Peter Fantke, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
Modelling the environmental impacts of pesticides in agriculture
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The active ingredients of pesticides, which are widely applied in agriculture worldwide, are important contributors to global human and ecological health burden. Modelling emissions and related human toxicity and ecotoxicity impacts of agricultural pesticides in environmental and life cycle assessment is therefore crucial, but also comes with challenges. This chapter provides an overview of how pesticides are currently addressed in emission inventory and impact assessment, along with a case study focusing on emission, exposure and toxicity quantification of four selected pesticides applied to potatoes in a real-life scenario, and details on remaining challenges and ways forward. The chapter discusses the relevance of spatiotemporal variability in modelling emissions and the toxicity and ecotoxicity impacts of pesticides, and how substitution scenarios can be used to identify more sustainable pesticides. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Jeferson M. Lourenço, Darren S. Seidel and Todd R. Callaway, University of Georgia, USA
Antibiotics and gut function: historical and current perspectives
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Antibiotics play a central role in human health, and the sensitivity of bacteria to these compounds is a natural resource that must be husbanded to keep from losing their effectiveness from increasing antibiotic resistance in the environment. This chapter places the use of antibiotics in poultry production in its historical context to understand the benefits that antibiotics have conferred on animal production to date. The chapter considers past, present and future use of antibiotics, focusing on the use of bacteriocins and phytochemicals.
Benoît Gabrielle, AgroParisTech and Université Paris-Saclay, France; and Pietro Goglio, Wageningen University, The Netherlands and Cranfield University, UK
Improvement options for agricultural crop production for food, feed and bioenergy
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Agriculture currently faces the dual challenges of both having to increase its overall biomass output while contributing to the mitigation of pressing global environmental changes. It is therefore urged to reconcile these challenges by drastically increasing its performance in the short term. This chapter reviews the agronomic options available at the crop production level to participate in this effort, from single practices to a more integrated systems approach. Strategies such as improved tillage, fertilizer management, the inclusion of legumes in crop rotations, irrigation management, intercropping, and disease and weed management are appraised using the life-cycle assessment framework, the use of which currently prevails to inform on sustainability. The chapter concludes with a summary of these options and suggests avenues for future research whether into a better estimation of performance or towards the implementation of low-impact crop production systems.
Sara M. Villani, North Carolina State University, USA; Kerik D. Cox, Cornell University, USA; and George W. Sundin, Michigan State University, USA
Optimizing disease management in fruit cultivation
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Sustainable management of plant diseases is a perennial challenge for pome fruit and stone fruit producers in humid regions throughout the world. Delayed orchard profitability, decreased orchard longevity, reduction in fruit quality and unsalable fruit caused by fungal and bacterial diseases of tree fruit result in devastating economic losses annually. Globally, tree fruit growers are increasingly relying on an integrated management approach through the incorporation of predictive modelling and biological, chemical and cultural control methods to mitigate disease-associated losses. This chapter provides an introduction of tree fruit production and general management paradigms, followed by a discussion of main pre-harvest fungal and bacterial diseases, methods of integrated disease management and a discussion of advances in technology for pathogen detection and disease management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future challenges of the tree fruit industry and provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Mark Mazzola and Shashika S. Hewavitharana, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in understanding tree fruit-rhizosphere microbiome relationships for enhanced plant health
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Host–microbe interactions in the rhizosphere influence numerous processes that determine plant productivity and health. The rhizo-microbiome influences functions ranging from protection of the plant from pathogen attack to enhanced nutrient availability and uptake. This chapter examines the use of ‘omics’ technologies to address key issues in plant–microbe interactions including the effects of the rhizosphere microbiome in determining plant health and production when interacting with their environment. After examining the contribution of the microbiome in directing plant responses to their environment, the chapter provides two case studies focusing on manipulation of the rhizosphere microbiome to optimize crop production on orchard replant sites. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Eduardo Augusto dos Santos Rosa, Maria Cristina Seixas Martins Morais, Ivo Vaz Oliveira, Berta Maria de Carvalho Gonçalves Macedo and Ana Paula Calvão Moreira da Silva, Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences
Uses and health benefits of chestnuts
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Production and consumption of chestnut has shown a steady increase in recent years, driven by both increased consumer awareness about food composition and the health benefits of a nut-rich diet. This chapter provides an overview of the uses and health benefits of chestnuts (Castanea spp.). Starting with an overview of recent research on chestnuts, the chapter goes on to review the general uses of chestnuts in the Mediterranean and Europe. The specific nutritional features of chestnuts are discussed, as are the effects of cooking on the quality of chestnuts. The importance of good post-harvest handling and storage are considered – chestnuts are extremely susceptible to damage during storage. Uses, such as in growing media or skin care products, for chestnut co-products (bur, shell, leaves, curing wastewater etc.) left behind by processing are discussed. The chapter concludes with a comprehensive overview of the health benefits of eating chestnuts.
Dr Dr Jose Blasco
Advances in automated in-field grading of harvested crops
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Mechanical harvesting machines such as canopy and trunk shakers are widely used for yield collection from some crops; however, most fruits and vegetables produced for the fresh market have to be collected manually. This chapter reviews the current state of mechanized collection technology, such as the development of harvest-assist platforms, as well as the possibilities of these machines to incorporate artificial vision systems to perform an in-field pre-grading of the product. The main advantages of each system are discussed and the problems encountered in the field are described. A case study on the use of harvest-assist platforms in citrus orchards is presented describing prototypes that are capable of both inspecting collected fruits and separating them into categories using computer vision.
Duane Greene, University of Massachusetts, USA
Optimizing plant growth, yield and fruit quality with plant bioregulators
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Plant bioregulators (PBRs) are used extensively in the tree fruit production industry. They influence many processes in a plant including shoot growth, branch angle, bud break, flower bud formation and fruit abscission, ripening, shape and finish, and as such can be used to optimize not only plant growth but also fruit yield and quality. The chapter starts with a classification of PBRs, followed by a detailed discussion on the application of PBRs and their use such as in the development and maintenance of tree structure, and also the control of vegetative growth. The use of PBRs in crop load management and their influence on flowering and fruit set is also presented concluding with sections on both the pre-harvest application of PBRs and their use in improving fruit shape and appearance.
Keizi Kiritani, formerly National Institute of Agro-Environmental Sciences, Japan
Understanding agroecosystems and pest management: from chemical control to integrated biodiversity management
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Agroecology analyzes the different components that make up an ecosystem such as soils, climate, plants and animals, and their interactions within agricultural landscapes. Bringing together a wide range of disciplines, agroecology encompasses different scales from the individual field through to farms and landscapes and, even, complete food systems from farm to fork. There is a strong focus on protecting natural resources to ensure sustainable agricultural production. This chapter explores agroecology and pest management practices, using the example of a particular agroecosystem: rice paddies in Japan. It discusses how an understanding of agroecosystem dynamics explains the limitations of early attempts at chemical control of rice insect pests. It also shows how this understanding has informed the development of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies and is now leading to new concepts such as integrated biodiversity management (IBM). Finally, the chapter explores how agroecological concepts can help address challenges such as invasive species and climate change.
Prof Prof Oscar E. Liburd
Integrated pest management of mites
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Plant feeding mites are major pests of agricultural crops and ornamentals. They disrupt physiological processes, change the physical appearance of the plant, and transmit diseases to crops. This chapter takes a holistic approach to integrated mite management by reviewing the basics of mite taxonomy and morphology and then studying key plant mite families focusing on major plant feeding mite pests as well as natural predators that regulate these mite populations. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading on the subject.
Bekir Erol Ak, University of Harran, Turkey
Advances in cultivation of pistachio
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Pistachio is grown most intensively in Iran, Syria, Turkey and the USA. The other pistachio-producing regions are the Near East, North Africa and Southern Europe. The most important characteristics of pistachio nuts from a marketing viewpoint are large size, high percentage of shell splitting, low percentage of blank nuts, high oil and protein content, regular bearing and high percentage of green kernels (although this is a varietal characteristic, it is also related to altitude and time of harvest). This chapter discusses recent advances in the cultivation of pistachio. Following an introduction, a section on pistachio genetics is provided. Then follows information on the climatic requirements of pistachio, which requires a period of chilling as well as a hot, dry climate for fruiting. The flower and fruit characteristics of pistachio are then discussed with information provided on how to plan orchards as pistachio is a dioecious species. Both pistachio cultivars and rootstocks are listed. Propagating techniques (both by seed and budding) are then presented, followed by a discussion on establishing, planting and managing orchards. The chapter concludes with sections on pests and diseases and how to improve crop yield.
