic systems must command a market premium by demonstrating differentiation in terms of enhanced animal welfare and reduced environmental impact, whilst ensuring safety and healthiness of products. Whilst some of these claims can be justified, others are open to challenge in current systems. A great diversity in organic production systems and the outcomes which they achieve is apparent, but the growing organic market is leading to increasing research into organic pig production and continuous system improvement.
Dr P. Moroni
Mastitis, milk quality and yield
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Mastitis is one of the most economically important diseases in dairy production and it is defined as an inflammation of the mammary gland. This chapter examines the impact of clinical and subclinical mastitis in cows on milk quality, and provides a detailed account of indicators of mastitis. In addition, it describes the impact of mastitis on milk composition and quality, addressing its effect on the protein, fat, lactose and iron content of milk. The chapter also examines the impact of mastitis on milk yields and provides suggestions for further reading on this subject.
Danny Coyne, IITA, Kenya; Michael Abberton, IITA, Nigeria; Sounkoura Adetonah, IITA, Bénin; Maria Ayodele, IITA, Nigeria; Laura Cortada-Gonzales, IITA, Kenya; Brice Gbaguidi, IITA, Bénin; Stefan Hauser and P. Lava Kumar, IITA, Nigeria; Peter Neuenschwan
Making integrated pest management (IPM) work in sub-Saharan Africa
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Losses to biotic threats remain among the most important factors affecting crop productivity in the predominantly complex smallholder systems of sub-Saharan Africa. The unavoidable intensification of crop production will further exacerbate pest problems, and pest management needs to respond accordingly. This chapter reviews key challenges and needs for implementing safe and effective integrated pest management (IPM) in Africa, concentrating on cross-cutting issues, such as provision of healthy planting material, pesticide use, gender sensibility, improved collaboration with authorities and partners, and exchange with farmers through Farmer Field Schools and Farmer Field Fora.
Dr Dr Lise Nistrup Jørgensen
Occurrence and avoidance of fungicide resistance in cereal diseases
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The targeted use of fungicides can help minimise the yield losses caused to grain cereals by plant pathogenic fungi. However, the long-term use of fungicide classes based on a single mode of action has imposed consistent selection pressures on certain pathogens. Over time, this has resulted in many cases of fungicide resistance, leading to a reduction or the total loss of field performance of a range of active ingredients. There is a pressing need to develop anti-resistance management strategies. This chapter briefly reviews the development of resistance in cereal pathogens, before presenting and evaluating a variety of anti-resistance strategies. We include case studies of how data from field trials have helped to illustrate the impact of different control strategies.
In countries in the global south, often referred to as ‘developing countries’, organic dairy farming faces some challenges, but also has huge potential. Even without having a premium price for organic dairy products, organic management of smallholder farms can often be beneficial in terms of low costs and integration of animal manure in crop production and use of crop residuals as feed for dairy animals. Focusing on dairy farming in Africa, this chapter examines characteristics of milk from different species such as cow, goat, sheep and camel, and considers the challenges of organic dairy production in the developing world. The chapter analyses typical dairy production systems in Africa from breeding to milk distribution and suggests some future directions for research in the area of organic dairy farming in the developing world.
Declan J. Bolton, Teagasc Food Research Centre (Ashtown), Ireland
Optimizing the microbial shelf-life of fresh beef
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Beef spoilage is primarily caused by bacteria, and maximizing shelf-life is dependent on a multiple hurdle approach to generate conditions that inhibit microbial growth. This chapter begins by reviewing the factors that affect beef spoilage and microbial shelf-life, and the bacteria and processes involved in spoilage. Subsequent sections then consider methods for maximizing the microbial shelf-life of beef products, including minimizing the initial microbial burden in beef, chilling of beef carcasses and the wide variety of packaging technologies
Ismail Y. Rabbi, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria
Marker-assisted selection in cassava breeding
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By reducing the number of seedlings using marker-assisted selection (MAS), field breeders of cassava can allocate their limited phenotyping resources to a smaller number of selection candidates for further phenotypic evaluation of complex traits such as yield and drought tolerance. This chapter describes the strengths and limitations of MAS, the resources that are required, and outlines the practical considerations for its implementation. The chapter also describes the contribution of genome-wide studies (GWAS), summarizes the published quantitative trait loci (QTL) studies in cassava and looks ahead to future research and developments in this area.
Dr Manpreet Singh
Safety management and pathogen monitoring in poultry slaughterhouse operations: the case of the United States
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Preventing foodborne illnesses in a cost-effective way is an important challenge for the poultry industry. This chapter begins by reviewing the common foodborne pathogens associated with poultry. We then discuss processing operations from live transportation of birds, to slaughter, to post-chill processing, and consider the effects of these operations on carcass contamination. We review food safety management programmes during poultry slaughter, focusing on effective measures for surveillance and control in the United States. Chemical, biological and physical antimicrobial treatments are reviewed. Finally, we consider how the efficacy of pathogen reduction systems can be validated and verified through microbial testing.
Dr Monique Royer
Recent progress in understanding three major bacterial diseases of sugarcane: gumming, leaf scald and ratoon stunting
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This chapter describes recent insights provided by genomic and microscopy analyses of three bacterial pathogens of sugar cane, ‘Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum’, X. albilineans and Leifsonia xyli subsp. xyli, the causal agents of gumming, leaf scald and ratoon stunting, respectively. The chapter addresses genomic-based hypotheses regarding adaptation of the three pathogens to sugar cane and the origin of their respective ancestors. It examines the strategies used by X. albilineans and L. xyli subsp. xyli to spread in sugar cane. The chapter looks ahead to the development of further functional studies to improve the understanding of the interactions between sugar cane and bacterial pathogens, which are likely to contribute to better control of bacterial diseases of sugar cane
James S. Dickson, Iowa State University, USA and Gary R. Acuff, Texas A&M University, USA
Maintaining the safety and quality of beef carcass meat
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Contamination of animal carcasses during slaughtering procedures is undesirable, but unavoidable in the conversion of live animals to meat for consumption. Internal muscle tissues are essentially sterile, and most initial contamination of red meat carcasses is contributed by the hide during removal. The exposed surface of the hide and the hair accumulate dust, dirt and faecal material, and this is the primary source of bacterial contamination during slaughter. In this chapter, we review the slaughter process and the mechanism of bacterial attachment to meat tissue. We then review the decontamination methods of knife trimming, water washing and steam vacuuming, and evaluate their effectiveness. We consider hot water, organic acid and other decontamination treatments; review the potential for contamination during fabrication; and finally, discuss the role of packaging, storage and shelf life estimates in ensuring the safety of meat delivered to consumers.
