Urban horticulture is attracting increasing attention in both low- and high-income countries. The practice can be needs-driven, i.e., providing and securing food and livelihoods, or based on environmental considerations, social integration, and human wellbeing. This chapter focuses on the potential of urban horticulture to provide nutritious, healthy, and safe plant foods (fruit, vegetables) for the urban population and urban livelihoods, and to contribute to circularity of urban resources. The chapter shows that urban horticulture has the potential to make cities more sustainable, self-sufficient, and food secure, but that food safety, waste valorization, and system optimization are important issues.
Secondary macronutrients: advances in understanding calcium cycling in soils, uptake/use by plants and ways of optimizing calcium-use efficiency in crop production
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The importance of calcium as a secondary macronutrient can be described in different ways because of its role in soils and its function in plant nutrition. The majority of chemical and some physical soil properties are heavily influenced by calcium content in soil profiles. The available content of soil calcium is usually adequate for normal plant development, but large amounts of calcium are applied to soils with mineral fertilizers (as part of ballast) or as various liming materials used in the manipulation of soil pH. Large amounts of calcium are applied as gypsum for reclamation of sodic soils and for the improvement of physical properties of heavy soils. In this chapter, the authors discuss the role of calcium in soils, plants and as a complex constituent of liming materials used in soil amelioration.
The interaction between gut microbiota and pathogens in poultry
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The poultry gut harbours a diverse microbiota, which plays a pivotal role in host nutrient utilization and health. Although the majority of this microbiota is commensal bacteria, pathogens are also present. Commensal and pathogenic microbes interact with each other, either positively or negatively, profoundly affecting host nutrition and incidence of infection. A better understanding of the gut pathogen-microbiota interaction is essential to address the current challenges in poultry production. Recent studies using metagenomics have helped gain new insights into the interactions between the gut pathogens and commensal microbes in poultry. This chapter reviews the current understanding and discusses the knowledge gaps surrounding the interaction between gut microbiota and pathogens in poultry, and also future research needs. The intestinal pathogens discussed in this chapter include Escherichia, Salmonella, Clostridium, Campylobacter, Eimeria and viruses. Starting with an introduction to these pathogens and their associated diseases, there then follows a section on the interactions between these pathogens and microbiota, and their impact on host nutrition and health.
Management of vegetable Conservation Agriculture systems
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This chapter discusses the principles and practices of no-tillage systems for vegetables (NTV), focusing primarily on tomato, onion and parsley cassava cultivation. It presents research regarding a long-term experiment of NTV for onion with winter crops and the effects on chemical, physical and biological properties of the soil and yield of the crop. It also reviews NTV for parsley cassava and concludes by discussing current and future trends for no-tillage systems for vegetables.
Developing barley crops for improved malt quality
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This chapter introduces current key challenges for improving malting barley such as the rise in the craft brewing industry. It goes on to review typical traits of malting quality, such as grain size, protein and germination. It also highlights the importance of malt extract which is obtained after the malting process, and reviews other important traits such as starch degrading enzymes, malt colour, grain hardness and other traits that are not routinely measured. A case study on modern varieties for 21st century brewing is also included as well as a brief history of barley improvement in Australia. The chapter concludes by discussing requirements for successful programs in malting quality improvement and potential future trends in research.
Optimising the use of barley as an animal feed
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Barley is a highly significant feed grain, especially in colder regions where other feed grain crops such as wheat, sorghum and corn cannot easily grow. It is used to feed ruminant and non-ruminant species. Despite 80% of the worlds barley being used as feed, most of the emphasis on breeding and selection has been focussed on supplying the malting and brewing industries. This chapter discusses the concept of “feed barley, along what is expected from barley to be used as feed for a range of livestock. The chapter then reviews ways of optimising the use of barley for animal feed, from production and breeding through to the application of new technologies such as near infrared spectroscopy and molecular markers. The chapter then examines the specific grain quality and nutritional requirements of the major animal species routinely fed barley-based diets. The chapter concludes by assessing future research trends in optimising the use of feed barley.
Benefits of Conservation Agriculture to farmers and society
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Conservation Agriculture (CA) describes farming systems where the soil is not tilled, crop residues remain on the soil surface, and crop rotation is practised. CA emulates as closely as possible natural vegetation systems. This chapter presents the benefits of CA to farmers and society. The first section outlines the benefits to farmers from the adoption of CA which include fuel, labour and time savings, reduced soil erosion, improved crop water relations, increased machinery efficiency, increasing soil organic matter levels and fertility, increased levels of soil biological activity, and, allied with these benefits, increasing crop yields over time. The next section covers difficulties experienced with adoption of CA which include weed control, competition for crop residues, managerial capacity, poorly drained soils and crop diseases. The authors go on to discuss the benefits to society resulting from CA adoption on the farm and landscape. The chapter concludes with a section on what can be done to help farmers considering CA.
Building natural resource networks: urban agriculture and the circular economy
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This chapter discusses how to re-think socio-ecological functions for urban areas in an economy inspired by the principles of circular and regenerative practices. It begins by showing how existing food systems have been trapped in the paradigm of a linear economy model. It then shows how regenerative urban agri-food systems can be built through a circular economy approach. It also presents and discuss how novel natural resource networks can be created in circular food economies in urban areas. The chapter reviews strategies and examples of how this can be achieved, as well as bottlenecks and how they can be overcome.
The role of synbiotics in optimizing gut function in poultry
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The impending ban on antibiotics in animal feed due to the current concern over the spread of antibiotic resistance genes makes the development of alternative prophylactics imperative. This chapter presents some of the alternatives currently used in food-producing animals to influence their health in relation to human health. The chapter focuses on experiences with probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics in poultry, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Role of prebiotics in poultry gastrointestinal tract health, function, and microbiome composition
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Prebiotics have been established as a series of feed compounds that serve as specific substrates for gastrointestinal tract (GIT) bacteria. The general premise is that such compounds support GIT bacteria that benefit the host. In addition, GIT bacteria supported by prebiotics can be antagonistic to foodborne pathogens and prevent their colonization in the GIT. In poultry, prebiotics have been used primarily to prevent the establishment of foodborne pathogens but have also received attention regarding their impact on overall GIT health. This chapter reviews the impact of prebiotics on bird health, GIT function, and prevention of foodborne pathogen GIT colonization. Following an introduction, prebiotics are defined and discussed. Then follows an overview of the potential impact of such prebiotics on avian upper GIT health. A section is included on the avian intestinal microbiome, function, and prebiotics. The characteristics of the avian cecum are presented in detail, including coverage of the cecal microbiome and the use of prebiotics.
Rehabilitating degraded and abandoned agricultural lands with Conservation Agriculture systems
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Soil degradation worldwide is a serious concern since global demands for food production and security and environmental preservation have increased substantially. In Brazil, intensive tillage, low soil cover and residue input, monocropping, soil organic matter depletion, erosion, compaction and subsoil acidity are the main drivers of degradation and abandonment of agricultural soils, whereas high grazing pressure, unbalanced fertilization, weeds, soil compaction and poor pasture management are the drivers in pasturelands. This chapter discusses integrated strategies under Conservation Agriculture (CA) to restore soil productivity in degraded agricultural lands by mechanical and biological decompaction and subsoil acidity alleviation in tropical and subtropical regions in Brazil. Following an introduction on the degradation of both croplands and pasturelands, the authors go on to discuss the adoption of CA as a tool to prevent and reverse soil degradation. The chapter concludes with two case studies: the first on restoration of compacted and low productive soils, and the second on soil quality improvement in acidic tropical soils.
Enhancing phosphorus-use efficiency in crop production
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Enhancing acquisition and utilization of applied phosphorus by crops will help to conserve limited rock phosphate reserves and minimize off-site transport of applied phosphorus. Understanding plant root growth and the release of substances that can solubilize mineral and organic phosphorus in response to phosphorus deficiency will enhance crop recovery when phosphorus is applied. Improved technologies to quantify plant-available phosphorus from mineral and organic soil phosphorus reserves will enhance the accuracy of fertiliser and manure phosphorus recommendations. This chapter discusses interactions between phosphorus management (phosphorus rate, source timing, and placement) and diverse cropping systems and climate and how these interactions are essential to efficient utilization of phosphorus resources.