Dr Dr Ksenija Gasic
Advances in fruit genetics
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Sustainability of fruit production worldwide is heavily dependent on advances in fruit genetics. Changing environments, innovative production systems, increased pest and pathogen pressure and fluctuating consumer preferences are forcing fruit producers to adjust at a higher pace than ever before. This chapter provides an overview of the advances in fruit genetics as they pertain to discoveries in fruit quality and disease resistance, and their application to the improvement of fruit production and sustainability. The chapter looks at developments in genomic mapping, marker-assisted breeding and biotechnology. The chapter also examines the genetics of fruit quality and disease resistance, and includes a detailed case study on hot spot on chromosome 4 in Prunus. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Özlem Tokuşoğlu, Celal Bayar University, Turkey
Advances in understanding the nutritional profile and health benefits of almonds
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Almond (Prunus dulcis) is widely grown in countries with a Mediterranean climate and is considered a healthy source of many nutrients. This chapter discusses the nutritional composition of almonds and, in particular, those nutrients with nutraceutical properties, from phenolics and fatty acids to phytosterols. The author shows how this unique nutritional profile translates into health benefits related to almond consumption. Following an introduction, a section is provided on phenolics in almonds (including a breakdown on the compounds found in almond skins). Then follows a section on lipid and fatty acid content; here information is provided on the fatty acid composition of almonds from different cultivars, and also a comparison with other nut crops including hazelnut, peanut, pistachio, and walnut. Phytosterols and tocopherols are then discussed as almonds are considered a good source of both nutrients. The chapter concludes with a section on the health benefits of almonds.
Alasdair Sykes, Cairistiona Topp and Robert Rees, Scotland’s Rural College (SRUC), UK
The use of farm-level models to assess the environmental impact of livestock production
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In light of a changing climate, the international community is committed to taking action to reduce overall levels of greenhouse gas emissions. Agriculture will play an important role here given that agriculture and land use are responsible globally for around 24% of such greenhouse gas emissions. This chapter looks at the use of farm-level models to assess and mitigate the environmental impact of agriculture, with a focus on greenhouse gas emissions and livestock production. Sections are first included on the rationale for environmental modelling in agriculture and methodologies for accounting for agricultural emissions. The authors then describe a range of tools and critically assess their use for farm-level benchmarking and mitigation assessment. The chapter also discusses the technical aspects of modelling farm-level emissions and environmental impacts within the defined framework, in order to provide a synthesis of the current state of the art and a basis for the consideration of specific development objectives.
Stefano Carpin, University of California-Merced, USA; Ken Goldberg, University of California- Berkeley, USA; Stavros Vougioukas, University of California-Davis, USA; Ron Berenstein, University of California-Berkeley, USA; and Josh Viers, University of Cal
The use of intelligent/autonomous systems in crop irrigation
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Climate change, combined with the need to feed an increasing population with decreasing arable land, requires to radically re-think the way water is delivered to crops to increase efficiency and minimize wasted water. This chapter examines how robotic and artificial intelligence can be used to improve precision irrigation in vineyards. The chapter pays particular attention to robot-assisted precision irrigation delivery (RAPID), a novel system currently being developed and tested at the University of California. The chapter presents preliminary results from RAPID testing and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Ron Berenstein, University of California-Berkeley, USA
The use of agricultural robots in crop spraying/fertilizer applications
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Spraying pesticides is a main element of agriculture worldwide, since 30% to 35% of crop losses can be prevented when harmful insects and diseases are eliminated by applying pesticides. A robotic sprayer can help reduce pesticide application while removing the human operator from the hazardous pesticide environment. This chapter provides an introduction to robotic sprayers and describes in detail a case study of the development of a smart robotic sprayer with its key components. The chapter also describes the operational framework developed for such a robot that supports human-robot collaboration. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Andreas Maurer
Nested association mapping in barley to identify extractable trait genes
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Wild germplasm contains a wealth of alleles, which are useful in modern agriculture. Nested association mapping (NAM) makes use of wild germplasm by developing multi-parental populations after crossing a single elite cultivar to a number of exotic donors. The resulting NAM lines are subsequently characterized through SNP genotyping and quantitative trait phenotyping. Both data sets are finally merged to conduct genome-wide association studies (GWAS) leading to the identification of quantitative trait loci (QTL), which are involved in controlling these traits. This chapter describes the principles of QTL mapping and NAM mapping, and outlines the sequencing the barley genome. The chapter includes a number of detailed barley NAM case studies from around the world. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Dr Dr Linda J. Thomson
Ecological impacts of pesticides and their mitigation within IPM systems
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Chemicals, frequently the main method of pest control in agriculture, have negative effects on natural enemies that also control pests. Mitigation of pesticide impacts depends on increasing the role of natural enemies, reducing chemical application while still controlling pests and maintaining yields. This chapter outlines the ways in which pesticide use leads to increased pest problems and examines strategies for mitigating pesticide impacts. The chapter includes a detailed case study focussing on the diamondback moth (DBM). Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Seyyed Hassan Pishar-Komleh
Life cycle assessment methodology for agriculture: some considerations for best practices
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Life cycle assessment (LCA), a method that originates from the manufacturing industry, is increasingly applied to agricultural systems as a more holistic perspective and approach with respect to managing agricultural product life cycles. However, the practice of applying LCA to agricultural systems is far from being standardized. Key methodological issues remain unresolved, resulting in a plethora of ways in which LCA is applied in practice that sometimes provides conflicting results. This chapter discusses issues associated with LCA including delimitation of systems boundaries, defining the functional unit, handling co-production, and the choosing of impact assessment methods. This chapter addresses the methodology of agricultural LCA, supported by detailed case studies. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Tan Joon Sheong
Fungal diseases affecting oil palm
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Oil palm is prone to attack by a number of fungal diseases such as basal stem rot (BSR), Fusarium wilt (vascular wilt) and bud rot disease. To date, only partial resistance materials have been identified for BSR. This chapter provides further insights on the BSR that is a major problem for plantations, particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia. The chapter focuses particularly on one variety of BSR, Ganoderma boninense, but also addresses Fusarium wilt and bud rot disease, examining the latest research on resistance materials.
Bo P. Weidema, Aalborg University, Denmark
Assessing socio-economic impacts of agriculture
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Economic assessments remain the dominating form of socio-economic assessment in agriculture; yet practical implementation often suffers from severe limitations. However, much of the early criticism has slowly been adopted and integrated in the form of significant improvements in the consistency and completeness of the economic assessment techniques. What remains is a better integration with the qualitative understandings developed in the social impact assessment community. This chapter is dedicated to impacts that are related to social and economic pressures, such as underpayment of labour, illegitimate resource acquisition and control, and inadequate work conditions. The author describes the development and state of the art of cost–benefit assessment and social impact assessment in agriculture (Sections 2–6) and their integration into models and tools with an economy-wide supply chain perspective (Section 7). Socio-economic impacts of agricultural development are covered in Sections 8–11. The final section considers the role of certification and fair-trade schemes.
Rolando Cerda, CATIE (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza), Costa Rica; Luis Orozco-Aguilar, The University of Melbourne, Australia; Norvin Sepúlveda, CATIE (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza), Costa Rica;
Tropical agroforestry and ecosystem services: trade-off analysis for better design strategies
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A large body of research has documented a wide list of provisioning and regulating services from tropical agroforestry systems (AFS). This chapter offers an overview of ecosystem services delivered by tropical AFS and presents practical approaches for trade-off analysis between ecosystem services and plant biodiversity for better design (or redesign) and management of AFS. It is structured as follows: Section 2 highlights the main provisioning and regulating services provided by tropical AFS (covering pest and disease regulation, nutrient cycling and soil quality, carbon sequestration, and water regulation); Section 3 provides an overview of practical approaches to assess trade-offs; and Section 4 presents a case study of trade-off analysis. This last section uses data from a so-called Sentinel Landscape–El Tuma-La Dalia in Nicaragua, and is useful to derive recommendations to enhance the delivering of ecosystem services from five AFS (cocoa AFS, coffee AFS, pasture-silvopastoral, grain fields, and homegardens).
Leonard Coop and Brittany S. Barker, Oregon State University, USA
Advances in understanding species ecology: phenological and life cycle modeling of insect pests
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The modeling of insect phenology has been an important component of IPM decision support systems for several decades. This chapter describes general concepts and methods of the systems approach using applied phenology modeling as an example. The authors outline the steps of model construction from a systems perspective, and then discuss funding challenges, types of resources, and major sources of error in phenology model development and implementation. The chapter also compares some of the trade-offs and pitfalls of using linear and non-linear approaches to modeling temperature-development data. It provides an example of using the systems approach by presenting a life cycle systems model for the spotted wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii, a major fruit crop pest in the US and Europe. The model can serve as a way to summarize current knowledge and potential best management practices that can guide the development of IPM programs.
Jean-Marc Roda, CIRAD and Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Use of palm oil for biofuel
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The use of fossil fuels depletes the world’s limited supply of coal, oil and gas and releases stocked CO2 into the atmosphere. Biofuels, derived from biomass, are renewable and carbon neutral, because consumption merely releases CO2 that was taken from the atmosphere by the growing biomass a few years before. However, increasing the use of biofuels could also increase the pressure on ecosystems which must support the production of additional biomass. In this chapter, we review the sustainability of biofuels, discuss their production and economics and consider levels of government support for production and related geopolitical issues.