Hoon H. Sunwoo and Naiyana Gujral, University of Alberta, Canada
Nutraceutical benefits of eggs
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Hen eggs are nature’s perfect source for the everyday diet worldwide. Several components of hen eggs have biofunctional properties in humans beyond normal nutrition and have the potential for being used as active ingredients for nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products. Consequently, extensive studies have been conducted over the past decades to extract these products and to determine their biological functions. There are various biological functions of egg substances reported in the literature including anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive, anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, blood cholesterol/lipid-lowering, immune modulatory, anti-toxin/allergen, and skin/cartilage/bone strengthening. The new generation of hen nutrition formula and immune-modulating technology may be employed to develop fortified eggs with enhanced chemical compositions and biological features, such as omega-3 fatty acids and egg yolk IgY antibodies. Owing to numerous bioactive compounds present in eggs, they may be one of the best natural sources for the production of novel value-added nutraceutical preparations.
Dr Rasappa Viswanathan
Progress in understanding fungal diseases affecting sugarcane: red rot
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Red rot is a disease of sugarcane stalks caused by the fungal pathogen Colletotrichum falcatum. It has been recorded in 77 countries worldwide, but occurs most severely in South Asian countries, especially India, Nepal, Pakistan, Myanmar and Bangladesh, as well as in Thailand and Vietnam. Developing red rot-resistant varieties has been the major management strategy to deal with the disease in most countries. This chapter reviews the economic impact of red rot, diagnosis, pathogen variability, application of molecular tools to understand pathogen biology, varietal resistance, screening methods and new management approaches including fungicide delivery.
Jean L. Steiner, Pradeep Wagle and Prasanna Gowda, Grazing Lands Research Laboratory – USDA-ARS, USA
Management of water resources for grasslands
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Grasslands support essential food and fibre production, biodiversity, and water function and other ecosystem services. Planted or native grasslands are typically located on drier, steeper or less fertile areas of any region. This chapter discusses water requirements of temperate pastures, monitoring and modelling grassland vegetation and water use, drought monitoring, and water resources management in grasslands.
Richard B. Ferguson, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
Proximal crop sensing
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Today’s farmers are increasingly reliant on sensors for their farming operations. This chapter addresses the use of proximal sensors to evaluate a crop during the growing season. After briefly discussing the importance of sensors in modern farming and the crop properties which are of interest, we review the evolution of crop sensors. We then discuss three issues that are currently faced in sensor development: the limitations of current crop canopy sensors; detecting stresses other than nitrogen and sensor fusion and high-throughput phenotyping. Three case studies are presented, and future trends in research are considered.
Dr Sophie Jan
Mechanisms for the transmission of pathogens into eggs
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Salmonella Enteritidis currently represents the major risk of eggborne disease. The frequent association of this bacterium with egg infection is ascribed to various factors, including its spread and persistence in the breeding environment, its long-term ability to colonize the hen’s genital tract leading to horizontal transmission of the pathogen and its ability to reach the nutritious compartment of the egg, the egg yolk. However, egg invasion by S. Enteritidis is naturally controlled thanks to the efficient antibacterial activities provided by egg white, and especially under the specific conditions of temperature encountered during egg formation and hatching.
A. Qureshi, International Center for Biosaline Agriculture, United Arab Emirates
Managing surface water for irrigation
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As the world’s population increases, so does the pressure on water resources to ensure that agriculture continues to meet global food demand. One way of coping with this increased pressure is to improve the management of surface water resources for irrigation, for instance to reduce water losses in large canal systems. This chapter presents a number of different strategies for improving and securing surface water irrigation systems. If irrigation schemes are to be sustainable, factors such as stakeholder commitment, sound design and efficient operation and maintenance must be ensured. Advanced irrigation technologies – such as sprinklers and drip irrigation systems – must be considered, along with decision support tools to assist farmers and managers in optimizing water allocation to different crops. The capacity of water institutions must be enhanced in order to solve entitlement, pricing and regulatory issues. It is concluded that reforms should aim at solving the underlying management issues, as well as delivering benefits to the people.
Pina M. Fratamico, Joseph M. Bosilevac and John W. Schmidt, United States Department of Agriculture, USA
Methods for detecting pathogens in the beef food chain: detecting particular pathogens
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The main food-borne pathogens of concern in the beef food chain are Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and Salmonella; other pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes and Campylobacter spp. may also be present. These pathogens pose contamination concerns in both the cattle production environment and beef products. This chapter reviews methods for detecting E. coli O157:H7 and non-O157 STEC, Salmonella, Listeria and Campylobacter, Clostridium, Bacillus cereus and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP). Further, the chapter also reviews the development of standardised methods for regulatory testing of E. coli.
T. L. Niblack and H. D. Lopez-Nicora, The Ohio State University, USA
Nematode pathogens of soybean
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In general, plant-parasitic nematodes that may detrimentally affect soybean production are microscopic roundworms that feed on or are in plant roots. This chapter examines the origins and management of a variety of parasitic nematodes affecting soybean, including soybean cyst nematodes, root-knot nematodes, lesion nematodes, reniform nematodes and lance nematodes. It also chapter addresses the challenge of nematode resistance in soybean and provides suggestions for further reading on this subject.