Soil management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Conservation Agriculture (CA) is known to deliver ecosystem services, maintain the soil potential productivity and improve the resource-use efficiency as well as the natural resources. It adapts to and mitigates climate change and leads to a more efficient use of inputs hence reducing production costs. This chapter describes the principles of Conservation Agriculture, including soil management. The chapter examines the concepts of no-tillage agriculture, cover crops and crop residues management. The chapter also discusses the environmental benefits and ecosystem services linked to CA as well as economic benefits. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Understanding gut function in poultry: the role of commensals, metabolites, inflammation and dysbiosis in intestinal immune function and dysfunction
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Study of the importance of the microbiome to health and susceptibility to diseases has become a leading area of research in poultry science in recent years. The microbiota is emerging as a fundamental force influencing diverse aspects of avian physiology. This chapter examines intestinal immunity and microbiota interactions with the immune system. The chapter considers the role of gut microbiota as an epigenetic regulator of gut function as well as the causes of dysregulation of gut functionality. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Gastrointestinal diseases of poultry: causes and nutritional strategies for prevention and control
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Gastrointestinal health plays a critical role in ensuring the overall health and productivity of livestock, including poultry. In this regard, antimicrobial growth promoters (AGP) have been used to maintain and promote gastrointestinal health. With the industrial strategy of gradual phasing out of AGP in poultry production, the incidence of enteric diseases, including necrotic enteritis, is expected to rise. Since intestinal health forms an integral part of a sustainable food animal production system, it is important to understand the etiological factors associated with gastrointestinal diseases as well as the strategies for disease prevention and control. In this chapter, important enteric diseases and disorders will be discussed, briefly highlighting their etiology followed by possible nutritional interventions, including feed additives such as plant-derived extracts, prebiotics, probiotics and organic acids, as possible alternatives to AGPs for disease control.
Advances in understanding crop use of phosphorus
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This chapter examines the essential role of phosphorus (P) in plants and how plants have evolved to maintain the supply of P to these essential functions. The chapter discusses the concept of P-replete plants and what this means regarding both their physiological and genomic state and how this information can be used to manage crops more effectively. The chapter explores the inherent difference in P-replete status and response to P deficiency seen between crop species and genotypes of crop species, and discusses trade-offs between responses within an individual. The chapter concludes with discussion of what a crop ideotype for efficient use of P might be like and looks ahead to how this information might impact our ability to design and implement sustainable agricultural systems in the future. Finally, the chapter provides detailed suggestions for further reading.
Advances in understanding uptake and utilization of nitrogen in wheat
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Wheat provides 20% of calories and protein consumed by humans. Cereals represent 56% of world fertilizer nitrogen (N) consumption and the wheat crop accounts for 18.2% of global use. Nitrogen fertilizer represents a significant cost for the grower and also has environmental impacts through N leaching causing eutrophication of freshwater and marine ecosystems and N2O (a greenhouse gas) emission associated with denitrification by soil bacteria. The development of N-efficient cultivars will be of economic benefit to farmers and will help reduce environmental contamination associated with excessive inputs of N fertilizers. The physiological, metabolic and physico-chemical processes that may contribute to high N-use efficiency (NUE) and reduced N fertilizer inputs, while maintaining an acceptable yield, are reviewed and the prospects for application in breeding programs discussed. Promising traits for selection by breeders to increase NUE are identified, and their implications for breeding are discussed.
Advances in controlled atmosphere storage of horticultural produce
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This chapter highlights advances in controlled atmosphere (CA) storage science of horticultural crops (mainly apples and pears) over the last two decade, emphasizing the connection between technical/managerial aspects of the CA regime and retention of product quality during and after the storage period. The chapter particularly focuses on: initial low O2 stress (ILOS); delayed CA storage; anti-ethylene compounds (e.g. 1-MCP); dynamic controlled atmosphere (DCA) systems based on chlorophyll fluorescence (CF), ethanol detection and respiratory quotient (RQ) determination for identifying the lower oxygen limit (LOL); and strategies for reducing the electrical energy demands of the storage room. The chapter concludes with a reflection upon likely future advancements in CA storage science over the next 10-20 years, including: refining and broadening DCA system and 1-MCP application (singly and together), more metabolomic research to understand the biochemical and molecular effects of hypoxic stress, and new protocols for reducing storage room-related electricity consumption.
Opportunities and challenges in crossbreeding dairy cattle in temperate regions
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Crossbreeding is an old technology; however, when used in today’s dairy systems, crossbreeding can produce profitable results for dairy producers. Interest in crossbreeding of dairy cattle has become a topic of great interest in the last ten years and has developed in response to concerns dairy producers have about fertility, calving difficulty, and stillbirths in today’s genetically improved Holstein cows. This chapter summarizes landmark crossbreeding research at the University of Illinois before going on to consider crossbreeding research in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Ireland and Germany. The chapter includes a case study focussing on crossbreeding with Jersey cows conducted at the University of Minnesota. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Improving supply chains to prevent food losses and waste: an overview
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Wasting food is unsustainable from environmental, economic, social and ethical points of view. Curbing food losses and waste (FLW) amount would improve food chain sustainability and contribute to food security. For that, reducing FLW is one of the targets of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This chapter highlights the causes of FLW and identifies possible prevention/reduction ways in agricultural production, harvesting, storage, processing, transport, distribution, marketing and consumption. The chapter outlines strategies to prevent/reduce FLW along the supply chain, including investments, good practices, behavioural changes and coordination within the food chain. The chapter makes the case for adopting a ‘systems approach’ to realise the full benefits of FLW reduction. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Microbial ecology and function of the gastrointestinal tract in layer hens
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With the introduction of next-generation sequencing, a more comprehensive identification of the laying hen gastrointestinal tract microbial population has emerged. There are several factors that can influence the composition and function of the layer hen gastrointestinal tract including age of the bird, diet, and type of feed amendment. The microbial communities in each compartment of the layer hen gastrointestinal tract have been identified and examined for impact on the host. Some compartments such as the ceca harbor a highly complex microbial population of fermentative microorganisms that produce short chain fatty acids. The ceca can also be colonized by foodborne Salmonella and some serovars such as S. Enteritidis can become invasive infecting the reproductive tissues. A variety of feed additives have been applied in attempts to limit Salmonella colonization in laying hens and improve laying hen performance. This chapter will review the function and microbial ecology of the layer hen gastrointestinal tract.
Development of Conservation Agriculture systems globally
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This chapter outlines the development of Conservation Agriculture (CA) system globally in terms of its origins, pioneers and champions, main drivers for its spread, CA systems involved, regional adoption, challenges and future prospects. Reducing soil disturbance by tillage began in the USA in the 1930s in response to the devastation caused by mouldboard ploughing and prolonged drought in the mid-west prairies that led to the period known as the ‘dust bowl’. Initially, a number of soil and water conservation practices were developed, including contour ploughing, bunding and terracing. Stubble mulch farming was also developed and this became a forerunner of no-tillage farming which appeared in the 1940s in the USA and led to the term conservation tillage. Realizing that tillage was the root cause of soil erosion and degradation, the term conservation tillage was replaced by the term Conservation Agriculture in 1997 at the meeting of the Latin American Network for Conservation Tillage (Red Latino Americana de Labranza Conservacionista, RELACO), in Morelia, Michoacan, Mexico.
Developments in genomic predictions in dairy cattle breeding: a historical overview of methods, technologies, and applications
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Selection and breeding decisions have traditionally been made based on phenotypic measurements and pedigree information of selection candidates or close relatives. However, the recent availability of genomic information on a large number of markers has transformed modern dairy cattle breeding around the world. Currently, among the main uses of genomic information are the identification of Quantitative Trait Loci and candidate genes related to economically important traits, and the prediction of genetic merit of individuals for selection. In this context, several statistical methods have been developed to enable the incorporation of genomic information to achieve these goals. In this chapter we summarize the key developments in genomic prediction and selection in dairy cattle, with a focus on the tools and statistical methods proposed over time. Additionally, we also discuss the main contributions that supported such developments, and indicate potential constrains and opportunities in the use of current methods in the future of dairy cattle breeding.
Commercial poultry production and gut function: a historical perspective
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In the United States, in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, poultry production was only a side operation for many farmers; however, by the 1930s a commercial poultry industry began to flourish. Certainly, today’s poultry industry would never have developed without the many advances that have taken place in nutrition, genetics, housing, and veterinary care that were contributed by university and industry scientists. The objective of this chapter is to provide a brief description of the history and development of the commercial poultry industry, and the impact of changes in production practices that are having impacts on poultry gut health. Beginning with an introduction to the origins of the broiler chicken, there then follows sections on nutrition, genetic selection, and poultry housing. The chapter concludes with discussions on veterinary care of poultry and challenges to the industry regarding health of both the poultry produced and of the humans that consume poultry products.