Yael Edan, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
Human–robot collaboration in agricultural robots
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Agricultural robots are being developed for many on-farm tasks; however, in practice, current working agricultural robotic systems are limited and fully robotized farms are not yet available. This chapter presents initial work carried out in the domain of human–robot collaboration in agriculture and provides directions about how it should be further adopted to enable successful robotization of agricultural operations. The chapter discusses the various interaction roles a human may have with a robot and also the levels of human–robot collaboration. Aspects of interface design are also included, and human–robot collaborative tasks such as detection, navigation, harvesting and spraying are discussed. The chapter concludes with a look on the future of agricultural robotics where the role of humans in agriculture will not be eliminated by introducing robotic systems, and should more autonomous systems become feasible, humans will still be needed for supervision and collaboration.
Philipp H. G. Boeven and C. Friedrich H. Longin, University of Hohenheim, Germany
Prerequisites, procedures and potential of hybrid breeding in wheat
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Hybrid wheat breeding offers great potential to deal with increasing demands for food and feed of future generations. Wheat hybrids possess substantial heterosis for grain yield and can combine disease resistance and quality traits with higher grain yield compared to line cultivars. Moreover, hybrid wheat breeding offers the smart stacking of major dominant genes. Major challenges are the establishment of heterotic groups and the need to increase the cross-pollination capability of wheat for a more efficient hybrid seed production. The chapter describes heterosis in wheat and heterotic groups, before moving on to consider hybrid seed production. Finally, the chapter discusses the relative advantages of hybrid versus line breeding.
Dr Dr Prisila A. Mkenda
Advances in conservation biological control and habitat management for IPM
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Conservation biological control and habitat management are key components of integrated pest management (IPM). These related approaches suppress pests by promoting natural enemy survival and impact and by exploiting direct, suppressive effects on pests from vegetation structure. During this century, substantial progress has been made in research and practical use of these approaches. Chemical ecology, integration of molecular techniques and understanding of landscape and regional scale effects are areas where key developments have been made. This chapter focusses on advances in this field of study. It first discusses the terms ‘conservation biological control’ and ‘habitat management’, and differences between them. It goes on to put forward the rationale for conservation biological control and habitat management, and elucidate advances in these areas. The chapter concludes with a section on future directions – the primary challenge being to translate this body of research knowledge into practicable strategies and on-farm adoption.
Matthew Haas, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Germany; and Martin Mascher, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK) and German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research, Germany
Use of the secondary gene pool of barley in breeding improved varieties
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Barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare L.) is an important crop species and breeding efforts over the past century have resulted in agronomically advanced cultivars. These efforts have also resulted in reduced genetic diversity of elite barley germplasm, hampering the ability of breeders to improve cultivars in the future, especially with respect to new diseases and a changing climate. This chapter describes in detail the use of H. bulbosum to improve cultivated barley. The chapter offers an account of doubled haploid production, introgressions, linkage mapping and next-generation sequencing before looking ahead to future research trends in this area.
Annarita Marrano and David Neale, University of California-Davis, USA
Towards sustainable production of walnut (Juglans regia L.)
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Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.) is the only species of the genus Juglans widely cultivated for nut production. Over the last 20 years, global walnut production has grown by almost 250%, with China, the United States and Iran as leading producing countries. This enormous growth is mainly attributed to an increase in regular consumption of walnut due to its high nutritional value and numerous benefits to human health. Walnut breeding programmes are facing the challenge of increasing production sustainably because of climate change and human population growth. This chapter reviews recent efforts and achievements in ecologically and economically friendly walnut cultivation. The chapter describes different practices that have been applied in this direction, such as the development of new cultivars with genetic resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, the identification of solutions for reducing input consumption, and the exploration and conservation of genetic diversity in walnut.
Roger R. B. Leakey, International Tree Foundation, UK
A holistic approach to sustainable agriculture: trees, science and global society
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Despite great advances in our understanding of the environmental, social and economic role of trees in farming systems, much remains to be done, especially regarding the wider adoption of agroforestry and its up- and out-scaling. This chapter explores the relationship between trees, science and global society. The chapter offers an overview of tree agroecology, tree domestication, commercialization of trees and the relevance of development studies to this field. The chapter assesses the potential for upscaling the exploitation of trees as a sustainable resource and examines relevant issues connected with policy and agribusiness.
Dr Dr Penka Tsonkova
Managing hedgerows to optimise ecosystem services in agroforestry systems
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Hedgerows are composed of trees and/or shrubs and serve as natural fences, often between pastures and arable fields. This chapter discusses the importance of hedgerow management and maintenance to enhance multiple ecosystem services such as biomass production, wind and water protection, habitat provision and landscape aesthetics. It develops a categorisation of existing hedgerows, applicable to linear woody-features such as hedgerows, windbreaks and riparian buffer strips, and evaluates the condition of each category with respect to multiple ecosystem services. It considers different measures for improving hedgerow condition and provides guidelines for hedgerow restoration and management under consideration of potential conflicts between services. The chapter highlights key constraints to hedgerow management in Germany and applies the developed concept to an agricultural area in the federal state of Brandenburg. It estimates the biomass potential of hedgerows in this area and demonstrates the application of a restoration and management strategy to selected hedgerows under two different scenarios.
Dr Dr Manoj Karkee
Optimizing fruit production efficiencies through mechanization
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Many technological advances in farming have been adopted over the last century transforming various operations. However, some processes in fruit and vegetable production such as tree fruit and berry harvesting have not changed, and crops such as apples, cherries, peaches, blueberries, and strawberries are harvested manually, an operation that is highly labor intensive, demanding a huge seasonal workforce in rural areas around the world. This chapter looks at optimizing fruit production efficiencies through mechanization. Starting with an introductory section on challenges faced in tree fruit harvesting, the chapter goes on to discuss harvest-aid (or labor-assist) machines (or platforms), which as the name suggests, are designed to assist human fruit pickers. Mass and robotic harvesting systems, which on the other hand, are designed to remove the need of manual picking, are also covered, with specific examples included. Fruit conveyance and handling, and mechanical pruning are also discussed.
José Quero-García, INRA, University of Bordeaux, France; Amy Iezzoni, Michigan State University, USA; Gregorio López-Ortega, IMIDA, Spain; Cameron Peace, Washington State University, USA; Mathieu Fouché and Elisabeth Dirlewanger, INRA, University of B
Advances and challenges in cherry breeding
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Cherry breeding is currently carried out in many countries, by public and private programmes, and sweet cherry cultivars are continuously being released. However, classification into clear-cut groups of existing cultivars is difficult, because there is a vast continuum of morphological diversity and many traits are influenced by differences in environmental factors among growing locations, including climate and soil characteristics as well as cultural practices. Despite the high number of available commercial cultivars, both sweet and sour cherry cultivation are still based on a small number of cultivars. After offering a historical overview of cherry breeding, this chapter describes the main achievements in conventional breeding, before considering methodologies and the latest advances and key cultivars. The chapter considers new approaches and phenotyping protocols. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dima Faour-Klingbeil, Plymouth University, UK and DFK for Safe Food Environment, Germany; and Ewen Todd, Ewen Todd Consulting, USA
The role of food safety in food waste and losses
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Food loss and waste from the initial stages of food production to consumption is causing a growing concern. As yet, no food safety issues have been linked to food loss and waste, but numerous incidences of failure to comply with regulatory criteria have resulted in outbreaks of foodborne disease and food recalls due to microbiological or chemical hazards in the food. Overly extensive food safety concerns through exacting regulatory standards and quality control also cause enormous losses worldwide. In this chapter, we review the food safety challenges and drawbacks at each stage of the food supply chain by discussing relevant cases and their contribution to food loss and waste. The disparities between developing and developed countries are addressed to underline the global effect of food safety policies on food production and waste. Recent food safety trends and initiatives are also discussed.
Loretta Bacchetta, Silvia Procacci and Barbara Benassi, ENEA-Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, Italy
Advances in understanding health benefits of hazelnuts
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Hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.) are rich in fats, protein, valuable fibre content, phytonutrients and antioxidants such as vitamin E. The health benefits of hazelnut consumption arise from the synergic action of unsaturated fat or bioactive compounds including plant sterols and dietary fibre. After introducing the key nutritional features of hazelnuts, the chapter describes advances in metabolomics and outlines the results of epidemiological and clinical studies on both healthy and unhealthy volunteers. The chapter considers molecular studies of both nutrigenomics and nutri-epigenomics before looking ahead to future trends in this area of research.
Prof. Prof. Roberto Tuberosa
Leveraging the QTLome to enhance climate change resilience in cereals
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Global food security relies on the release of cultivars more resilient to the negative effects of abiotic stress caused by climate change. Attaining this daunting goal will require a substantial increase in selection gain achieved so far with conventional breeding. To this end, the identification of molecular markers associated with major quantitative trait loci (QTL) for the adaptive response to abiotic stress enables marker-assisted selection, boosts gain from selection while promoting a better understanding of the functional basis of abiotic stress resilience. This chapter presents an update and partial synopsis of the vast literature on the dissection of the QTLome in cereals and how this information is being leveraged toward the release of climate-resilient cultivars. Among the literature available on the topic of this review, the authors have focused on both recent articles as well as a number of reviews thus providing a critical assessment and appreciation of the merits and shortcomings on the adoption of a QTL-centric approach.