J. L. Peyraud, L. Delaby and R. Delagarde, INRA-Agrocampus Ouest, France
Managing grassland systems to optimise livestock production
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High prices of milk have encouraged intensive dairying systems using high inputs of chemical fertilisers, indoor feeding with high amounts of concentrate and imported protein at the expense of grazing. Consequently grassland acreage decreased considerably over the last 30 years, and the European dairy systems have become highly dependent on imported fossil energy and proteins. However, the various roles of grassland in providing regulating and supporting services are now widely recognised and grazing ruminants are highly appreciated by the public. This chapter reviews existing knowledge and tools for developing productive, efficient and environmentally friendly dairying systems based on grazing and grassland utilisation. The chapter will consider successively the expected characteristics for the right animal for grassland based systems, the grazing management practises, the supplementation, the more systematic use of legumes in multi species swards and the development of DSS which help farmers to design more efficient grazing management and to find the optimum between the twin objective of high performance by the herd and high rate of herbage utilisation. The chapter concludes by examining the considerable scope for improving animal and grassland performances within grassland-based systems.
Anna Wolc, Iowa State University, and Hy-Line International, USA; and Janet E. Fulton, Hy-line International, USA
Molecular breeding techniques to improve egg quality
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Multiple tools for the molecular analysis of variation at both the DNA and protein level have recently been developed. These molecular tools that include low cost sequencing, simultaneous genotyping of large numbers of single nucleotide polymorphisms chips, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and RNAseq (for gene expression) are enabling scientists to better understand the fundamental bases of egg-quality traits in poultry. Genomic selection methods have been developed to improve egg quality and have been implemented by major poultry breeding companies. This chapter looks at ways to improve external egg quality and internal egg quality utilizing these molecular tools. The Animal Genome Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) database currently includes 4676 chicken QTLs curated from 224 publications for 316 different chicken traits (www.animalgenome.org). Targeted genomic analysis of specific genes allows in-depth study of genes involved in the determination of egg quality. Further insights are gained with gene expression and regulation studies.
Pedro Andrade-Sanchez, University of Arizona, USA; and Shrinivasa K. Upadhyaya, University of California-Davis, USA
Precision tillage systems
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The commercial development of information-intensive precision agriculture technologies has given rise to a number of applications aimed at improving agricultural production through site-specific management, including precision tillage. This chapter describes developments in on-the-go soil strength sensing and the state of the art in sensor technology as applied to precision tillage. The chapter examines depth-prescribed tillage to control subsoil compaction, techniques of soil sensing to enable precision tillage and how to extract information from soil sensors. Finally, the chapter looks at the challenge of implementing depth control and tractor/implement guidance technology.
Brian Jordan, University of Georgia, USA
Monitoring trends in diseases of poultry
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Disease surveillance is a staple programme in most developed poultry systems and is a cooperative effort between individual poultry companies, regional and national disease control agencies and programmes, public and private diagnostic laboratories, research universities, wildlife agencies and allied animal health industries. Surveillance can be active in the form of sacrificing birds for clinical necropsy examination or submitting samples for diagnosis during a disease outbreak, or passive in the form of routine diagnostic assays designed to provide a historical picture of a flock or region. This chapter reviews both types of surveillance, covering diagnostic laboratories, diagnostic assays, high-quality sampling and submission, and epidemiology.
Tadesse Dessalegn
Post-harvest wheat losses in Africa: an Ethiopian case study
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This chapter discusses the results of a 2014 questionnaire-based survey instrument used to gauge perceptions of 200 Ethiopian wheat farmers on a wide range of wheat production and post-harvest handling and storage- related topics. It outlines the methods employed in the study, the demographics of the farmers surveyed, and the information obtained on crop production and post-harvest issues. The chapter also examines the significance of gender and food security emerging from the study, and includes suggestions on further reading in related fields.
Jacqueline B. Matthews, Moredun Research Institute, UK
Prevention and control of parasitic helminths in dairy cattle: key issues and challenges
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Parasitic helminth infections are one of the most important causes of production loss in livestock worldwide. Grazing dairy cattle are exposed to various worm species, all of which can affect health, welfare and productivity to varying degrees. For several decades, helminth control relied primarily on the frequent use of broad spectrum anthelmintics; however, the use of such treatments needs to be moderated to avoid selection pressure for anthelmintic resistance. This chapter describes the likely helminth threats to grazing dairy cattle, with particular emphasis on the issue of anthelmintic resistance. It then offers a review of progress in developing evidence-based control programmes to reduce selection pressure for anthelmintic resistance. Finally, the chapter reviews progress in the development of anti-helminth vaccines. Such vaccines are a long way off commercial availability, but recent progress suggests that these could form part of a sustainable solution to helminth control on dairy farms.
H. Yang, University of Nebraska, USA
Modelling the effects of temperature and photoperiod on soybean reproductive development
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It has long been recognized that the development rate and yield of soybean are sensitive to temperature and photoperiod. This chapter considers a range of experimental evidence concerning the precise effects of these factors on soybean reproductive development, and reviews ten diverse methods of mathematically modelling these effects. In the course of this discussion, several scientific questions are raised, such as whether the photoperiod effect exists in post-flowering stages, and what the nature of such an effect might be. It is concluded that quantitative research of integrated modelling and experimentation at gene level may hold the key to improving the modelling of temperature and photoperiod effects on soybean development.
Réjean Bouchard, VIDO-InterVac/University of Saskatchewan, Canada; Helen Dornom, Dairy Australia, Australia; Anne-Charlotte Dockès, Institut de l’Élevage, France; Nicole Sillett, Dairy Farmers of Canada, Canada; and Jamie Jonker, National Milk Produc
Managing sustainable food safety on dairy farms
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Within the dairy food chain, the production of milk is the first phase in a series of steps resulting in dairy food products ready to be consumed. At farm level, it is critical to ensure that good management practices minimize the risk of contamination in order to reach a level of risk acceptable to food safety authorities and to consumers. This chapter examines the criteria used for implementing on-farm food safety systems while producing milk in a sustainable manner. It begins by reviewing the principles, regulations and international standards on which Canadian dairy farms base food safety. We then show how these principles are applied in the Canadian dairy industry in on-farm sustainability programmes. The final three sections review on-farm safety systems to ensure safety and sustainability in the dairy industries of the United States, France and Australia.