Post-harvest risk management of biological hazards encountered in horticultural produce
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Fresh produce remains the main cause of foodborne illness outbreaks implicating a diverse range of enteric pathogens. The primary source of pathogens is pre-harvest contamination, which then become disseminated during processing. This chapter provides an overview of fresh produce related foodborne illness outbreaks and the characteristics of implicated pathogens. The chapter describes the routes by which pathogens can be introduced and distributed at different post-harvest stages, from the field through to food service. The chapter introduces a range of risk management strategies based on antimicrobial coatings, antimicrobial gas treatments, irradiation, UV-C and those based on advanced oxidation process. The chapter explains application of Response Surface Modelling (RSM) to balance microbial reduction with changes in produce quality, providing a detailed case study. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and provides guidance on further reading on the subject.
Genetic diversity in dairy cattle: variation within and between breeds
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This chapter focuses on genetic diversity in dairy cattle, meaning that it examines those domesticated cattle breeds selected for milk production. The chapter presents the relevant definitions and discusses the role of natural and artificial selection in the creation of breeds and genetic diversity. The chapter examines the importance of genetic diversity both between and within breeds and the conservation of genetic diversity in gene banks. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance for further reading on the subject.
Integrated disease management of barley
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Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an ecosystem approach to crop production and protection that combines different management strategies and practices to grow healthy crops and minimize the use of pesticides. This chapter looks at how IPM can be applied to barley production, considering the different disease threats, the tools available and possible approaches to deploying them. The chapter evaluates varietal disease resistance, the range of crop protectants available and how agronomy can be used optimise these tools. The chapter also reviews the sources of knowledge available and the means and barriers to IPM use in practice. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Plant-insect interactions, host-plant resistance, and integrated pest management
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The interactions between plants and the arthropod herbivores that feed on them are intricate and multifaceted. Plant-arthropod interactions can be divided, heuristically, into host-plant finding, acceptance and utilization phases. Plant resistance results when a plant expresses traits that disrupt one or more aspects of a plant-arthropod interaction, where disruption is understood relative to the interaction of an herbivore and a susceptible host lacking the resistance-related traits. This chapter defines plant resistance, outlining processes of plant resistance including host-plant selection and host-plant utilization. The chapter examines phenotypic plasticity in plant resistance, the mechanistic bases of plant resistance and tolerance and insect counter-defenses, as well as the genetic basis of plant resistance and its use in integrated pest management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
The role and use of genetically engineered insect-resistant crops in integrated pest management systems
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Host plant resistance is an important and foundational element of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The application of genetic engineering (GE) has significantly accelerated the deployment of host plant resistance in several cropping systems. Current GE crops represent powerful forms of antibiotic host plant resistance. This chapter provides a broad review of the application of GE-based host plant resistance within an IPM context. The chapter explores the environmental aspects of GE-based host resistance, its integration into IPM, and resistance management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future GE crops.
Integrated pest management (IPM) in greenhouse and other protected environments
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Production in greenhouses, high tunnels, and other protected environments is expanding worldwide to allow for more intensive and continual cultivation to mitigate the effects of climate change. Growers want to create conditions that are ideal for the plants to thrive, but these are often the same ones that favor insects and other arthropod pests, requiring the implementation of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in greenhouses. The practices and organisms used for IPM in greenhouses and high tunnels are unique and specific to the target pest, geographical location, and crop. This chapter describes the process of scouting for both pests and beneficials in the greenhouse environment, before discussing plant-mediated IPM systems (including a case study from the Northeastern USA). The chapter addresses the realities of IPM in the developing world as well as other novel IPM practices and future developments. Finally, the chapter provides guidance on further reading in this area.
Advances in dairy cattle breeding to improve resistance to claw disorders/lameness
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Foot and claw disorders are, along with reproductive and udder health problems, major reasons for involuntary culling in dairy cattle. Culling due to lameness accounts for 8-15% of all culls. This chapter describes the key factors needed to achieve genetic improvement of claw health and discusses the challenges. It covers the various steps in breeding from the definition of the breeding goal, performance recording (phenotyping) with standardization and measures to improve data quality, genetic evaluation with the genetic background of traits, trait definitions, data validation and models, including aspects of genomic evaluation, direct and indirect selection for claw health and the possible impact on genetic gain. The chapter provides examples of successful implementation into routine breeding programmes and offers recommendations and examples of best practice. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and makes suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Advanced designs for barley breeding experiments
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This chapter provides a review of key developments in experimental design in barley breeding. After a brief history to set the scene, the chapter covers the background of experimental design for field trials, highlighting the key principles that are still fundamental for modern comparative experiments, including model-based design. The following section explores the quantification of genetic relationships through either pedigree or molecular marker information. Finally, the chapter presents the principles of multi-phase experiments for testing material both in the field and in the laboratory. Three case studies are included to highlight non-standard experimental designs that should be in the toolkit of every agricultural scientist and which are essential for modern plant breeding programs.
Advances in understanding of barley plant physiology: plant development and architecture
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This chapter summarizes recent advances in understanding the genetics of barley development and architecture. In particular it discusses developments in understanding: barley plant structure and morphology; molecular control of vegetative development; and molecular control of reproductive development. Finally, the chapter looks at the implications of these developments for breeding more resilient and productive varieties.
Challenges and initiatives in reducing postharvest food losses and food waste: sub-Saharan Africa
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This chapter reviews food losses and waste in sub-Saharan Africa. It gives a general introduction to the terms ‘food loss’ and ‘food waste’ and how they differ. It focuses on the postharvest food losses occurring in sub-Saharan Africa and compares ‘objective measurements’ with ‘perceptions’ of food losses occurring during and after harvest. It also provides an overview of what information is already available regarding food losses and waste in sub-Saharan Africa. The chapter goes on to discusses various challenges and initiatives in reducing food losses and waste and concludes by providing a general summary and several resources for further information.
The use of genomic information to improve selection response while controlling inbreeding in dairy cattle breeding programs
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This chapter discusses the use of genomic information to improve selection response in dairy cattle breeding programs. It assesses population size and inbreeding, as well as discussing how genetic information can be used to reduce inbreeding. The chapter also provides an understanding of the genetics of inbreeding and how the construction of mating designs can be used to limit inbreeding. The authors also review how alleles can be maintained and discusses how optimum contribution selection (OCS) can be used to maximize selection response while controlling inbreeding. It concludes by providing a case study of using optimum contribution selection and an overview of how genetic information can provide a new way forward in understanding and controlling inbreeding.
Developing climate-based decision support systems from agricultural systems models
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Decision Support Systems (DSSs) in production agriculture are computer software programs that make use of models and other information to make site-specific recommendations for farm management-related activities. Major advances have been made in developing DSS for agriculture, particularly with respect to incorporating climate forecasts into farmers’ decision-making process. This chapter describes DSSs in agriculture, focussing on the importance of a participatory approach in DSS development. The chapter offers examples of climate-based DSS for crop and land management, pest and disease management, and livestock (dairy) management. The chapter reflects on lessons learned in the process of developing climate-based DSS. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Monitoring and minimizing health risks related to pesticides
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Pesticide poisoning is a cause of many human deaths, either via deliberate self-poisoning or via occupational exposure. This chapter looks at monitoring exposure to pesticides and how to minimize human health risks related to their use/exposure. Following an introduction, a section on data-collection approaches and limitations is presented. Then follows a section on policy responses to what is a now a global pesticide poisoning crisis. The case of the smallholder cotton farmers in the Republic of Benin is presented. The chapter concludes with a section on recent surveys in Benin conducted by the Pesticide Action Network UK and the Benin Organisation for the Promotion of Organic Farming (OBEPAB). The authors conclude that pesticide poisoning remains a significant problem in low- and middle-income countries causing substantial numbers of deaths and serious illnesses placing a heavy burden on both health systems and economies.