Benjamin Wittkop, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany; László Csélènyi, Saatzucht W. von Borries-Eckendorf, Germany; and Wolfgang Friedt and Timm Bernhard, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany
Doubled haploid (DH) production for barley
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Current European barley breeding programs predominately rely on doubled haploid (DH) technology delivering several essential advantages, such as accelerated development of homozygous genotypes, early recognition of major recessive traits, enabling to select faster and much more robust, and facilitation of maintenance breeding starting directly from homozygotes. This chapter gives a general overview of the different methods involved in doubled haploid technology, focusing on their relevance the application in practical barley breeding programs. The chapter examines wide hybridization, anther culture (AC), isolated microspore culture (MC) and parthenogenesis.
Gary Wyatt, Amanda Sames, and Diomy S. Zamora, University of Minnesota, USA
Agroforestry practices: windbreaks
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Windbreaks, also known as vegetative environmental buffers (VEB) or shelterbelts, are a common feature of agricultural systems around the world. These strips of trees, shrubs, and other perennial or annual vegetation perform a number of functions, including providing protection from the wind for homesteads, livestock, and crops; reducing soil erosion; providing protection from drifting snow; providing wildlife habitat; and enhancing aesthetics in agricultural landscapes. This chapter offers an overview of the benefits of windbreaks and examines the process of tree and shrub selection and planting. The chapter looks at designing windbreaks to reduce wind speed and snow drift, as well as describing the use of windbreaks for particulate capture, odor mitigation, and wildlife conservation. Finally, the chapter looks at future research trends in this area and offers detailed suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Dr Dr Paul Burgess
Modelling agroforestry systems
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An agroforestry system is an interconnecting network of woody vegetation with crops and/or animals that work together. This chapter sets out to discuss how to model such systems, which can be highly complex in nature. In the first section, the authors look at the current state of agroforestry modelling, going on to describe two European agroforestry projects that involved modelling, the Silvoarable Agroforestry For Europe (SAFE) project and the AGroFORestry that Will Advance Rural Development (AGFORWARD) project. Looking towards the future, the final section considers current agroforestry modelling needs and potential trends. The authors stress that it is important to note that agroforestry models have a role beyond just agroforestry. Other points for consideration must also include the accessibility of agroforestry models, the benefits of long-term support, the need to know when to stop model development, the availability of data and societal assessments.
J. W. ‘Jerry’ Van Sambeek, formerly of USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station and University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry, USA
Agroforestry for hardwood timber production
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Managing hardwood trees for high-quality sawlogs within the agroforestry practices of alley cropping, silvopasture, forested riparian buffers and upland (windbreaks) buffers means intensively managing relatively wide-spaced trees and a ground cover as a companion crop on the same unit of land. This chapter synthesizes available information on managing such trees for production of veneer and high-quality sawlogs within the agroforestry practices aforementioned. Sections on the impact of ground cover on tree growth are provided, as are growing-space requirements for hardwoods. Pruning recommendations and practices are also covered as pruning is essential for production of high-quality logs of most species in any agroforestry practice. The chapter concludes with a section on log and wood quality and the general requirements of veneer logs (e.g. nearly cylindrical shape with a well-centred heart, a minimum of internal defects, uniform wood colour and texture and properly sawed to length without debris) discussed.
Kenneth Mudge, Cornell University, USA
Agroforestry practices: forest farming
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Forest farming is a relatively low-tech agroforestry practice for the cultivation of shade-tolerant non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as medicinal plants, mushrooms, fruits, nuts, tree syrups and/or nursery stock. It is an ecologically sustainable way for forest owners to generate income, while maintaining forest health (productive conservation). This chapter introduces the concept of forest farming with sections on both estimating yields and how to select sites for such practices. Products with the greatest potential for income generation are covered such as shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes) where logs begin yielding relatively soon after their inoculation, and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) which has greater income-generating potential, although requires many years before it begins to yield. Other NTFPs are also covered including medicinal plants, fruits, nuts and tree syrups. The chapter concludes with two case studies, one on the forest farming of tree nuts and the other on the production of wild leeks (Allium tricoccum).
Salih Kafkas, University of Çukurova, Turkey
Advances in breeding of pistachio
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Pistacia vera L. (pistachio) has the only commercially important edible nuts in the genus, and wild species are used for rootstock. Breeding in pistachio is very slow, time-consuming and expensive due to very long juvenile period and the plant’s dioecious character. This chapter describes the objectives of pistachio breeding, the genetic resources available and the importance of cytogenetics to this field. The chapter then examines the use of molecular markers, genome and transcriptome sequencing, and the role of micropropagation and breeding achievements in the area of pistachio cultivation. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading.
Dr Paul Nelson
Modelling the environmental impacts of agriculture, focusing on oil palm
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Cultivation of crops affects the environment via flows of energy and materials. Impacts are felt in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, surrounding terrestrial ecosystems and the field itself. Models are useful tools for improving our understanding of the processes and predicting how they might be affected by changes in management. Current models range from simple indicators of risk or impact, based on empirical relationships, to dynamic process-based models. Increasingly complex and comprehensive models with increasing spatial and temporal resolution and extent are being developed, mostly by coupling diverse sub-models. This chapter reviews the range of models developed for oil palm systems, and discusses how other existing models might be adapted for oil palm.
Dr Dr Jochen Kumlehn
Site-directed genome modification
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The principle of customized endonuclease-triggered genome modification offers unprecedented opportunities for the elucidation of gene functions and the improvement of crop plant performance. The advantage of this technology lies in the possibility of defining the genomic site where a modification is to be made. This chapter provides an overview of the principles of targeted mutagenesis, the state-of-the-art, current limitations, applications of the technology as well as future perspectives on the use of customizable endonucleases in research and breeding devoted to wheat and barley.
Dr Dr S. Hemming
Sustainable use of energy in greenhouses
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Greenhouse crops are continuously under pressure of infestations by a wide range of pests and diseases. This chapter describes the myriad practices that can contribute to managing pests and diseases, and how to integrate these practices in an ecologically based integrated pest management (IPM) approach. The chapter offers a historical perspective on the development of IPM, together with an explanation of its underlying rationale and main challenges. The chapter discusses the different components of IPM, including sanitation, cultural control, preventative and curative biological control. The chapter examines food web complexities, which inevitably result from integrating multiple biological control agents in a single crop, and offers a detailed case study on IPM implementation in tomato. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Ola Lindroos and Omar Mendoza-Trejo, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Sweden; Pedro La Hera, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) and The Cluster of Forest Technology, Sweden; and Daniel Ortiz Morales, Cranab, Sweden
Advances in using robots in forestry operations
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Forestry operations have a role to play in the supply of fossil-free raw material to present and future bio-economies. Advances in automation will enable forestry operations to be conducted in a more sustainable way, with better consideration of economic, ecological and ergonomic requirements. This chapter examines the challenges associated with using robots in forestry operations, focusing on the importance of knowing the state of the machine, where the machine is located, the location of surrounding objects and how to plan the work. The chapter looks at the challenges of moving around in the forest, reaching and handling the trees, converting trees into products and extracting logs or trees to roadside landings. The chapter also considers remote-controlled operations. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and makes detailed suggestions on further reading.
Hélène Delisle, University of Montreal, Canada
The nutritional value of red palm oil
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There is a great deal of confusion regarding the nutritional value and health effects of palm oil. The controversy and conflicting views still continue on whether or not palm oil is atherogenic. Based on current evidence, it would appear that palm oil has both favourable and unfavourable effects. The primary focus of the present chapter is on the nutritional value of crude (red) palm oil, specifically as a source of vitamin A. The chapter includes a detailed case study on the use of red palm oil in Burkino Faso and looks ahead to future trends for research in this area.
Gregory A. Lang, Michigan State University, USA
Sustainable sweet cherry cultivation: a case study for designing optimized orchard production systems
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Sweet cherries are an inherently challenging crop to produce sustainably, subject to crop loss from climatic events, birds, insects, and diseases, and requiring extensive manual labor due to large tree canopies and small delicate fruits. Nevertheless, cherry production has increased dramatically worldwide for the past two decades, driven by strong consumer demand and innovations in (a) plant materials (self-compatible cultivars and precocious, vigor-limiting rootstocks); (b) efficient orchard training systems; (c) orchard microclimate modification technologies, and (d) physiological knowledge for successful adoption of these tools. This chapter examines sustainable sweet cherry cultivation, starting with opportunities and challenges in this field of research, then follows coverage of cherry morphology, growth, and fruiting. Cultivars and rootstocks for sustainable production are discussed, as are tools for optimizing orchard tree development. The author then explores rationales and innovations for designing optimized orchard production systems. The evolution of very narrow, planar (two-dimensional) canopy architectures that utilize multiple leaders per tree (in proportion to the composite vigor of the rootstock, cultivar, climate, and soil) is proposed as being increasingly important for labor-efficient, partially-mechanized, crop load-optimized production of sweet cherries, as well as that of other tree fruits as well. The chapter concludes with a section on mitigating abiotic and biotic risks to sustainable production.