Kenneth J. Boote, University of Florida, USA
Modelling crop growth and yield in tomato cultivation
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Crop-growth simulation models have become important tools for researchers and growers for the purpose of assisting management and improving production. The CROPGRO-Tomato model described in this chapter is one of a suite of models within the modelling package Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT), which is widely used and accepted by agricultural research communities (Jones et al., 2003). This model is mechanistic and process oriented (processes of carbon, water and N balance), and it simulates daily progress towards flowering and fruit set as well as daily growth of leaves, stems, roots and fruits over time until maturity or final harvest (Scholberg et al., 1997; Boote et al., 1998; Boote et al., 2012). This chapter describes the model, its sensitivity to climatic and management factors, what it is capable of predicting and how it can be used in various applications of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum Mill.) cultivation in order to address the challenges confronting industry and researchers.
David B. Hannaway and Linda J. Brewer, Oregon State University, USA; Steve Fransen, Washington State University, USA; and Glenn Shewmaker, Shannon Williams and Sarah Baker, University of Idaho, USA
Planning and sowing grasslands
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To be truly sustainable, forage-livestock systems must be well matched to the soils, geophysical and climate factors, and expected level of management available. This chapter provides an overview of the pasture renovation or establishment process, including a comprehensive planning process, selection of system-appropriate forage species and cultivars, and the steps for realizing the comprehensive plan, including initial management during the establishment or renovation year. Species selection is the weak link in the process. Although many forage agronomists have used various approaches to address this issue, the problem remains largely unsolved, with recommendations based primarily on location-dependent species and cultivar evaluation trials and grower experience. As a possible solution, the authors have included a vision for developing user-friendly, data-rich forage selection tools, and they provide a short review of the existing tools.
Dr Claudine Basset-Mens
Life cycle assessment of mango systems
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Mango production systems have seldom been studied using the methodology of life cycle assessment (LCA). Important challenges are associated with the application of LCA to the environmental evaluation of fruit systems in general and mango in particular. This chapter describes the core principles of LCA methodology, the state of the art of LCA for fruits and associated key challenges. The chapter makes up-to-date recommendations on the use of LCA, and then presents and discusses the first complete LCA case study for export mango, from the Rio São Francisco Valley in Brazil. Finally, the chapter analyses the environmental challenges faced by mango systems across the world, highlighting the great potential of LCA to achieve more eco-friendly production and consumption of mango.
Hector E. Leyva-Jimenez and Christopher A. Bailey, Texas A&M University, USA
Minimizing the environmental impact of poultry production through improved feed formulation
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Every year, millions of broilers, turkeys and laying hens are raised to supply eggs and meat to an increasing number of consumers. Along with the growth of the commercial poultry industry, waste generated in live production operations and processing plants has become an important environmental concern because of the major pollutants entering our water, air and soil. This chapter will discuss the main environmental impacts of intensive poultry production and explain the role of precise feed formulation as a strategy to increase the efficiency of nutrient utilization, and ultimately, reduce the negative effects of poultry waste on the environment to achieve sustainable production of poultry products
Neil Sargison, University of Edinburgh, UK
Maintaining sheep flock health: an overview
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Improving the efficiency of livestock production is a fundamental challenge facing humanity, and maintaining the health of livestock is key to ensuring this. Systems for farming small ruminants such as sheep must meet the global need for food security while being economically, environmentally and socially sustainable. Nowadays, sustainable agriculture is threatened by a global reduction in land resources and water and hitherto irresponsible use of drugs and chemicals. This chapter describes efficient small ruminant livestock production, examining its ecological impact and the effects of advances in genetic improvement and other technologies. The chapter describes how managing the health of sheep flocks through health planning, nutritional management and ensuring biodiversity can ensure efficient production, and includes case studies addressing lamb growth rates and controlling parasitic infections. The chapter concludes that effective biosecurity, good nutrition, protection from infectious pathogens and endemic disease management in sheep flocks are essential for global food security.
M. E. O'Neal, Iowa State University, USA and R. Cox, EarthEmpower Consulting and Investment, Mexico
Key factors limiting sustainable insect pest management in soybeans
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If sustainability implies the preservation of resources for future generations, then pest management tools, like insecticides and insect-resistant varieties, can be considered resources that should be preserved for future generations. Overuse of these tools can result in resistance such that their ability to prevent yield loss is lost. This chapter offers an overview of the relationship between sustainable crop production and integrated pest management before focusing on the challenge of invasive species in soybean cultivation. The chapter examines the application of insect resistance management, especially to Bt-soybeans, and includes two detailed case studies taken from two of the leading soybean production regions of the world, the United States and Brazil. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and offers detailed guidance on further reading about this subject.
J. F. Patience, Iowa State University, USA
Meeting energy requirements in pig nutrition
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The level of energy in a pig’s diet influences the rate and efficiency of gain, the quality of the resulting carcass and even the quality of the pork produced from the carcass. However, energy requirements and energy use in pigs are not well understood, due to the complexity of the topic. Unlike nutrients in the diet, energy is supplied by numerous dietary constituents, and each of these is utilized as an energy source in different ways and in accordance with their metabolic fate. This chapter will discuss the basics of energy metabolism, energy systems, energy sources, energy requirements and methods to improve the utilization of energy by the pig.
Y. Nys, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), France
Laying hen nutrition: optimizing energy intake, egg size and weight
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Hen nutrition must address a number of different goals, including maximizing egg production, maintaining egg quality, extending the laying cycle and ensuring hen health and welfare. This chapter focuses on the role of nutrition in optimizing energy intake, egg size and egg weight. It reviews the different nutritional requirements hens have in their pre-laying and laying phases; discusses how feed consumption can be controlled; and then reviews the effects of energy concentration, dietary lipids, dietary proteins and amino acids on egg weight. It also offers a discussion of how the inclusion of cereals and alternative protein sources in the diet can affect egg characteristics.