Biotechnology applications for integrated pest management
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An exciting wave of discoveries in biotechnology is revolutionizing agriculture worldwide. Biotechnology tools and applications are offering great opportunities for integrated pest management (IPM) programs in agriculture. This chapter describes biotechnology applications for pest management including pest diagnostic and genetic characterization of pests, molecular breeding for insect and disease resistance, genetically engineered crops for insects, pathogens, and weeds management as well as applications of emerging genome-editing approaches for pest management. These applications provide additional options in IPM programs and in turn help reduce pest damage and crop losses, decrease the use of toxic chemical pesticides, and enhance agricultural productivity, economic growth and global food security as well as improve environmental quality. Successful deployment of biotechnology tools and applications enhance the overall effectiveness of IPM programs. The chapter also highlights policy issues including intellectual property rights, biosafety, regulatory, communication, and stewardship aspects surrounding the access, utilization, deployment and management of biotechnology tools in pest management programs.
Institutional and policy support for Conservation Agriculture uptake
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Conservation Agriculture (CA) has been adopted by farmers in at least 78 countries around the world in response to land degradation from intensive tillage and monoculture production systems. Since pioneer farmers started the CA development journey five decades ago it has been refined into a sustainable production system with improved economics and multiple social and environmental co-benefits beyond stopping the immediate land degradation concerns. This chapter reviews experiences of CA in a wide range of countries (including Canada, Kazakhstan, China, Paraguay and Argentina) in order to allow the identification of commonalities and differences. The chapter examines the subsidization of agricultural activities as a barrier to change and evolution of processes and the initial reluctance and skepticism of academia with regard to CA. The chapter considers CA as a disruptive innovation and looks ahead to the future of CA policy on a global scale.
Nutrient management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Nutrient cycling is considered as a key agroecosystem service of Conservation Agriculture (CA). CA brings together major nutrients and organic matter fluxes within the soil-micro-organism-plant system. It also generates organic and inorganic nutrient pools accessible through new biological pathways. This chapter addresses nutrient management practices and benefits in CA systems. Current trends in CA systems design are discussed, as is integrated nutrient management. The concept of the “forest model” is introduced and discussed in detail. Sections on nutrient pools, bioavailability of elements, and mineral use efficiency in CA systems are also included. The chapter concludes with two case studies from contrasting agroecosystems: one from a Brazilian Fazenda transitioning from “generic” CA to CA based on multifunctional mix species cover, and one from a French dairy farm, illustrating how CA, associated with important and diversified organic matter inputs from cover crops and crop residues, impacts and modifies plant nutrition management.
International genomic evaluation methods for dairy cattle
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The primary systems of data recording and genetic evaluation of dairy cattle are managed at a national level, with separate programs being run by each country, or in some cases for a small group of countries. However, international genomic evaluation methods for dairy cattle are needed so that sire evaluations can account for and estimate suitable degrees of sire re-ranking from one country to the next. This chapter compares national versus international standards and genetic versus genomic evaluation methods. The chapter highlights key points of understanding for current and future applications of international genomic evaluation of dairy cattle. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading on the subject.
The role of no or minimum mechanical soil disturbance in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Minimum mechanical soil disturbance is one of the pillars of Conservation Agriculture (CA). It is the core concept, which distinguishes CA as a sustainable farming system from tillage-based systems. This chapter introduces concepts of tillage and soil disturbance and the issues and solutions related to this topic along the cropping cycle. The role of no or minimum soil disturbance in CA systems is fully explored, firstly by looking at the effects of soil tillage and tillage implements on the soil. The chapter goes on to discuss how soil disturbance can by minimised during farming activities such as land preparation, seeding, planting, pest, disease and weed management, and harvesting. The issue of soil compaction is also discussed. The author concludes that agriculture is possible without soil disturbance and that sustainable agriculture via CA may become a reality.
Advances in understanding canopy development in forest trees
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This chapter introduces the reader to physiological processes at the leaf, crown, and canopy level. It details the importance of light and water to these processes, then outlines the patterns that foliage at the three levels assume in order to maximize carbon uptake and tree performance. Summaries of research in leaf orientation, leaf clumping, and traits acclimation along a canopy light gradient are presented. At the canopy level, the continuous recording of canopy phenology and the eddy covariance method of recording biosphere-atmosphere fluxes are also discussed. These methods are suitable for whole-season measurements at the cross-landscape or regional level. Managers will find this knowledge useful as they assemble information to aid in their managerial decisions.
Advances and improvements in modeling plant processes
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This chapter provides an overview of the advances made historically and today in modeling key plant processes with a focus on the processes associated with carbon acquisition and allocation (photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, respiration, and assimilate partitioning), and the timing of plant developmental events (phenology). Areas for further improvement are also addressed.
Genetic and genomic dairy cattle evaluations in developing countries
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Genetic improvement programmes have delivered huge economic returns in developed countries. Supporting these successful genetic improvements are efficient genetic evaluation systems (GES) for the accurate evaluation of animals on which selection is based. Thus, GES is not only an integral and important component of any genetic improvement programme, but it has direct influence on the rate of genetic progress that is achievable. This chapter discusses genetic and genomic dairy cattle evaluations in developing countries. Following an introduction, a section entitled efficient data collection and storage is provided covering historical perspectives, and the current status of data and data collection in some developing countries (Kenya, Zimbabwe, India and Brazil). Then follows a section on analytical systems for the computation of the genetic merits of animals covering both conventional genetic evaluation systems and genomic selection. The chapter concludes with a discussion on systems for dispersal of better genetic merit.
Advances in physical control methods in IPM
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The evidence is mounting for pesticide failures on many fronts, including environmental contamination and pest resistance to chemical products. As an alternative, physical management methods are environmentally friendly, are not subject to the development of resistance, leave no residues and require no complicated registration procedures. In this chapter, recent advances in physical control methods are reviewed, and how they are applied to the pre-harvest situations, and to the post-harvest situations of stored products, notably fresh fruits, vegetables and flowers. Physical management techniques should be fully integrated into integrated pest management programmes. The chapter discusses how physical barriers are applied in the pre-harvest field as compared to the post-harvest situations and how sanitation measures differ between pre- and post-harvest. The chapter concludes with a section on the vision for the future of post-harvest phytosanitary measures, which includes the possibility of artificial intelligence, coupled with affordable sensors.
Economic assessment of integrated pest management (IPM) implementation
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Besides reducing health and the ecological risks of pest control, integrated pest management (IPM) seeks to increase farm income. Economic constraints also act as barriers to adoption of IPM practices. An understanding of how IPM affects the farm “bottom line” is crucial to efforts to encourage IPM. This chapter discusses methods for estimating the economic impacts of IPM, devoting special attention to advances in statistical methods to account for sample selection bias in program evaluation. The chapter also discusses methods for estimating economic values of reduced environmental risks. Finally, the chapter examines the effectiveness of Farmer Field Schools in promoting pest management knowledge, IPM adoption, and farm income and discusses ways to improve economic assessments of IPM programs.
Assessing inbreeding and genetic diversity in the Holstein breed using pedigree and genomic approaches
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Various breeding strategies to improve dairy cattle production, conformation, health and, more recently, efficiency, have been developed. However, as selection intensity within these finite populations has increased, so has the relatedness within individual populations. This chapter looks at inbreeding and genetic diversity in the Holstein breed. It discusses the forces affecting genetic diversity within the breed, including drift, selection, migration, and mutation. Assessing measures of relatedness using different sources of information available for Holsteins (additive genetic relationships, genomic relationships, and other measures of inbreeding) are described. Inbreeding and its effects on phenotypes, including positive effects of inbreeding, inherited defects, and inbreeding depression for quantitative traits, are then explored. Exploration of population measures of inbreeding, such as the effective population size and the rate of inbreeding leads into a discussion on how to manage genetic diversity in Holsteins. The chapter concludes with a case study on Holstein cattle in Canada.
Advances in cooling technologies to preserve horticultural produce
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Fruit and vegetables are living organisms that continue to respire after harvest, deteriorating over time, in a process known as senescence. Although it is impossible to halt senescence, removing the field-heat, and reducing the temperature of the product at the time of harvest, has substantial effects on maintaining product integrity. Cooling is the first ‘cool’ stage of the horticultural cool-chain, and is designed to rapidly and efficiently reduce the product temperature from the field temperature (often 20-30°C, depending on local conditions) to storage temperature (usually between 0-15°C, depending on the specific product. This chapter provides a review of the state of the art of produce cooling with emphasis on the recent developments in this field.
Biodiversity management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Biodiversity in agriculture is one of the most effective ways to achiebe sustainable crop production without damaging the environment. This chapter reviews biodiversity management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems. After looking at the importance of soil microorganisms, the chapter looks at how CA systems contribute to soil biological activity, particularly the way cover crops and rotations, with a no-till regime, can enrich soil and the multitude or organisms living in it. The chapter concludes with a case study discussing biodiversity management practices and benefits in CA systems in South-West Manitoba (Canada).