Dr Dr Tomoya Esumi
Advances in understanding reproductive development in fruit-bearing plants
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In recent years, a physiological understanding of the reproductive development process in fruit trees has accumulated through numerous molecular and genetic studies. Although the physiological traits of perennial or woody fruit trees often hinder studies of the mechanisms driving their reproductive physiology, such studies can provide important new findings in plant science, and beneficial information and new ideas for fruit production. This chapter reviews recent research on the physiology and genetics of reproductive development in fruit trees. Beginning with an introductory overview, the chapter goes on to include sections on the physiology and genetic analysis of reproductive meristem development, bud dormancy and flowering, sexual determination and development of flower structures. The physiology of pollination, fertilization and gametogenesis is also discussed. The chapter concludes with sections on the physiology and genetics of fruit development and phytohormones, and lastly, fruit maturation and ripening.
Ettore Barone and Francesco Sottile, Università di Palermo, Italy
Advances in cultivation of almonds: effects of genotypes, environment and cultural techniques
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The chapter is an overview of the recent research advances in almond scion and rootstock genotypes, orchard management, including irrigation and fertilization, emphasizing an integrated approach including the environment. The chapter looks ahead to areas for further research in almond tree eco-physiology and cultivation, with a special emphasis on key factors determining almond tree yield potential. The discussion highlights the need to adopt the concept of ‘sustainable intensification’ to reduce the environmental impact of modern almond production systems based on high-input, high-return models. Finally, the chapter provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Susanne Dreisigacker, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Mexico
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in wheat
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Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have become a very popular method for dissecting the genetic basis of complex traits in plants, including wheat. The benefits of GWAS are a relatively detailed mapping resolution and that no population development is required. The surge of interest in GWAS has been fueled by recent developments in genomics that allow for rapid identification of genetic markers. This chapter describes the features of GWAS, including high-density genotyping, phenotyping and GWAS design. The chapter explains the use of GWAS for controlling population structure and familial relatedness, considering the estimation of linkage disequilibrium (LD) and considering issues of research replication and validation. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in research in this field and includes a detailed case study on genomic regions conferring increased grain weight.
Federica Blando and Miriana Durante, Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), Italy; and B. Dave Oomah, formerly Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Canada
Bioactive/nutraceutical compounds in fruit that optimize human health benefits
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In the past decade, numerous reports demonstrate that high consumption of fruits and vegetables is beneficial for health, being associated with a reduced risk of degenerative diseases. This chapter provides a brief description of the chemistry of bioactive compounds (BCs) and their presence in temperate fruits, and discusses recent advances in strategies towards improving sustainable crop production for nutraceuticals. The chapter examines polyphenols, carotenoids, vitamin C and production practices that influence bioactive compound synthesis. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Stefano Savi, Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil, Malaysia
The palm oil market: growth and trends
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For many years, palm oil has proved to be the most productive, highest yielding oil crops, with a yield 4 to 10 times higher than any other vegetable oil, a factor that has helped palm oil become the most consumed vegetable oil in the world. This chapter provides an overview of oil palm cultivation and palm oil production throughout the world, with a particular focus on Indonesia and Malaysia, and describes the growth of the palm oil industry and the nature of the global market for palm oil. The chapter also addresses the diverse ecological and social impacts of palm oil and suggests the directions that palm oil production might take in the future.
Ramón Molina-Bravo, Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, Costa Rica; Margaret Leigh Worthington, University of Arkansas, USA; and Gina E. Fernandez, North Carolina State University, USA
Advances and challenges in raspberry and blackberry breeding
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Raspberries and blackberries (Rubus spp.) are important fruit crops that have gained substantial economic interest. Since 1996, berry production has been increasing. With the advent of economic and environmental constraints, sustainability is also becoming increasingly important. This chapter focuses on the upcoming challenges, the available breeder tools and the future of breeding for sustainability of raspberry and blackberry crops. The chapter examines desirable traits for sustainability, molecular tools and resources, and looks ahead to future trends in the breeding of raspberries and blackberries.
Neil S. Mattson, Cornell University, USA; and Christopher J. Currey, Iowa State University, USA
Advances in nutrient management in greenhouse cultivation
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Precise nutrient management is essential to produce high-quality and high-yielding greenhouse crops while limiting cost and environmental damage. Traditional nutrient management strategies are being replaced by new types of fertilizers combined with precision delivery and management. This chapter reviews fundamental greenhouse crop nutrition concepts and including current methods of nutrient delivery with the importance of integration nutrition with irrigation systems. Different approaches to managing nutrients in soilless substrates and hydroponic systems, both conventional and organic, are summarized, as is the emerging role of beneficial microbes and biostimulants in greenhouse nutrient management. Fertilizer strategies to improve crop postharvest shelf life and reduce fertilizer leaching are also presented, as are the fundamental components of a comprehensive monitoring and management plan for greenhouse crop nutrition. This chapter concludes with a discussion of future prospects for nutrient management, as well as resources for readers to look for further information.
Nazim Gruda, University of Bonn, Germany
Assessing the impact of environmental factors on the quality of greenhouse produce
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In recent years, product quality has become more and more important, due to consumer concerns paired with well-being and a healthy lifestyle. Product quality is a complex, multidimensional and multi-factorial issue that relates to different factors. In this chapter, the objective, measurable and intrinsic aspects of quality related to the reaction of greenhouse plants to several environmental and pre-harvest factors is outlined. With reference to studies carried out from the beginning of this century, the effects of such factors on visual, organoleptic and nutritional product quality properties are presented. The main factors influencing the quality of produce are covered, these include assessing the impact of light, temperature, air humidity, carbon dioxide enrichment, root environment and growing techniques and cultural practices. The degree of produce maturity and ripeness at harvest is also discussed. The chapter concludes with a look towards future trends in research.
Yuen May Choo, formerly The International Society for Fat Research (ISF), USA; and YewAi Tan, formerly Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Malaysia
Research trends in oil palm cultivation
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Since its establishment as a commercial crop in Malaysia in 1917, palm oil has become the most important vegetable oil traded in the world. Its standing in the world market is attributed to the oil’s versatile applications, stable supply and affordability. With the estimated global world population reaching nine billion by 2050, the supply of palm oil must grow to help meet the demand for vegetable oils. This chapter summarises the trends in research which have been driven by key challenges faced by the industry. It covers the establishment of oil palm as an economic crop, the improvement of yield by selective breeding, the use of genomics to expedite research and a holistic approach to remodelling cultivation systems for eco-efficiency.
Timm Bernhard, Wolfgang Friedt and Benjamin Wittkop, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany
Challenges and developments in hybrid breeding of barley
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Over a long period of more than a century, breeding and improvements in cropping systems have led to a constant increase in grain yield in barley. Due to its autogamous propagation, commercial barley varieties are normally true inbred lines or doubled haploid lines normally having completely homozygous genomes. Hybrid breeding in autogamous cereals such as barley, however, is still in its infancy. This chapter describes the principles of heterosis in barley and its potential for yield enhancement. The chapter explains the potential of hybrid breeding in winter barley and examines the challenges associated with broadening the genetic basis for heterosis in winter barley. The chapter describes the cytoplasmic male sterility system for hybrid seed production in barley and looks at the environmental and genetic effects of hybrid breeding on the stability of cytoplasmic male sterility.
Peter Toivonen, Pacific Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada
Pre- and post-harvest strategies to optimize fruit quality and shelf life
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Ensuring a sustainable tree fruit industry with regard to post-harvest quality management involves engaging approaches and technologies that encompass both pre- and post-harvest issues. The adoption of new, non-destructive technologies is important for quantifying and evaluating the challenge of quality management of fruit in post-harvest systems. This chapter examines the challenge of managing biological variance to improve the success of post-harvest technologies. The chapter looks at ways of measuring harvest maturity and improving sorting operations, as well as considering post-harvest technologies and temperature control. The chapter includes a detailed case study of post-harvest strategies in cherry cultivation in British Columbia. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in the field and provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Edgar Clive Turner and Julie Hinsch, University of Cambridge, UK
Integrated pest management in sustainable palm oil production
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Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is central to sustainable palm oil production. This chapter explores the rapid expansion of oil palm and its impact on the environment, the range of pest species found in plantations, and the impact of replanting on pest numbers. The chapter introduces the concept and history of IPM in oil palm as well as the diverse range of approaches that form IPM strategies, including plant breeding, targeted chemical applications, management to reduce pest numbers and transmission, and management to increase the numbers of natural enemies and pathogens of pests. The chapter concludes by considering how approaches focused on more diverse oil palm landscapes and more diverse pest control species assemblages can increase the effectiveness of IPM.