Dr Dr Spyros Fountas
Key challenges and methods in identifying management zones
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Management zones (MZs) are delineated to identify homogenous regions with similar field characteristics and to differentiate the inputs according to the specific needs of the crops within each zone. Delineation of MZs can be based on soil and landscape attributes and/or plant parameters. There are several methods to delineate MZs. These include (1) empirical methods, where field maps are visually interpreted by the farmers according to personal knowledge; (2) geostatistical methods using statistical integration of georeferenced observations of different variables; (3) clustering techniques classifying data in different combinations of many variables in discrete classes or clusters, degree of agreement using a selection of the best-suited parameters for final MZ delineation and others. In this chapter, the most common methods for delineation of MZs are discussed and three case studies are presented. The case studies are analysed to show the importance of the formation of MZs for the optimization of input application.
Derek A. Griffing and Christy L. Bratcher, Auburn University, USA
Measuring and assessing beef quality and sensory traits for retailers and consumers
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Verifying qualities that contribute to a pleasurable eating experience prior to consumption is an obstacle for the beef industry. There are many ways to assess eating quality, such as sensory evaluation, shear force measurement and relying on the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) quality grading system. Most recently, research has focused on flavour evaluation and muscle profiling. Unfortunately, there is no silver bullet for non-destructive assessment of beef sensory properties. The industry has been searching for the perfect tool for prediction of consumer acceptability. The incorporation of palatability assessment values could be included in purveyor and retailer product specifications, while innovative research is needed to discover, modify and implement assessments that do not sacrifice time or costs and meet the demands of beef purveyors, retailers and consumers.
P. M. Hocking and J. Hickey, University of Edinburgh, UK
Marker-assisted selection in poultry
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Marker-assisted selection (MAS) is a form of indirect selection that depends on the accuracy of measuring the marker and the genetic correlation between them. This chapter describes the development of large numbers of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers associated with high-throughput automated technology, which has made MAS applicable to whole-genome prediction of breeding values. The chapter explores how these techniques have been successfully trialled in commercial poultry breeding programmes, as well as suggesting how future technological developments may permit the use of whole-genome sequencing rather than high-density SNP chips for prediction of breeding values of selection candidates.
Claire Verraes
Pathogens affecting raw milk from cows
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The aim of this chapter is to review what is known about pathogens affecting raw milk from cows and dairy products made from raw milk. Milk-borne zoonotic pathogenic microorganisms that can contaminate raw milk from cows or dairy products are described including sources of contamination. The growth of these pathogens during refrigerated storage of milk is discussed. The occurrence of pathogens in raw milk and outbreaks of illness related to contaminated raw milk from cows and raw milk cheese are also reviewed.
Jan Hultgren, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden
Key issues in the welfare of dairy cattle
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Concerns about dairy cattle welfare are widespread. Cattle welfare is influenced by various circumstances and conditions, which are related to and dependent on each other. Confinement, restricted movements, high milk yield, disrupted social structures, painful and frightening management procedures, unilateral breeding, diseases, transport, slaughter and poor stockmanship are main welfare issues. This chapter identifies some areas that require further research and remedial action. Production transparency and marketing fairness are essential to limit the risk for ethical conflicts. Transparency, quality assurance and fair labelling of milk products should be used as a means to inform consumers and enhance animal welfare, and this chapter looks into these factors.
R. Michael Hulet, Penn State University, USA
Organic systems for raising poultry
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An organic system for raising poultry aims to provide a sustainable method of rearing poultry in an environment that allows natural behaviour to be expressed, and which eliminates pesticides, herbicides and other chemicals from feed, growing environment and carcass processing. This chapter reviews the important components of such a system, with sections covering housing and nutrition for organically reared poultry, the management of farm resources and bird health, ensuring food safety, and the oversight of poultry meat processing and product labelling.
Noelle E. Cockett, Utah State University, USA; Brian Dalrymple, University of Western Australia, Australia; James Kijas, CSIRO, Australia; Brenda Murdoch, University of Idaho, USA; and Kim C. Worley, Baylor College of Medicine, USA
Mapping the sheep genome
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The exploration of genomic variation is central to advances in animal genetic studies. Furthermore, the ability to access and analyse differences among animal genomes is an essential prerequisite to understanding the manifestation of disease, variation in production traits, demographic history and the impact of selection. This chapter reviews the tools and resources currently used for exploring genetic variation in the sheep genome, which will speed discovery and innovation for scientists working with sheep either as a production livestock species or as a biomedical model. The next steps in annotating the sheep genome are also explored, along with the expected outcomes of the next stage of research.
Dr Dr Peter Sørensen
Manure management in organic farming
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Animal manure is the most important source of nutrients applied in most organic farming systems. Nitrogen (N) is often the most yield-limiting factor in non-leguminous crops, and thus lack of N may cause reduced yield and low protein content in many crops. In addition, N is the nutrient that is most easily lost, and these losses may have serious environmental impacts. This chapter reviews literature related to manure management and nutrient utilization, including ways to improve manure management in animal housing, during storage and after application in the field. The chapter considers anaerobic vs aerobic manure storage (composting), manure application methods and their effects on N utilization and soil carbon storage. The chapter explains how phosphorus and potassium applied in manure contribute to crop nutrient supply, especially when the soil availability is low, and also contribute to maintaining the soil fertility. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading on the subject.
Dr Dr Qin Zhang
Intelligent machinery for precision agriculture
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The innovative core of modern precision agriculture is the use of agricultural machinery to perform precise, responsive field operations in large-scale mechanized precision crop production. Integration of autonomous functions into such machinery will endow it with capabilities which could be described as ‘intelligent’. These include perception, reasoning and control of operations in the field with the flexibility to achieve predetermined operational goals without human supervision. In this chapter, we review the current level of state-of-the-art intelligent agricultural machinery. We discuss the different kinds of automated guidance systems available, as well as path planning, automated actuation systems and implement controls. Finally, we discuss the prospects for creating increasingly autonomous systems and consider the potential implications of such technology.