Modeling crop rotations: capturing short- and long-term feedbacks for sustainability and soil health
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Crop rotation is a critical management strategy available to farmers to sustain soil fertility, combat pests, and improve crop yields. Because of the complex feedbacks occurring in the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum, legacy effects and their interactions with climate are generally not well understood, and their ultimate influence on yields and environmental quality is difficult to predict. Crop simulation models offer a way of parsing through this complexity. This chapter illustrates how crop models account for the interactions between soil, genotypes, management, and climate, on crops grown in various rotations, and their effects on yield and environmental outcomes (e.g. nitrate leaching, soil organic carbon sequestration) under current and future climate scenarios by presenting two different case studies and modeling approaches. The authors conclude the chapter by summarizing the advantages and disadvantages of the modeling approaches and offer some recommendations for how to best capture legacy effects.
Advances in understanding the ecology of invasive crop insect pests and their impact on IPM
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Invasive species represent one of the greatest threats to agriculture and commercial forestry, worldwide. Examples of invasive pests continue to increase with increasing world trade and human transport, but all biological invasions progress through similar stages of arrival, establishment, spread and impact. This chapter reviews how management strategies change as invasions progress. As problems from invasive species increase, some scientists and decision-makers question if species-by-species research and farm-by-farm management are the optimum ways to address the problem. Here, the authors address two more fundamental questions: can the various approaches to invasive species management still be considered integrated pest management, and why does it matter if they can or cannot? Lastly, the authors describe invasive species as a ‘wicked problem’, for policy-makers, researchers and stakeholders. Great achievements can be made if the problem is tamed, but research and management efforts may be jeopardized if it is not.
Advances in breeding crops resistant to insect pests: rice as a paradigm
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Over the last 60 years research involving the development and deployment of insect-resistant crop cultivars has led to significant crop improvements in the major food-producing areas of the world. This chapter discusses the history, status, latest methods, and challenges of breeding insect-resistant rice varieties. The chapter examines host plant resistance as an ecological approach to managing crop pests and considers the process of evaluating resistance on the basis of insect behavior. The chapter looks at breeding rice for resistance to insect pests and considers the constraints on the development and deployment of insect-resistant plant technology. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Conservation Agriculture Systems: soil health and landscape management
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At the core of Conservation Agriculture (CA) is the transformation towards soil health and systems management innovation with emphasis on regenerative carbon management. This chapter documents the role of CA systems in relation to soil health and soil function. The three principles of: 1) permanent organic crop residue soil cover; 2) diverse crop rotations and cover crop mixes; and 3) continuous minimum mechanical soil disturbance, of CA systems, along with complementary supporting practices, are fully discussed. Then follows a section on plant carbon and its impact on hydrology and water use efficiency. The author concludes that a strong partnership is needed among all social, economic, and political sectors to promote innovation, adoption and success of Conservation Agriculture systems in light of the need for global food security.
Advances in dairy cattle breeding to improve heat tolerance
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Elevated temperature can impact dairy cows in many aspects, leading to a decline in productivity and ultimately the profitability of the industry. There is a need to breed for heat tolerant dairy cattle to mitigate these impacts. This chapter outlines technologies to breed for more heat tolerant dairy cattle, exploiting either between or within breed genetic variation in the trait. Finally, the chapter discusses future perspectives on the use of different tools to achieve accelerated improvements of this important trait, and provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Advances in understanding the role of forests in the carbon cycle
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The recognition that increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide are warming the global climate has led to forests being viewed as potential natural ways to reduce carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. Forests’ complex interactions with local and global climates, however, make predicting the impacts of changes in forest cover and composition challenging. This chapter examines the importance of forest carbon content and methods of monitoring it. The chapter describes the mechanisms driving forest carbon storage and explores whether forests should be considered sources or sinks of carbon. The chapter distinguishes between carbon management and climate management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and offers suggestions for further reading.
Temperature deviations during transport as a cause for food losses
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Deviating temperature conditions during distribution processes reduce the quality of food and significantly contribute to global food losses. The effect of careless handling and inadequate processing only become visible much later in the cool chain, making it difficult to quantify the contribution of individual processes. This chapter highlights the importance of transport losses of produce and draws attention to the omnipresence of temperature deviations. The chapter examines methods of shelf-life prediction, as well as the identification, quantification and mitigation of temperature abuse, along with remote monitoring. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Improving modeling of nutrient cycles in crop cultivation
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This chapter describes nutrient cycle modelling for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) and is not meant to be a review of existing nutrient models. Most of these existing models were designed to predict the effects of N and P on crop growth response. Given the importance of N in global food production and its impact on the environment, the major emphasis of this chapter has been on N modelling.
Advances in microbial control in IPM: entomopathogenic viruses
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Although there are several families of viruses known to include insect pathogens, only a handful are recognised to have species with any potential of being biopesticides. The majority of these are baculoviruses and are an ideal component of an integrated pest management (IPM) programme, as they are highly target pest-specific, have no detrimental side effects, are user-friendly, are often as effective as the chemical alternatives, are compatible with most pesticides and technologies, and they leave no detectable residues. However, there are certain challenges associated with their usage, such as slow speed of kill, a narrow host range, limited shelf life, high cost and the possibility of resistance development – the solutions to which are discussed in this chapter. Three baculovirus biopesticide case studies are provided elucidating the practical benefits and challenges of using baculoviruses in IPM systems. The chapter concludes that the usage of insect viruses in IPM is set to grow in the future.
Improving modelling of water cycles in crop cultivation
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Adequate representation of the water cycle in cropping systems remains as one of the major concerns for crop model developers as it is involved in many critical processes such as the determination of the energy balance and crop temperature, the determination of crop productivity, and the movement of nutrients in the soil and their uptake. Even though the water budget equation is rather simple, the scarcity of measurements and data to specify the parameters and evaluate the component processes, as well as the myriad of empirical and mechanistic approaches available, makes it difficult for crop modelers to decide on suitable approaches to incorporate in their models. This chapter presents a summary of the most common approaches that are included in crop simulation models, the parameterization of the equations involved, and the main limitations currently observed.
Recent developments in multi-trait selection in dairy cattle breeding
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Selection indexes, and their underlying breeding objectives, are widely used in dairy cattle breeding, and indexes tend to play an important role in selection decisions made by commercial farmers in many of the more advanced dairy industries within well developed economies. This chapter describes the key role of multi-trait indexes in dairy cattle breeding, how this role is evolving, and consequently, the methods used to establish the weightings in the indexes. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides guidance on further reading on the subject.
Advances in dairy cattle breeding to improve resistance to mastitis
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Mastitis, an inflammatory response associated with bacterial infections, is generally regarded as the most-costly disease of dairy cattle because of its high incidence and effects on milk production and composition. Genetic selection for highly productive dairy cows has been very successful; however, udder health has declined in many dairy breeds because of its unfavourable correlations with milk production. Poor udder health increases veterinary and farm labour costs, increases rates of involuntary culling, decreases farm revenue, and adversely impacts animal welfare. However, genetic selection can be used to improve udder health just as it has been used to increase production. This chapter reviews advances in dairy cattle breeding to improve resistance to mastitis. It includes sections on both conventional and new phenotypes for improving resistance to clinical mastitis, and also on both national and international genetic improvement programmes for resistance to clinical mastitis. It concludes with a section on increasing rates of genetic gain through genomic selection.
The role of probiotics in optimizing gut function in poultry
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The spread of antibiotic resistance genes has created public concerns leading to new laws that restrict the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in domestic and meat-producing animals in several countries around the world. In this chapter, the safety and efficacy of individual monocultures for prophylactic and/or therapeutic efficacy against Salmonella infections in poultry under both laboratory and field conditions are summarized. In addition, the development of novel, cost-effective, feed-stable, direct-fed microbials with potential for widespread utilization and improved production, delivery and clinical efficacy for animal use are presented. Following an introduction, a section on the use of probiotics in poultry is presented; a discussion on probiotics and inflammation is also provided. The risks on the overuse of antibiotics are discussed, and the chapter concludes with an introduction to the use of direct-fed microbials in commercial poultry diets.