Prof Prof M. P. Pritts
Strawberries: a case study of how evolving market expectations impact sustainability
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The strawberry industry is facing the reality that it has been built on an unsustainable foundation. with dependencies on fumigation, plastic, pesticides, fertilizers, diminishing groundwater, undocumented labour and fuel for transportation. This chapter offers a case study of the impact of that market expectations have had on the US strawberry industry. After an introductory survey of the history of strawberry production in the United States, the chapter examines the development of an annual strawberry production system with the capacity to provide fruit to consumers year around. The chapter looks at the impact of shifting market expectations on the sustainability of strawberry production and examines the challenges of maintaining the high levels of inputs required for annual strawberry production in just a few favourable locations. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to potential solutions to current challenges.
Cécile Bessou, CIRAD, France; Heinz Stichnothe, Thünen Institute of Agricultural Technology, Germany; Amir F. N. Abdul-Manan, Saudi Aramco, Saudi Arabia; and Shabbir Gheewala, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand
Life cycle assessments of oil palm products
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It is crucial to adapt models and tools that enable the identification of best oil palm cultivation practices in order to contribute to reduce the environmental impacts of agriculture. Oil palm causes impact on the environment both during cultivation and as a result of land use change for new plantations. This chapter describes the principles and modelling steps of LCA. It then reviews the results from published LCA and GHG assessments on palm oil products. Finally, it discusses the information yielded by existing studies on the environmental impacts of palm oil and outlines remaining challenges regarding LCA development and applications for palm oil products.
Andrea Dührkoop and Oliver Hensel, University of Kassel, Germany
An overview of subsurface irrigation techniques
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Water is a scarce resource which plays a crucial role in agriculture. As climate change and population growth increase the strain on water supplies, involved actors are forced to look for water-saving irrigation methods for food production. This chapter reviews four key subsurface irrigation techniques: clay pot (pitcher) irrigation, auto-regulative subsurface pipes, subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) and porous pipe irrigation. Advantages, disadvantages and case studies for each technique are presented. In the final sections, subsurface irrigation with treated wastewater and a model for designing irrigation systems are also discussed.
Luca Corelli Grappadelli, Brunella Morandi and Luigi Manfrini, University of Bologna, Italy; and Pasquale Losciale, University of Bari, Italy
Advances and challenges in sustainable peach production
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By adopting precise management techniques, growers can reduce the environmental impact of fruit growing, without sacrificing quality and yields, while maintaining income. This chapter discusses how improvements in sustainable peach production can be achieved by an interaction among quite varied disciplines. The chapter describes the importance of vascular flows to peach fruit growth and focuses on the significance of photosynthesis as the engine of productivity in peach production. The chapter considers the adoption of precision fruit growing, and provides a case study. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Diomy S. Zamora, University of Minnesota, USA; Samuel C. Allen, New Mexico State University, USA; Kent G. Apostol, Independent Researcher and Editor, USA; Shibu Jose, University of Missouri, USA; and Gary Wyatt, University of Minnesota, USA
Temperate alley cropping systems
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The implementation of modern agricultural practices has largely excluded trees from the rural landscape, causing negative environmental impacts. Alley cropping, an agroforestry practice where agricultural crops are grown simultaneously with long-term tree crops, helps mitigate negative environmental impacts and offers a promising land-use alternative to conventional farming for temperate regions. This chapter provides an overview of economic and ecological benefits, challenges and major considerations of implementing these practices within North America. The chapter focuses on a system performance evaluation of a pecan-cotton system in the southern United States and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Gennaro Fazio
Advances in the development and utilization of fruit tree rootstocks: a case study for apple
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In the previous century, apple rootstocks were chosen on the basis of suitability for climate, required degree of vigor, and plant availability. Thus, the rootstock decision in the past was usually quite simple, with only one or two choices available to growers. However, with the proliferation of improved apple rootstocks available around the world, there is now a dizzying array of choices for apple growers. This chapter considers advances in the development and utilization of fruit tree rootstocks using apple as a case study. The history of use of clonal rootstocks is first discussed followed by sections on rootstock improvement efforts, propagation, and evaluation. Rootstock effects on the scion and rootstock tolerance to both abiotic and biotic stress are then considered. The chapter concludes with a discussion on trends in apple rootstock use. Although this chapter focuses mostly on apple, it exemplifies the various inherent rootstock properties and rootstock-induced qualities on grafted scions that can be found in other temperate fruit rootstocks.
Elizabeth Alvarez, CIAT, Colombia
Diseases affecting oil palm
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The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is one of the world’s major sources of edible oil and a precursor of biodiesel fuel. This chapter reviews the oil palm diseases which act as a major production constraint in West Africa, South East Asia and South and Central America. The chapter also describes the characteristics of these key diseases and highlights the methods that are currently being applied to control them.
Denise Neilsen and Gerry Neilsen, Summerland Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada
Optimizing precision in orchard irrigation and nutrient management
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Precise water and nutrient management in fruit production systems has become a key area of study over recent years, not only due to the changing climate but also due to increased demand for fruit from a growing population as part of a healthy diet. Irrigated fruit production has been proven to be both reliable and more efficient than rain-fed production and the trend is towards high efficiency irrigated systems. This chapter documents both precision management of irrigation and nutrients in orchards (mainly apple, pear, sweet cherry and peach). Precision management of irrigation is discussed in detail including the use of efficient irrigation systems, matching water supply to plant demand, reducing evaporation from the soil surface and responding to drought. A further section on nutrient management covers both ferti-irrigation or fertigation, where nutrients are dissolved in irrigation water, and foliar application, where dissolved nutrients are applied directly to the fruit tree in dilute water sprays.
Dr Dr Christopher Wiegman
Advances in communication systems in agricultural robotics
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Unmanned agricultural ground vehicles (UAGVs) represent substantial potential with their ability to optimize crop yields and increase sustainability, making them a high priority with many academic and corporate institutions. These systems need to be safe and robust while operating in suboptimal conditions compared to other autonomous systems. The variability encountered in the field, such as ground conditions, weather, and the sheer size of the operations highlight just a few of the challenges they face. Reliable communication networks will help to achieve safe and reliable operations in these conditions. This chapter discusses advances in communication systems in agricultural robotics. The need for communication systems is first addressed. An introduction to wireless communication then follows with communication layers, network topology, and communication technologies all discussed. Sections are then included on both person-to-machine (cellular networks and Multiple-Input and Multiple-Output broadband radio antenna networks) and machine-to-machine (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, IPv6 over Low Power Wireless Personal Area Networks, and Radio Frequency Identification) communication. The chapter concludes with a discussion on security issues.
Sylvain Rafflegeau, CIRAD, UPR Systèmes de Pérennes, France; Doris Nanda, Université de Yaoundé I, Cameroon; and Claude Genot, INRA-UR BIA, France
Artisanal mills and local production of palm oil by smallholders
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In Africa, there are two oil palm supply chains. The first goes through industrial mills, from industrial plantations and surrounding smallholdings to a formal market of commercial oils complying with international quality standards, while the second goes through small-scale mills or traditional extraction, from smallholdings and ‘wild groves’ to an informal market of artisanal red palm oil. In this chapter, we concentrate on the second supply chain. We review the emergence of artisanal extraction of red palm oil in Africa, consider who is involved in this supply chain and why, and discuss the major operations and equipment involved in artisanal processing. We then review the composition and quality of artisanal palm oil and its various uses. Finally, we consider the sustainable development issues associated with artisanal red palm oil production.
Ravigadevi Sambanthamurthi, Ng Mei Han and Choo Yuen May, Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Malaysia
Bioactive compounds in oil palm
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There is growing evidence for the protective effect of plant bioactives against diseases, and this has led to interest from the functional food and nutraceutical industries for the development of bioactive-enriched food and supplements. The oil palm fruit is a source of both lipid- and water-soluble bioactives. This chapter begins by considering lipid-soluble bioactives and their potential health benefits. It then moves on to considering water-soluble bioactives, which have only recently received attention. These include phenolic compounds and shikimic acid with potential health benefits against a whole spectrum of diseases including cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes. These water-soluble compounds enter the aqueous stream (vegetation liquor) and are usually discarded as palm oil mill effluent. The valorization of palm oil milling waste for the production of functional food and nutraceuticals offers an opportunity for increased productivity and sustainability of the oil palm industry.
Dr Dr Qin Zhang
The use of agricultural robots in orchard management
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The use of robotic or automated machines in orchard operations is associated primarily with insufficient labour availability and rapidly increasing labour costs in tree fruit production and is critical for improving yield of high-quality fruit with minimal dependence on seasonal human labour. This chapter provides an overview of robotic technologies for major tree fruit production tasks, including robotic pruning, thinning, spraying, harvesting and fruit transportation. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Rajinder Singh
Advances in marker-assisted breeding of palm oil
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Oil palm, with its long breeding cycle and large land requirement for breeding trials, can be considered as a suitable candidate crop for marker assisted selection (MAS) for breeding. This chapter explores the applications of MAS in oil palm breeding including paternity testing and prediction of monogenic and quantitative traits. The chapter shows that MAS enables accurate tagging of markers related to polygenic traits, a prerequisite for their eventual application in oil palm breeding, and suggests future lines or research in this area as well as further reading on the subject.