Xiaobo Wang
Mapping the soybean genome
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The soybean is one of the most important grain legumes, but genetic mapping had been less advanced than in other crops, which limited modern soybean molecular breeding. This chapter discusses the significant progress in mapping the soybean genome that has now been made. Also highlighted are the use of restriction fragment length polymorphism molecular markers, high-throughput genotyping markers, specific-locus amplified fragment sequencing mapping, whole-genome re-sequencing mapping and comparative genome mapping. This has allowed for the identification of quantitative trait loci or genes to improve yield, nutritional quality, as well as biotic and abiotic stress tolerances.
Stephen N. Wegulo, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
Integrated wheat disease management
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Wheat is one the most economically important crops in the world. Diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes can significantly reduce wheat yields. All parts of the wheat plant can be affected by diseases. Integrated disease management (IDM) combines two or more tactics to prevent or reduce yield loss. IDM is based on the concept of integrated pest management (IPM) in which various tools are combined to manage pests in a way that minimizes economic, health and environmental risks. These tools or tactics include scouting, disease identification, variety selection, cultural practices, chemical control and biological control. This chapter reviews these tactics individually using selected research examples and emphasizes the integration of as many tactics as practically possible to maximize the effectiveness of managing wheat diseases.
Nalini C. Gnanapragasam, Former Deputy Director (Research), Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka; currently Agricultural Tea Consultant - Malwatte Valley Plantations PLC, Sri Lanka
Integrated pest management of insect, nematode and mite pests of tea
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This chapter describes the various strategies that are being implemented in different countries to manage pests of tea using integrated pest management (IPM) programmes to ensure they do not reach economic injury levels. The chapter explores methods of mechanical, biological, cultural and chemical control of insect and nematode pests of tea, and includes a number of detailed case studies describing the application of these methods in IPM programmes.
K. Neil Harker and John O’Donovan, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada; and Breanne Tidemann, University of Alberta, Canada
Integrated weed management in wheat cultivation
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Weed management in wheat cultivation is dominated by one control method – use of herbicides. Their overuse has led to weed resistance to herbicides and the need for alternative weed control strategies that will preserve herbicide efficacy as well as agricultural and environmental sustainability. The focus of this chapter is on cultural strategies that can be used in wheat cultivation as part of an integrated weed management (IWM) strategy. Practices that improve wheat plant health including diverse crop rotations, the proper placement and timing of balanced nutrients, and no-till or direct-seeding are encouraged. Practices that promote wheat canopy closure such as growing competitive cultivars, increasing wheat density, decreasing wheat row spacing, planting wheat in uniform patterns and intercropping are also shown to facilitate IWM.
Martine Dorais, Laval University, Canada
Organic greenhouse tomato production
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Organic greenhouse tomato cultivation is expanding rapidly to meet consumer demand. This production system endeavours to minimize system inputs and adverse environmental impacts through sustainable water and waste management, limited fossil energy use, nutrient-balanced approaches, and mechanical and biological control of pests. Although organic greenhouse farming offers significant environmental and social benefits, it relies heavily on off-farm inputs, which seem to run counter to the principles of organic farming. This chapter shows how organic greenhouse tomato production can exceed local regulatory requirements and be seen as an innovative system aimed at achieving global food and ecosystem security through scientific and socioeconomic advances, policies, producer and stakeholder ingenuity, and public engagement.
John Y. Yonemoto, Japan Tropical Fruit Association, Japan
Mango cultivation in greenhouses
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Mangoes are grown throughout South East Asia and in around one hundred countries all over the tropical and subtropical belt. In Japan, as well as in Spain and Portugal, they are cultivated in greenhouses and specific techniques are used to maximise the production and quality and to ensure efficient harvesting. This chapter describes greenhouse practices of mango cultivation, including control of flowering, care of fruit and pest control.
Phung Lê Đình, Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue University, Vietnam; and André J. A. Aarnink, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands
Nutritional strategies to reduce emissions from waste in pig production
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Emissions of ammonia, odour and greenhouse gases (GHGs) from livestock housing and storage and application of manure are major concerns in the environmental sustainability of pig production. This chapter addresses dietary strategies to reduce these emissions. It examines in detail the relationship between nutrition and ammonia, odour, and GHG emissions. The effectiveness of dietary solutions for reducing gaseous emissions and its relation with animal performance are discussed. Finally, the chapter examines future research trends in this area and provides detailed suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Bob Hartzler, Iowa State University, USA
Integrated weed management in soybean cultivation
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Almost all soybean fields have weed infestations that must be managed by farmers to sustain economic viability. This chapter reviews the integrated weed-management approach, which utilizes the contributions of plant breeding, cultural, mechanical and chemical practices in suppressing weed populations and minimizing the impacts of weeds on yield. After establishing the importance of a diverse weed-management strategy, we discuss how farmers set goals for weed management and the importance of focussing on managing the weed seed bank. Sections 3 and 4 review the wide range of management tactics available, while Section 5 considers interactions between weeds and other pests. Section 6 then discusses the factors that limit the adoption of the integrated weed-management approach.
Ting Zhang
Instrumentation and methodology for the quantification of phytochemicals in tea
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Tea contains many phytochemicals, such as polyphenols, amino acids, vitamins, carbohydrates and purine alkaloids that possess important physiological properties and health-promoting benefits. Tea components are closely associated with tea variety, the growing conditions and regions of tea plants and the approach used for plucking and processing of tea leaves. This chapter will review the main chemical components present in tea and the instrumental techniques used to identify them.
Thea van Niekerk, Wageningen Livestock Research, The Netherlands
Managing laying hen flocks with intact beaks
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Worldwide, the majority of laying hens are beak trimmed to prevent injurious pecking. However, a ban on beak treatments has come into force in some countries, while others are discussing instituting such a ban. European legislation also prohibits beak treatment of organic flocks. When beak trimming is not practiced, farmers face the challenge of preventing injurious pecking behaviour in their flocks. Many environmental factors have been identified as affecting the onset and severity of feather pecking, and good management of these factors can prevent the onset of feather pecking or help to prevent escalation once feather pecking starts. In this chapter we review types of feather pecking and consider the origins of the behaviour. We then offer detailed discussion of management techniques for the prevention of feather pecking, during both rearing and the laying period.