Genetic evaluation: use of genomic data in large-scale genetic evaluations in dairy cattle breeding
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Genomic evaluation has been successfully implemented in nearly all advanced dairy producing countries. Methods to compute genomic genetic evaluations for dairy cattle can be divided into single-step methods and multi-step methods. This chapter introduces the use of mixed model equations and the numerator relationship matrix, outlining the two basic methods used to compute genomic evaluations. The chapter explains the process of validating methods of computing genomic estimated breeding values. Finally, the chapter examines how genomic selection has changed the dairy cattle industry and looks ahead to future research trends in this area, as well as providing detailed guidance on further reading on the subject.
Genetics and other factors affecting intestinal microbiota and function in poultry
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The diverse intestinal microbiota of poultry plays critical roles in determining feed utilization, health, and diseases. A comprehensive understanding of how various factors shape the intestinal microbiota in poultry can help develop new dietary and managerial interventions to enhance bird growth, maximize feed utilization efficiency, and lower enteric diseases caused by pathogens. This chapter reviews the current understanding of how different factors (except diet and growth promoters that are covered in other chapters of this book) can affect the intestinal microbiota. These factors include genetics and breeds, hatchery conditions and environment, bedding and litter, climate and geographic regions, gender and diseases. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future perspectives in research on intestinal microbiota in poultry and provides comprehensive guidance on finding further information on this area.
The scope and challenge of sustainable forestry
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Forests have managed to sustain themselves for millennia, recovering, reorganizing or migrating in response to innumerable disruptions. Humans have always reaped the benefits of this natural ability of treed ecosystems to renew themselves. Overharvesting of wood for fuel and building materials, however, eventually led to restrictions at different times and places around the world, and was eventually resolved through the development of sustained yield forestry. This introductory chapter focusses on current research in sustainable forestry. Beginning by discussing the concept of sustainable forestry, the chapter goes on to explore the natural resilience of forests. Further sections address the ways in which sustainability is interpreted and the challenges encountered in its implementation. In later sections, each of the subsequent chapters is referred to, in turn, providing an overview of the book. The chapter concludes with a reflection on what sustainable forestry is and how it may be attained.
Developments in the use of embryo technologies in dairy cows
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Reproductive technologies offer the opportunity to produce far greater numbers of offspring from genetically valuable dams, than they would normally have in their lifetime. Technologies such as ovum-pickup when applied to harvest oocytes from prepubertal animals provide the means to dramatically reduce the genetic interval, whereas the large number of embryos recovered from multiple ovulation embryo transfer gives greater scope for selection for genetic improvement. When animal breeding programmes couple these technologies with genomic selection based on genome wide assisted selection, the accuracy of selection can be increased further. The current range of interventions that can be applied to breeding programmes provides great scope to increase the efficiency, sustainability and welfare of the dairy industry. This chapter provides an update on current developments in reproductive technologies that are available for routine use and those that are still in the research stage but have the potential to provide solutions for the dairy industry in the future.
Understanding gut microbiota in poultry
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Research has shown that gut microbiota; the bacteria, archaea, protozoa, fungi and viruses that reside within the gastrointestinal tract, has a profound effect on the health and productivity of poultry. This chapter outlines what is known about the establishment and development of the gut microbiota, some of the mechanisms by which the microbiota can affect poultry and the ways that the microbiota can be manipulated to enhance poultry health and productivity. Firstly, an overview of the microbiota of chickens is presented. This is followed by a discussion on the functional interaction of such microbiota with the host, in this case, the chicken. A section on the manipulation of microbiota for health and productivity of chickens is provided, covering the use of microbes to manipulate gut microbiota and also the use of feed additives and antibiotics. The chapter concludes with an overview of future trends in research.
Trade-offs between management and conservation for the provision of ecosystem services in the southern Patagonian forests
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Forests provide critical ecosystem services for human well-being; however, some ecosystem services are more valued (e.g. provisioning services) than others (e.g. regulating or supporting services). Temperate regions contain several forests affected by humans, mainly with regard to ecosystem services and biodiversity. This chapter focuses on Nothofagus forests in southern Patagonia. It analyzes potential trade-offs between ecosystem services and biodiversity, and how new silvicultural approaches (such as silvopastoral and variable retention harvesting) allow multi-objective management at the landscape level. The authors first discuss forest ecosystem service characterization. Further sections are included on the provision of forest ecosystem services in southern Patagonia and developing strategies of sustainable forest management. The chapter closes with an overview of forest ecosystem services in a changing world. The authors conclude that future proposals (such as land-sharing) will require fewer trade-offs and promote positive synergies within the provision of ecosystem services, generating more resilient alternatives that can mitigate potential climate change effects.
Developing forestry recreation services
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A high percentage of individuals participate in outdoor recreation, and as regions around the world continue to experience population growth there correspondingly will be increased demand for recreation services. Quality in such recreation can be defined as the degree to which recreation opportunities provide the experiences for which they are designed and managed. Therefore, key to protecting the recreation experiences in certain areas is an understanding of the different aspects of the visitor experience and recognizing which of these are important to visitors. This chapter is focused on developing forestry recreation services. Following a general introduction on recreation, a section is then included on visitor experience. The chapter then discusses the concept of the recreation opportunity spectrum. Recreation site planning and management are discussed, as are visitor use management, and monitoring and assessment. The chapter includes a case study on development of recreation services on privately owned forestlands in the United States.
Integrating livestock production into whole-farm system models of mixed crop–livestock systems
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Crop-livestock farming systems integrate various biophysical components with farm decision-making. Whole-farm system models help to understand the complexity arising from this integration and are useful tools to explore effects of interventions and to design improved systems. After describing the generic characteristics of crop-livestock systems, this chapter gives an account of the separate component models, from which whole-farm models are usually assembled. Most attention goes to the wide diversity in pasture, livestock and manure models, while approaches to represent farm management in models are also discussed. The interactions between farm components strongly determine model functioning and performance, and often present modelling challenges to capture them. With a focus on grazing, manure dynamics and animal mobility, the authors assess the key processes governing these interactions and review how models represent them. Further, the representation of feed quality in crop model outputs and the management of time scales and carry-over effects is dealt with. Finally, the authors provide two examples of common whole-farm model applications from contrasting environments.
Towards sustainable plant factories with artificial lighting (PFALs): from greenhouses to vertical farms
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Plant factories with artificial lighting (PFALs) have hitherto proved too costly to be economically viable, consuming too much electricity to be considered truly sustainable. However, recent advances are changing this, and the potential advantages of PFALs are making them an attractive option. This chapter discusses the requirements of sustainable plant production systems, exploring the potential and actual benefits of PFALs. The chapter considers the resource consumption, production cost and cost performance associated with current PFALs, as well as methods for reducing resource consumption and production costs. Finally, the chapter examines future challenges of environmentally and economically sustainable plant production for smart PFALs.
The role of food banks in food security and food loss and waste (FLW) prevention
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The current deficit of food supply in which more than 820 million people do not have enough to eat puts a real threat on the upcoming generations to satisfy their most basic need of food sufficiency. This chapter describes the development of food banks over the years, explains the difference between the traditional and contemporary food banking models and presents a case study on one of the most successful food banks in the Middle East region that diverts more than 17,000,000 meals monthly from the landfill.
The future of crop modeling for sustainable agriculture
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Crop growth simulation models have become increasingly important as accepted tools with uses in education, research, crop management, industry, and government policy decisions related to improving and sustaining agricultural production of food, feed, fiber, and ecosystem services. This chapter begins with a brief review of history of crop modeling that has led to excellent collaborations among the world’s crop modeling community. It discusses present and future potential uses of crop models in education, academic research, plant breeding, strategic crop management, in-season advisory tools, famine risk tools, climate change impact assessment, ecosystem services, sustaining long-term soil fertility, and integration with livestock and economic models. It concludes with a look to the future with a review of what is new in crop models, the processes that need improvement, along with suggestions of new features needed.
Advances in monitoring forest growth and health
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Information derived from monitoring the status of and trends in forest resources is a critical tool for policymakers, managers, and other environmental decision makers. Advances in forest monitoring technology, particularly in the use of remote sensing, have helped deliver higher quality information in a timelier manner than in the past. This chapter gives background information on the practical and statistical principles behind both ground-based and remote sensing-based forest measurement and monitoring, provides historical context for each, identifies information gaps and practical challenges, and proposes solutions for harmonizing the two sources of information. This is done through the use of a hypothetical forest management case study aimed at providing a conceptual framework for forest managers seeking to design forest monitoring systems. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and suggests further reading.