Alfieri Pollice and Ramy Saliba, IRSA-CNR, Italy; and Antonio Lonigro, Università degli Studi di Bari, Italy
The use of treated wastewater for crop irrigation
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The reuse of treated wastewater for crop irrigation is important in the effective use of scarce water resources in ensuring a stable supply and in recovery of nutrients. This chapter explains the composition of wastewater, methods for treatment and guidelines for reuse for crop irrigation, including crop types and irrigation techniques.
Matthias Meier, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Switzerland
Using life cycle assessment to compare intensive versus extensive agricultural systems
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The number of life cycle assessment (LCA) and LCA-based footprint studies comparing food products coming from different agricultural production systems, reflecting different production intensities, is rapidly growing providing an increasing amount of data for further analyses. This chapter examines the use of LCA to compare intensive with extensive agricultural systems. The chapter addresses the validity of LCA studies comparing intensive and extensive agricultural systems and looks at assessing validity at the inventory level (using the example of reactive nitrogen emission modeling and monitoring heavy metal emissions in different farming systems).
Mary Ng’endo, World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Kenya; and Shonil A. Bhagwat, The Open University, UK
The role of biodiversity in agroforestry and other types of smallholder farming
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Agricultural biodiversity, commonly referred to as agrobiodiversity, is a part of biodiversity that is conserved in agricultural habitats and food production landscapes. Adopting a multidimensional approach to their management is essential to increase sustainability of agricultural habitats. This chapter describes the application of food system concept in providing a framework to enable such a multidimensional approach. The chapter outlines the multiple dimensions of food security and places food security in the context of global environment change. Finally, the chapter explains the concept of multifactor food security promotion.
Dr Benoît Cochard
Advances in conventional breeding techniques for oil palm
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At the beginning of the 20th century, oil palm was a semi-wild crop which had not been subjected to breeding efforts. This chapter will review the history of oil palm breeding, starting from the beginning of the 20th century up to the present day. We will discuss breeding objectives, breeding methods and data collection methods currently in use, and will then review the impacts and progress of oil palm breeding programs. Finally, we will consider seed production and future trends in oil palm breeding.
Ben Putman, Martin Christie and Greg Thoma, University of Arkansas, USA
Improving the environmental performance of pig and poultry production
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Currently, pork and chicken account for nearly three-fourths of global meat consumption. With increasing concern for the environmental impacts associated with human activity, and due to the magnitude of the pork and poultry sectors, there is mounting pressure to meet the growing demand for these animal-based proteins with fewer resources and lower emissions. This chapter outlines improvement options for making pig and poultry production more sustainable and provides detailed case studies. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading about the subject.
Turan Karadeniz, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey; Faik Ekmel Tekintaş, Adnan Menderes University, Turkey; and Seyit Mehmet Şen, Kastamonu University, Turkey
The nutritional and nutraceutical value of walnut
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Walnut fruit is rich in vitamins, carbohydrates, minerals, proteins and unsaturated fats which promote human health. Walnut kernels also contain a very high amount of serotonin which is a neurotransmitter involved in regulating moods, feelings of happiness, sleep, anxiety and blood pressure. Walnut also has anti-cancer, anti-ageing, anti-tumour, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory and anti-fatigue effects. Walnut green husk (WGH) has also exhibited positive effects on the alleviation of fat disorders. This chapter introduces walnuts as a source of vitamins, protein, fat and carbohydrate, and outlines their health-promoting properties.
Ai-Ping Hu, Georgia Tech Research Institute, USA
Advances in automating meat processing operations
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Meat processing presents a particular challenge to robotics, as it deals with deformable biological products that lack uniformity: no two fish, sides of beef or chicken carcasses are exactly alike. Meat processing plants have many adept human practitioners, skilled with knives, and has proven extremely difficult to automate with robots. This chapter selectively surveys the advances in robotic automation of the processing of fish, beef, pork and lamb, as well as poultry, providing a detailed case study of the latter based on the author’s own research. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading in the field.
Prof. Prof. Richard Schultz
Agroforestry practices: riparian forest buffers and filter strips
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Riparian forest buffers are planned combinations of trees, shrubs, grasses, forbs and bioengineered structures adjacent to or within a stream channel designed to mitigate the impact of land use on the stream or creek. At the landscape level, riparian forest buffers link the land and aquatic environment and perform vital ecological functions as part of the network of watersheds that connect forest, prairies, agricultural and urban lands. This chapter is about riparian forest buffers and filter strips as agroforestry practices. Following an introduction to the concept of riparian forest buffers, then follows a section on forest buffer design and function. This discusses the distinct management zones in a riparian forest buffer, namely Zone 1: undisturbed forest; Zone 2: managed forest and shrubs and Zone 3: run-off control (grasses and forbs). The chapter concludes with sections on both special design considerations and management, and assessing buffer performance.
John Billingsley, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
An overview of machine vision technologies for agricultural robots and automation
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As machine vision technology becomes ever more readily available it is of increasing value to agriculture. This chapter seeks to outline the principles that will endure as the technology changes and to point out areas in which it can be applied. After examining basic concepts of machine vision, the chapter looks at the various tools available for implementing machine vision and the tasks to which this technology can be applied. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Susan M. Boyetchko, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada , Canada
The use of microorganisms in integrated weed management
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Biological control of weeds by fungal pathogens, bacteria and viruses has been studied for more than three decades. The aim is to suppress or reduce the weed population below an ecological or economic threshold. This chapter describes the role of biopesticides in weed control, historical accomplishments in biological weed control and recently registered pathogens. The chapter then discusses new discoveries currently under development, target weed control and the role of screening and fermentation technologies, as well as looks ahead to future developments in this area.
Michael R. F. Lee, University of Bristol and Rothamsted Research, UK; M. Jordana Rivero, Rothamsted Research, UK; and John W. Cone, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
The role of pasture in the diet of ruminant livestock
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Grazed pasture is the single most important forage feed for ruminants due to its low unit cost and widespread global availability. However, there is a growing use of arable crops in ruminant rations, which may exceed that used by humans by 2050. This chapter describes the ways in which grazed pasture provides the energy, proteins, minerals and vitamins and other nutritional factors required by ruminants. The chapter shows that the use of pasture and its by-products underpins the possibility of sustainably delivering future ruminant livestock production systems and ensuring their future role in food security.
John Lynam, Independent Consultant
Moving up the scale: challenges in tropical agroforestry
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From its early beginnings, agroforestry has moved from a ‘technology in search of a problem’ to a principal solution to critical global agendas, including climate-smart agriculture, agroecological intensification, land rehabilitation and payment for ecosystem services. This chapter addresses the challenges associated with agroforestry in agroecological intensification and sustainable landscapes. The chapter considers the challenge of developing policies in support of agroforestry, and the challenge of developing agroforestry at scale. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Jude L. Capper, Livestock Sustainability Consultancy, UK
The sustainability and ‘carbon footprints’ of conventional and alternative beef production systems
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The beef industry faces a significant challenge in producing sufficient food to supply the requirements of the growing population, while maintaining a culture of continuous improvement and reducing environmental impacts per unit of beef produced. Since the late 1970’s, the US beef industry made significant efficiency gains that improved resource use and reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and considerable opportunities exist for making greater gains in future. However, beef producers’ future access to specific management practices or technologies may be constrained by consumer perceptions.
Bernhard Freyer, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Austria
The role of crop rotations in organic farming
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Crop rotations are defined in terms of a number of crops organized in a specific order over a defined period of time, with specific spatial arrangements and distribution in a field and landscape, that ensures the best growing conditions for all crops. Crop rotation is thus a way to utilize the performance of a single crop in a way that contributes to the whole farming system. This chapter examines the principles of crop rotation, precrop effects in crop rotations, and the nutrient effects of legumes and other rotation crops. The chapter also considers the role of rotation crops in suppressing weeds, diseases and pests and studies rotations and crop yields, as well as the challenge of designing a crop rotation. The chapter looks at measuring and modelling crop rotations, nutrient and humus balances, crop rotations on stockless farms, intercropping and crop rotations in tropical and subtropical conditions.
Pål Johan From, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway and University of Lincoln, UK; and Lars Grimstad, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway
Advances in actuation and control in agricultural robots
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In recent years, agricultural robots have moved away from being pure sensor-carrying platforms for gathering data in the field into becoming action-delivering platforms providing physical interaction with the environment. In this chapter, the actuation methods that are most commonly used on intelligent agricultural robots in order to transform this optimal action into implement behaviour, motion, physical interaction or manipulation are discussed. These actuation methods consist of both traditional actuators that have been transformed into precision farming tools and novel actuators enabled by robotics and autonomous systems. A short introduction to each actuator is presented followed by example uses found in the agricultural domain. The chapter concludes with a case study that looks at how different actuators are used to automate strawberry production.