Deirdre Hennessy, Teagasc, Ireland
Managing grassland for forage production: an overview
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In temperate agriculture, grasslands play an important role in the provision of forage for livestock. Management of these grasslands is vital in order to ensure that high-quality feed is available. This chapter reviews the short-, medium- and long-term management of grasslands, including stocking rates, the day-to-day management of grazing and harvesting, planning for rotations and silage harvesting, renovation, drainage, reseeding and soil fertility improvement.
Steven A. Oosthuyse, HortResearch SA, South Africa
Management of an ultra-high-density mango orchard and benefits of the small-tree system
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There are many advantages in establishing mango hedgerows in such a way that their height for optimal light utilization does not exceed 2m and their width 1m. The terminal shoots, inflorescences and fruits on such trees are within easy reach of farm workers. The fruits, as opposed to branches and new shoots, can specifically be targeted for fungicide or pesticide application. This chapter describes the stages of a 3 x 1m Tommy Atkins mango orchard, from the time of its establishment to the time the trees had filled their space in the orchard row and were fully bearing. It gives an account of management actions required for sustained maximal production, describing the benefits of the reduced time from planting until the trees attain optimal canopy cover and maximum fruit production. The chapter assesses the extent of small-tree growing systems to date.
Jack C. Comstock and Sushma G. Sood, USDA-ARS, USA
Integrated disease management strategies in sugarcane cultivation
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Sugarcane diseases cause severe losses to sugar production around the world. More than 100 bacterial, fungal, phytoplasma and viral diseases are present in sugarcane-growing areas worldwide. Some diseases are present in most sugarcane-growing regions while others are confined to specific countries. This chapter outlines and explores the various disease management strategies used in sugarcane cropping systems around the world and the potential for Integrated Disease Management to minimize losses and maximize profitability. The chapter covers management of diseases by controlling the pathogens, management of diseases through the host and management of diseases by controlling the environment, before looking ahead to future research trends in this field.
Stefano De Faveri, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Australia
Integrated pest management and biological pest control strategies in mango cultivation
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Integrated pest management (IPM) is the compatible use of various methods to control pests; methods include biological control, cultural control and chemical control. Chemical control should be used as a last resort and should be restricted to selective and less disruptive insecticides. This chapter provides an overview of IPM and addresses the problems associated with overreliance on chemical insecticides. The chapter explores pests of mango and the options for IPM. The chapter then includes four case studies drawn from Queensland, Australia, covering mango-scale monitoring and biological control, beneficial insects associated with mango planthopper, evaluation of pasture species for shelter and food for beneficial insects and fruit fly control. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and recommends further reading on the subject.
A. Muller, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and Institute for Environmental Decisions, Department of Environmental Systems Science, Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Switzerland; M. Meier and C. Schader, Research Institute of Organic
Measuring and improving the environmental performance of organic farming
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There is a large and growing body of literature comparing the environmental performance of organic and conventional farming in specific settings, either on farm or product level. However, how one assesses ‘environmental performance’ is a complex and multifaceted question, and one-dimensional indicators tend to neglect key aspects of production systems. This chapter evaluates a number of multidimensional methods of assessment, including Life Cycle Assessment, Productivity Analysis, multi-criteria assessment approaches and food systems modelling. It is concluded that the assessment of environmental performance must go beyond the level of production, and address consistency and sufficiency aspects that emerge at the consumption stage. The organic sector has a vital role to play in defining how performance of agro-systems and food systems should be assessed.
J. R. Roche, DairyNZ, New Zealand
Nutrition management of grazing dairy cows in temperate environments
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Temperate grass-legume mixes (i.e. pasture) are nutritionally well-balanced and can sustain moderate levels of milk production in dairy cattle. However, pasture is perishable, and if not consumed by cow, it is wasted and the feed quality of the re-growth declines. Moreover, increased use of supplementary feed also increases production costs. This means that cows should only be fed non-pasture feeds when there is insufficient pasture and supplements will have a significant effect on milk production. For good nutrition management in grazing systems, it is therefore essential to identify genuine feed deficits, so as to ensure that the marginal milk production response to providing a supplementary feed is sufficiently large to return a profit to the farmer. This chapter offers a review of the considerations that must be taken into account when deciding whether and how to supplement pasture with additional feed.
G. Raj Murugesan and Chasity M. Pender, BIOMIN America Inc., USA
Maintaining the safety of poultry feed products
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Natural and artificial contaminants in poultry feed may result in deteriorated feed quality, reduced performance and increased incidence of disease in poultry, ultimately leading to a significant economic loss for producers. Moreover, since poultry are raised to produce meat and eggs for human consumption, contaminants in poultry feed may also pose risks to human health. This chapter focuses on those contaminants considered to pose the most significant risk to poultry and human health: mycotoxins, dioxins and bacterial pathogens. Each section will discuss the negative effects of these factors as well as possible control measures that may be implemented to reduce feed contamination and secure feed and food safety.
Robert F. Wideman, Jr., University of Arkansas, USA
Leg disorders in poultry: bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO)
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Bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO) is widely recognized as one of the most common causes of lameness in broilers. This chapter starts by summarizing the pathogenesis of BCO. Experimental models that successfully trigger BCO are then reviewed. Sources of bacteria that infect the bones are discussed, with the primary emphasis on bacterial translocation across the gastrointestinal epithelium. Finally, we review the efficacy of probiotics as a prophylactic treatment for BCO.
Randall Nelson, USDA-ARS and University of Illinois, USA
Maintaining and utilizing the genetic diversity of soybeans
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The aim of plant breeding is to create genetically diverse gene pools and then devise strategies to consolidate the favourable alleles and eliminate those that are adverse to the grower’s objectives. Genetic diversity is the fuel that powers plant breeding but it is also the largest impediment to progress. Historically, most cultivar development programmes seem to operate with the assumption that the latter is more important than the former. This chapter describes the major soybean germplasm collections of the world which are the sources of available genetic diversity, then reviews the formation of the current commercially used gene pool for soybean breeding in North America. It then considers how adding new genetic diversity can improve the rate of gain for seed yield and how the various sources of exotic germplasm can be utilized within different segments of a national soybean programme.