Models, sensors and decision support systems in greenhouse cultivation
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Model-based decision support and automation in horticulture is accompanied today by the development of Industry 4.0, that is, today’s greenhouses are advanced production systems with the possibility of controlling the indoor climate (and with that, the crop) very accurately with intelligent algorithms based on models and/or data. This chapter discusses the potential of sensors and models within the growing mechanisation in greenhouses. The chapter examines differences in development and application of deterministic explanatory and data-based models for real-time control and decision support systems (DSS) using soft sensors and the application of planning tools. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Data for developing, testing, and applying crop and farm models
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This chapter focuses on the data needed for developing, testing, and applying crop and farm models. The chapter reviews the kinds of data available to crop and farm modellers. The chapter describes practices concerning storage, exchanging, and combining data from various sources, examining the socio-economic and ethical implications. The chapter looks at the role of companies in data flows and generating recommendations to farmers. The chapter presents examples of successful use of agricultural data, both for science and for agricultural practice. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Advances in greenhouse design
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Greenhouses are effective structures for producing high-value crops since they use natural resources as well as production inputs very efficiently. Consequently, greenhouses occupy large areas of the world. This chapter examines recent developments in greenhouse designs on three relevant production systems, namely low-tech greenhouses, high-tech greenhouses and the Chinese solar greenhouse (CSG). The chapter reviews advances in natural ventilation, light transmission and passive improvement of night-time conditions. The chapter discusses new greenhouse roofing for glasshouses as well as the concept of the semi-closed greenhouse, a type of high-tech greenhouse. The chapter describes types of CSGs and relevant technical features of CSGs in northeast, northwest and northern China.
Automation and robotics in greenhouses
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This chapter provides an overview of the state of the art of automation technology in protected cultivation and looks ahead to future directions for achieving further progress in this field. The chapter provides a generic description of the greenhouse crop production process and then uses it as a reference for reviewing the state of the art in automation and robotics. The chapter explains those tasks in protected cultivation that have already been automated and identifies those tasks that are predominantly still the domain of human labour. The chapter outlines the requirements for the technology capable of doing these tasks. The chapter describes the ongoing research in automation and robotics in protected cultivation and concludes with a description of the challenges facing high-tech systems in protected cultivation.
Advances in screenhouse design and practice for protected cultivation
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The increasing world population, along with water and land shortages and climate change, lead growers worldwide to protected cultivation systems. The screenhouse, built with a skeleton of basic construction elements enveloped by a porous screen, is one example of such systems. Another protected cultivation system is a screen cover without sidewalls, usually used for shading only. This chapter describes common types of structures and materials used by growers and discusses studies where microclimate and evapotranspiration were measured and modelled under the screens. The chapter considers the question of whether it is possible to increase water-use efficiency in screenhouses. The chapter reviews studies in which product quality under screens was examined. Finally, the chapter draws attention to knowledge gaps and suggests future research directions.
Key challenges in forest management
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Forest managers face many challenges, both now and in the future, driven by society’s need as well as by the impacts dictated by the climate change threat. Growing populations will also strain the forest’s ability to provide traditional products sustainably while catering to the growing demands for ecosystem services not previously and explicitly managed for across forested landscapes. The objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of current and pending threats and challenges for forest managers around the world as well as current research focussed on these topics. The chapter starts with reviewing current and future concerns in forest management, which include climate change impacts, changing land-use and ecosystem services. Key research areas such as climate change impacts (e.g. species shifts, growth rates, extreme weather events, water, forest pests and invasive species), urbanization/forest fragmentation (e.g. wildland–urban interface) and ecosystem services (e.g. valuation) are discussed. A case study on forest management in North America is included.
The synergism of biocontrol and plant resistance: a path to advance IPM to higher levels of integration
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This chapter reviews the future evolution of integrated pest management (IPM). It identifies the ways modern agriculture has disrupted plant defences and the control of pests by their natural enemies. The chapter discusses ways of restoring and enhancing these controls both through breeding and the use of biological methods. It demonstrates how IPM can be taken to the next level with a case study of a pome fruit IPM program in the Pacific Northwest of the United States.
Integrated pest management (IPM) of nematodes
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Limited and fragmented information is available about long-term research efforts that demonstrate the value and impact of integrated pest management to combat nematodes. This particularly applies to major cereal (maize, wheat and rice) and leguminous (peanut, soybean and sunflower) crops on which this chapter focusses, and the economically most important nematode pests (root-knot, cyst and root-lesion nematodes) damaging such crops. A summary on the basic biology and morphology of nematodes is given, followed by integral and popular strategies (cultural, biological and chemical control and host plant resistance) used worldwide. A case study demonstrates the integration of multiple nematode control strategies, followed by the novel use of transgenic crops with nematode resistance, challenges faced in terms of nematode management under changing environmental conditions and practices (focussing on minimal disturbance of soil and conservation of soil-fauna communities) and the challenge posed by weeds as hosts of major nematode pests is also discussed.
Short chain organic acids: microbial ecology and antimicrobial activity in the poultry gastrointestinal tract
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Interest continues for the development and implementation of alternative feed additives that limit foodborne pathogens in the poultry gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and benefit the host. Short chain organic acids have been employed as feed additives for a number of years. They have been primarily used for their antimicrobial properties in the feed as well as in the GIT after being consumed by the bird. Short chain organic acids are also produced by indigenous gastrointestinal bacteria during fermentation. These are primarily generated in the cecum which is the site where most of GIT microbial fermentation occurs. Short chain organic acids are also used as feed additives for poultry. When added to feeds, they can limit foodborne pathogens such as Salmonella in the feed and potentially in the GIT. This review will cover current findings and future prospects on poultry GIT responses to short chain organic acids generated by GIT fermentative microorganisms and antimicrobial efficacy when birds are fed treated feeds.
Whole-farm system models in practice: diverse applications
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The challenges of contemporary agriculture are causing farmers to seek models of whole-farm goals, which requires mathematically-based modeling grounded in the latest scientific understanding of animal growth and reproduction, crop physiology, soil and environmental sciences, as well as economics and human relations. Such models are often invaluable tools in the process of undertaking nuanced, multifaceted management decisions at the farm system level. This chapter explores model selection and, through a series of case studies, whole farm modelling in both smallholder systems and single enterprise farm businesses. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Advances in organic greenhouse cultivation
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Organic greenhouse horticulture has expanded considerably during the last decades to meet consumer demand. Organic greenhouse cultivation constitutes a sustainable alternative to mitigate producer challenges related to new pest infestation, weed infestation, extreme temperature events, drought, frequent episodes of hail as well as strong rain and wind, and soil erosion. This chapter highlights the current regulation and situation of organic greenhouse cultivation in the world, presents yield gap and profitability compared with conventional farming and describes recent advances related to robust plant material, soil and soilless growing systems, soil health, biostimulants, fertilisation and water management, plant protection and quality value of organic products. Finally, the chapter considers the environmental impact of organic greenhouse cultivation and future trends in this area, providing detailed guidance on further reading.
Sustainable systems for integrated fish and vegetable production: new perspectives on aquaponics
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Aquaponics integrates fish and seafood rearing (aquaculture) with soilless production of horticultural produce (hydroponics). Engineered systems of this kind meet the challenges posed by global population growth, urbanization, global climate change, limited access to resources for agricultural activities and sustainability. This chapter reviews and analyses three distinct habitats in the aquaponics system: the fish rearing unit, the water treatment unit and the crop production unit. The chapter describes processes and mechanisms relevant to aquaponics, separating loops and flows within the culture system (water, trophic levels, microorganisms) and impacts on global cycles (food safety, sustainability). Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this field.