Dr Dr Valerio Cristofori
Developing hazelnuts as a sustainable and industrial crop
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European hazelnut (Corylus avellana) is a major species of interest for food use and one of the few economically valuable commercial tree nut crops within the Betulaceae. Cultivated mainly in Turkey and Italy, this nut crop has been introduced into cultivation around the world, and global production shows an increasing trend due to demand predominantly from the confectionery industry. This chapter reviews the development of European hazelnut as an industrial nut crop, highlighting the environmental needs for suitable cultivation of the species which has not been domesticated for as long as other major crops. Propagation and orchard management strategies are discussed focussing on the recent innovations in research including the exploitation of hazelnut biomass and the application of the precision farming strategies in the new large hazelnut orchards. There also features a section on integrated pest management. The chapter concludes with a look to future trends in research.
Damase Khasa and Alain Atangana, Université Laval, Canada
Tropical tree domestication in agroforestry
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Trees, whether occurring in wild stands or in agricultural landscapes, play a key role in the livelihoods of smallholders in the tropics. This chapter discusses tropical tree domestication in agroforestry, summarizing the authors’ contribution to the development of new tree crops in the tropics using agroforestry techniques. Following an introduction, a section is then included on the principles and techniques of tropical tree domestication covering identification of species for domestication, selection of ‘plus trees’ and vegetative propagation methods. The authors then provide examples of key tree species that have been targeted for domestication in the Amazon Basin (Bactris gasipaes, Calycophyllum spruceanum, Guazuma crinita and Inga edulis) and the Congo Basin (Irvingia gabonensis, Irvingia wombolu, Dacryodes edulis, Ricinodendron heudelotii, Cola acuminata, Cola anomala, Cola nitida and Prunus africana). The chapter concludes with a case study on participatory domestication of Allanblackia floribunda, a high-value agroforestry tree species in Central Africa.
Cleve D. Franks, DuPont Pioneer, USA
The principles and processes of sorghum breeding
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This chapter provides an overview of the basic principles and processes involved in the breeding of sorghum. A number of standard field operations are described, such as crossing, emasculation and harvesting, followed by a discussion of various methods of selection and topcrossing. After describing these classical breeding methodologies, there follows an evaluation of new directions in sorghum breeding, such as the use of molecular markers and high-throughput means of phenotyping plants. These techniques are discussed in terms of the availability of technology and their economic viability. It is concluded that although classical breeding methodologies will continue to be a requirement in future, sorghum breeders will need to make use of evolving technologies if they are to be successful.
N. Jovanovic, S. Dzikiti and M. Gush, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), South Africa
An integrated approach for the estimation of crop water requirements based on soil, plant and atmospheric measurements
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Measuring crop water requirements is an essential part of managing agricultural water in crop fields. In this chapter, we propose a research approach for the determination of crop water requirements that integrates soil, plant and atmospheric measurements. Selected methods for estimating crop water requirements (lysimetry, atmospheric, plant- and soil-based methods), their spatial scale and time frequency, and their applicability are discussed. A case study is presented for an apple orchard in South Africa, where atmospheric (eddy covariance system), plant (sap flow) and soil water content measurements (time domain reflectometry) were used to determine seasonal evapotranspiration (ET) and crop water requirements, transpiration and the extent of over-irrigation (deep percolation). Splitting ET into crop transpiration and soil evaporation allowed us to determine basal crop coefficients Kcb, which are more transferable than the Kc crop coefficients and less dependent on management practices. The chapter also provides recommendations for further research and additional literature.
Teresa Barreneche, BFP, INRA, Université de Bordeaux, France; Roberto Botta, Università di Torino, Italy; and Cécile Robin, BIOGECO, INRA, Université de Bordeaux, France
Advances in breeding of chestnuts
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In the two last centuries, diseases and pests from Asia have been introduced in chestnut plantations in both Northern America and Southern Europe, jeopardizing indigenous populations and some local chestnut varieties. The societal demand for chestnut in these countries has considerably increased, and recent developments in the field of tree genome mapping and sequencing open up new perspectives for breeders with different applications which rely on knowledge of the genome. This chapter describes breeding for resistance to diseases threatening chestnut orchards and outlines a French program for breeding for ink-resistant rootstocks. The chapter then examines breeding for resistance to gall wasps, breeding for fruit quality and efforts in Japan to breed for ‘peel-ability’ of chestnuts. Finally, the chapter describes future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Chunbao Li, Nanjing Agricultural University, China
The role of beef in human nutrition and health
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Beef is an important source of both macronutrients and micronutrients. Nevertheless, concerns have been raised regarding the effects of eating red and processed meat on human health. In this chapter, we review the nutrients available in beef and then assess the concerns raised about the health impacts of consuming red meat, particularly the suggested association between intake of red meat and the risk of cancers.
D. L. McNeil, University of Tasmania, Australia
Advances in cultivation of walnuts
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Walnuts as a crop has expanded considerably in production and value over the last 30 years. There has been a shift in dominant production area from California to China. While the United States is still the world’s largest exporter of walnuts China now dominates world production. This chapter provides detailed statistics on the expansion of walnut production, examining key issues around what is now a highly diversified production environment, including blight (Xanthomonas arboricola pv. Juglandis) management and new potential methods for control. The chapter presents recent advances in molecular genetics, including marker-assisted selection, genetic relationship characterization, full genome description and genetic modification system. The chapter discusses the different expansion trajectories of several different regions in order to understand their causes. Finally, the chapter discusses opportunities for the future and provides a list of sources of additional information.
Dr N Rajanaidu
Diversity in the genetic resources of oil palm
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Oil palm planting materials are based on an extremely narrow genetic base, and it has been generally recognized that the narrowness of the gene pool is a major obstacle towards increasing yields in many crops including oil palm. This chapter discusses the rather narrow genetic base of current breeding materials and the work undertaken by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board with the aim of broadening this genetic base. The chapter examines the ways of assessing genetic diversity in oil palm, through the analysis of fruit forms and types, morphological traits and genetic markers. It also reviews the methods for the conservation of oil palm collections and the ways of utilizing germplasm in order to develop improved varieties
S. H. Anderson and R. P. Udawatta, University of Missouri, USA
Agroforestry: a system for improving soil health
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Introducing agroforestry into agroecosystems can be an important method to help promote soil health by its influence on soil physical, chemical and biological properties. This chapter highlights the benefits of agroforestry systems on soil properties important for soil health. These include critical soil biological, physical and chemical properties important for maintaining and improving soil health. The chapter outlines the critical soil biological properties important for energy and nutrient transformations, as well as critical soil physical properties including soil density, porosity, water retention, pore size distributions, hydraulic conductivity, infiltration and thermal properties. The chapter shows that improving these parameters may reduce losses of sediment, nutrients and herbicides from land to water and enhance soil water storage.
Phillip E. Strydom, Agricultural Research Council and University of Stellenbosch, South Africa
The effects of carcass chilling and electrical stimulation on visual beef quality and palatability
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The conversion of muscle to meat during the rigor mortis process and the conditions under which this process occurs is most important for quality attributes of beef including colour, water holding capacity and tenderness. Electrical stimulation is used to prevent cold-induced toughening of beef, especially hot-boned meat, but is also generally applied because it is thought to enhance the ageing process and, therefore, improve tenderness of aged beef. However, indiscriminate use of electrical stimulation, combined with improper chilling, may have detrimental effects on tenderness, colour and water-holding capacity of meat. This chapter discusses the advantages of electrical stimulation and factors influencing the effectivity of electrical stimulation.
Sandra Edwards, University of Newcastle, UK
Welfare of gilts and pregnant sows
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Mismatches between the evolutionary biology of the sow and current commercial production systems give rise to welfare challenges of stereotyped behaviour development in confined systems and aggression in group housing systems. This chapter describes the welfare issues associated with individual confinement systems and examines the nature and significance of stereotyped behaviour in gestating sows. The chapter addresses the issue of hunger in the pregnant sow and drivers to adopt group housing systems for pregnant sows. The chapter has a particular focus on the importance of social organisation in sows and looks in detail at the relationship between aggression in stable groups and the method of feed provision available. Finally, the chapter examines sows in extensive systems and looks ahead to future research trends in this area, providing extensive suggestions for further reading.
Elly Ana Navajas, Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria, Uruguay
The future of DNA technologies for improving beef quality: marbling, fatty acid composition and tenderness
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DNA genotyping with high-density panels and genome sequencing provide new opportunities for genetic improvement of beef quality traits by genomic selection (GS). Adoption of GS in the beef industry is lower than that in the dairy industry. Lower accuracy of genomic predictions is one of the reasons, which is associated with the difficulties to build large training populations. Nevertheless, current accuracies for meat quality traits are promising, indicating that there is potential to include then in beef breeding programmes, although more studies are needed. The information from training populations is a valuable resource for genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Current DNA technologies enable a better understanding of the genetic basis of traits of interest. Larger training populations are associated with greater statistical power for GWAS and improved genomic predictions accuracies.