Brian L. Beres, Reem Aboukhaddour and Haley Catton, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Canada
Integrated crop management of wheat
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Integrated crop management (ICM) is the practice of using multiple agronomic and pest control methods to maximize yield and net returns and to minimize inputs while maintaining economic and environmental sustainability. This chapter describes the role of agronomists in developing ICM strategies and provides a detailed case study of ICM based on efforts to control the wheat pest wheat stem sawfly (WSS). The chapter looks ahead to the future prospects for ICM and suggests further reading on this topic.
L. S. Pereira and P. Paredes, University of Lisbon, Portugal
Modelling water use on farms
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This chapter presents computation and modelling approaches of crop water use and irrigation water requirements and discusses concepts of water use performance and productivity. The chapter also describes the main features of soil water balance and irrigation scheduling models. It focuses on the SIMDualKc model which accurately partitions evapotranspiration into actual crop transpiration and soil evaporation. The chapter includes examples of the application of modelling in horticulture, field crops, olive orchards and vineyards as well as intercropped wheat and sunflower. It also includes an example of modelling when saline water is used, thus with identification of impacts on actual transpiration.
Thierry Astruc and Annie Vénien, INRA, France
Muscle fibre types and beef quality
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The quality of bovine meat is related to the composition of the source muscles. Bovine skeletal muscle is mainly composed of three types of muscle fibres that are found in varying proportions in different muscles. The proportion of these different fibre types varies with biological and environmental factors (breed, age, sex, rearing conditions), resulting in variability of carcass and meat qualities. This study focuses on the factors of variation in carcass and muscle composition and on the relationship between muscle fibre type composition and overall meat quality.
Kathy Hurly and Richard Nicholson, SA Canegrowers, South Africa; Carolyn Baker and Michelle Binedell, South African Sugarcane Research Institute, South Africa; Vaughan Koopman, WWF-SA, South Africa; Graeme Leslie, Consultant Entomologist, South Africa; Ge
Mitigating the impact of environmental, social and economic issues on sugarcane cultivation to achieve sustainability
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Mitigating the impact of sugarcane cultivation on the environment and ensuring both economic and social sustainability is key to successful and enduring sugar industries. This chapter focuses on the impact of agrochemical use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and how these may be mitigated. Persistent effects of agrochemical practices are described and strategies aimed at mitigating their impact are identified. Sources of GHG emissions are identified and some of the challenges associated with implementation of the practices required to mitigate their effects are provided. The chapter outlines arguments associated with the economic value of the practices that underpin adherence to improved environmental management, and includes a case study from South Africa to demonstrate an expansive learning approach to enhance adoption of a sound environmental management system, SUSFARMS®.
Bonnie B. Pendleton, West Texas A&M University, USA
Insect pests and their management in sorghum cultivation
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Integrated pest management (IPM) is a practical approach that uses a combination of methods, including cultural, biological and chemical controls, to keep pest abundance or damage below economic loss. This chapter describes ways to prevent damaging infestations, as well as evaluate pest abundance and damage to determine when remedial action with insecticide is justified. The chapter describes key insect pests, their life cycles and impact on sorghum crops.
C. Watson, Scotland’s Rural College (SRUC), UK and Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden; and E. A. Stockdale, Head of Farming Systems Research, NIAB, UK
Maintaining soil fertility and health in organic crop cultivation
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Maintaining the health and fertility of our soils is central to the productivity of farming systems because of the key role that both health and fertility play in crop production. The links between soil health and the health consumers (both animal and human) and the wider ecosystem are important underlying themes of organic agriculture. Organic farming relies primarily on the use of crop rotations together with manures and crop residues produced on farm and limited allowable off-farm inputs to maintain soil fertility and health. Organic farming requires a long-term perspective on how crop rotations and organic inputs can be used to provide nutrients in synchrony, with crop demand allowing crop nutrition to be optimised while nutrient losses are minimised. Our understanding of the form and function of soil biota has increased rapidly in recent years, but the practical application of this knowledge remains a major challenge.
Wayne S. Meyer, University of Adelaide, Australia
Increasing water productivity in agriculture: an overview
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There is good evidence that improvements in crop productively have come from increases in yield rather than from decreases in total water use. In irrigated agriculture, there are increasing attempts to decrease the unproductive losses of water from storage, through distribution systems and onto fields. This chapter defines the meaning and implications of increased water productivity, and then systematically considers the limits and opportunities for improvement. Water productivity is considered in the context of both rain-dependent (often called ‘dryland’) and irrigated agricultural production. The chapter acknowledges that many agricultural systems have animals as part of food and fibre production, and argues that efforts to increase water productivity need to consider whole agricultural systems.
Paul White and Richard Johnson, USDA-ARS, USA
Improving soil management in sugarcane cultivation
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This chapter identifies the most important soil management practices for sugarcane cultivation and provides information on the practices used by important cane-producing countries in the world. The chapter focuses on field management of soil for optimum sugarcane production, and covers such areas as water management, tillage, minimizing compaction, cover cropping, soil fertility, and crop residue management.
Q. Xue, J. Rudd, J. Bell, T. Marek and S. Liu, Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center at Amarillo, USA
Improving water management in winter wheat
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Globally, winter wheat is mainly grown in Eurasia, China, Iran and the United States. Some areas have high precipitation, while other areas require irrigation for high yield in winter wheat. Nevertheless, drought stress can significantly reduce winter wheat yields, even in high precipitation environments. Since water is the most important factor affecting crop production, development of crop management practices to conserve and optimize water use and improve crop water-use efficiency (WUE) becomes essential, particularly under changing climate conditions. This chapter reviews progress in winter wheat water management and WUE, drawing on long-term field experiments in the U.S. southern Great Plains (which has a long history of winter wheat research). The chapter discusses relationships between yield, evapotranspiration and WUE and best management practices based on case studies, from soil and water conservation to genetic improvement of drought tolerance to deficit irrigation practice.