Advances in understanding and managing fungal and other diseases of forest trees
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Forest diseases are caused by pathogens and they affect all parts of the tree, including roots, stems, and leaves. Forest diseases result in volume losses and decreases in wood quality, which are considered detrimental in stands managed for timber products; however, in the context of a biodiversity reserve, diseases are important for nutrient cycling and habitat creation as agents of succession. This chapter uses a case study approach to describe how various forest pathogens affect trees and introduces strategies to reduce damage caused by forest pathogens in managed stands. The chapter introduces parasitic flowering plants, rust pathogens, diseases caused by Phytophthora spp., as well as abiotic disease. The chapter discusses the importance of exotic forest pathogens and the damage several of these pathogens have caused to ecosystems following their introduction, establishment, and spread. The chapter also addresses how climate change might change host–pathogen interactions, leading to differences in disease expression. Finally, the chapter provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Advances in sequence technologies for generating poultry gut microbiome data
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The important role of the microbiome in the immune system, nutrient digestion, and disease diagnosis and prevention has been well documented in both humans and animals. In poultry, the microbiome community changes between different organs, and the perturbation of gut microbiota can lead to intestinal infections and respiratory diseases, which result in enormous economic losses. The advances in several high-throughput sequencing techniques have generated big sequencing data for microbiome analysis. In this review, we go over the traditional molecular tools used to analyze gut microbiome in poultry, such as T-RFLP, DGGE, and TGGE, clone library sequencing using the Sanger method, the development of next-generation sequencing techniques such as Roche 454, Illumina, and Ion Torrent. We also discuss third-generation sequencing techniques including Pacbio SMRT sequencing and Oxford Nanopore, both of which were developed to generate length reads. Finally, we discuss other omics such as metagenomics, metatranscriptomics, and metaproteomics, which are necessary for studying microbiome functions.
The role of essential oils and other botanicals in optimizing gut function in poultry
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The poultry industry has long trusted antibiotics for their benefits in chicken production such as improved feed conversion, growth promotion and disease control. However, the emergence of bacterial antimicrobial resistance has resulted in the U.S. federal guidelines prompting the animal industries to voluntarily phase out antibiotic growth promotion in food animals through changes in labelling and soliciting veterinary oversight on their therapeutic use. This situation has resulted in the search for alternatives that would fill the gap antibiotics once occupied. This chapter discusses the role of essential oils and botanicals in improving gut function in poultry, focussing on four major functions of phytobiotics that could potentially contribute to gut health: digestive conditioning, antimicrobial property, immunomodulation and gut microbiota modulation. The chapter discusses the impact of these functions on performance as well as carcass and egg quality. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Robot-enhanced insect pest control: reality or fantasy?
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This chapter focusses on the incorporation of robotics and automation to detect insect pests within integrated pest management (IPM) programmes. The chapter reviews current technology that could be utilized for this purpose, and identifies significant barriers to implementing such an approach, including locating and identifying small and difficult-to-observe pests. The chapter provides examples of how technology is already being used or developed to solve real-world IPM problems, including uses of robotic technology to control insects, mites, nematodes and weeds. Finally, the chapter makes some predictions about how such technology may affect IPM in the next decade or two.
Omics technologies for connecting host responses with poultry gut function
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Optimal gut function is of importance to the whole metabolism of a chicken and thus also central to efficient feed conversion and optimal meat and egg production. State-of-the-art Omics technologies are currently available to gain a deeper insight into animal physiology. This chapter summarizes the latest studies using different omics technologies (e.g. genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics) to identify the response of chicken intestinal cells to various effectors. First, the functions, physiology and microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract in chicken are discussed. Then follows a section on Omics technologies, how they can be used and what they can tell researchers. The authors then present a section on the application of omics to the study of the chicken intestine. The chapter concludes with a case study on the proteomic analysis of the mucosal layer of the chicken gut, and a look to future trends in research.
Modelling impacts of agriculture on freshwater
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Agriculture greatly impacts water resources due to the high volumes of irrigation water consumed in crop production. Additionally, agricultural activities affect hydrological cycles through land-use changes and soil modifications, which may lead to pollution of water bodies. On a local level, these impacts and specific improvement options can be assessed by risk assessment and integrated water resource management. Modelling the impacts of agriculture on freshwater comprehensively is a difficult task as freshwater can be impacted by water consumption and also by water pollution. These are influenced by direct agricultural activities (e.g. irrigation) as well as by indirect activities for the production of agricultural inputs (e.g. fertilizers, agrochemicals). This chapter looks at modelling the impacts of agriculture on freshwater. Following an introduction, the authors go on to look at modelling in relation to water consumption, water quality and salinization. The chapter also covers soil quality, land use and both geographical and temporal variation. Case studies are also included.
Chemical control in IPM systems: advances in selective pesticides and application systems
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The European Union has adopted integrated pest management (IPM) as a policy as part of the Sustainable Use of Pesticides Directive, in which chemical pesticides are used as a last resort. Bringing IPM into the policy for crop protection has focussed attention on using more selective pesticides and especially biopesticides, but to implement IPM well-trained practitioners are required to provide farmers with the support they need to achieve informed pest management. This chapter examines selective pesticides, the importance of dose selection, timing of chemical pesticide treatments and changes in pesticide application technology. The chapter offers an overview of biopesticides, baculoviruses and their application, and the application of bacterial biopesticides. The chapter also looks at the application of entomopathogenic nematodes, release of predators and parasitoids as a form of pest management and the use of pheromones.
Controlling pathogens in the poultry gut
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Food-borne pathogenic bacteria are all too often found as commensal or transient organisms in the gastrointestinal tract of poultry. Many of these organisms do not reveal themselves through illness in the bird, although some do. Therefore, it is important to find ways to apply treatment to all members of a flock, rather than simply treating ‘sick’ birds. This chapter describes the gastrointestinal microbiota of poultry before going on to consider alternatives to the use of antibiotics. The chapter considers the use of organic acids, bacteriophages, sodium chlorate and pro- and prebiotic approaches.
Assessing the environmental impact of ruminant production systems
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One of the most common methods to evaluate environmental footprints of farming systems is life cycle assessment (LCA). Although LCA itself is suitable for and adopted by a wide range of industries far beyond agriculture, what separates agriculture, and in particular pasture-based ruminant production systems, is the high degree of uncertainties associated with physical, chemical and biological processes that underpin production. Through a review of recent literature and a quantitative case study, this chapter explores how the practical trade-off between feasibility and scientific rigour should be addressed in the field of ruminant production systems. Finally, the chapter provides detailed guidance on where to look for further information in the field.
The environmental impact of valorising agricultural by-products
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Agricultural by-products, that is primary residue, industrial by-products and animal manure, are an important source of nutrients and carbon for maintaining soil quality and crop production but can also be valorised through treatment pathways such as fermentation, incineration or a combination of these called bio-refinery. Here, we provide an overview of opportunity to reduce environmental impact of valorising agricultural by-products. We estimate the available by-products in Northwestern Europe as a case study and the maximum and realistic greenhouse gas reduction potentials. Availability, collectability, the original use and environmental impact including land use changes, soil carbon sequestration and pollution swapping are discussed as critical factors when valorising agricultural by-products.
Advances in cultivation of chestnuts
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Chestnut (Castanea), within the family Fagaceae, is a multipurpose tree that produces nuts and timber, as well as holds an important place in landscape and culture. The aim of this chapter is to present the current state of global cultivation of the Castanea species, in terms of its ecological characterization, propagation methods and multifunctionality. The chapter will examine chestnut’s economic profitability and the importance of wood and fruit production for promoting the resilience and sustainability of chestnut cultivation. The chapter describes specific regional characteristics of chestnut cultivation around the world. The authors include sections on the ecological conditions affecting the growth of chestnuts, chestnut management as coppice forest or orchards, propagation methods (including grafting, layering, cutting and micropropagation) and orchard establishment and management (including training, pruning, fertilization and irrigation). The harvest and storage of chestnuts and pest management in chestnut orchards are also covered.
Agroecosystem models for delivering ecosystem services
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Agroecosystems are complex representations of the interactions occurring among multiple biological systems at the field and landscape scale. Models simulating these interactions across time and space are not very mature and expanding our current knowledge on crop, pest, and soils models provides a framework for how we use agroecological models to quantify a range of ecosystem services. This chapter examines the need for an agroecosystem approach, outlining the importance of plants, soils, pests, diseases, weeds and pollinators as part of the agroecosystem. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Advances in understanding agroecosystems ecology and its applications in integrated pest management
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Achieving the theoretical goal of integrated pest management (IPM), maintaining pest populations at levels below an economic threshold through a combination of tactics, has so far proved difficult to attain. Production systems, particularly specialized commodity production based on economies of scale, place constraints on IPM, but managing agroecosystem health is an alternative that incorporates IPM into its multiple goals and benefits. This chapter describes the shift in focus required for agroecosystem health from particular commodities to diversified landscapes and agroecosystems, from pest suppression to ecosystem services, from technological inputs to ecological knowledge and experience, and from management by individuals to management by human populations and organizations. The chapter presents some detailed case studies of IPM via agroecosystem management and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
