Tree nut cultivation, ecosystem services, biodiversity and conservation
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There is growing concern about the impact of overuse of agricultural inputs on the environment which in turn has created a challenge for food production systems that should sustain acceptable production levels while preserving natural resources. It is now well-accepted that a holistic approach is needed to improve management techniques that ensure both nature conservation and stable production levels. In nut crop production the complex interconnections among physical and biological structures, agricultural practices, functions and services strongly influence, and may be influenced by, several aspects such as orchard design, ground cover management and different biological components. This chapter will address biodiversity and conservation issues concerning tree nut cultivation, through an analysis of the ecosystem services and dis-services that may affect, and can in turn be affected by, agricultural practices. It also features sections on tree nut cultivation and biodiversity, and pest management and animal diversity in tree nut orchards.
Key challenges in modelling of agricultural activities and their environmental impact
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Modelling agricultural activities gives insight into the environmental impact of current practices. Furthermore, modelling allows testing the effect of mitigation strategies or management changes and supports decision making towards environmentally friendlier products. Model quality depends on accuracy of modelling decisions and quality of the obtained data. This chapter discusses several tools to assess model quality. The chapter categorizes agricultural models based on certain characteristics, such as linearity and time-dependence. The chapter includes two detailed case studies that show the benefits of including uncertainty propagation and sensitivity analysis. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in research and suggests further reading in this area.
Foundations of an IPM program: detection, identification, and quantification
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Integration of pest management efforts based on advanced technologies and multiple pest assessments in multi-field and areawide venues has led to a host of sophisticated approaches that continue to shape the discipline of integrated pest management (IPM). From the initial efforts, the concept of pest control has evolved into an established ecological, economic, and sociological paradigm. This chapter describes the bedrock components of IPM, pertinent to managing annual and perennial fruit, grain, vegetable, and greenhouse crops, as well as ornamentals. Although emphasis is placed on recently formulated and emerging technologies and their current and future impacts on the two foundational IPM components, the chapter also examines the status quo and provides insight into the constraints imposed by the state of technology and by society at large. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Advances in understanding health benefits of pistachio
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The health benefits of nuts, mainly in relation to cardiovascular disease (CVD) but also for other chronic conditions, have been widely demonstrated in epidemiological studies and clinical trials. Among nuts, pistachio is a nut with a moderate amount of macronutrients and micronutrients. It is specifically rich in vegetable protein, fibre and bioactive compounds such as lutein-zeaxanthin and beta-carotene, all of them linked to potential health benefits. This chapter explains the nutritional composition of pistachio nuts and summarizes their potential health benefits and the current human, animal and in vitro research exploring the beneficial role of pistachios on health.
Advances in classical biological control to support IPM of perennial agricultural crops
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Scientific advances in classical biological control and supporting disciplines have provided ‘tools’ that could enable permanent suppression of some seemingly intractable invasive pest problems that limit the effectiveness of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programmes in perennial crops. This chapter examines the steps required in the development of a classical biological control programme for managing invasive insect pests. The chapter includes a detailed case study of Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, an invasive pest of California citrus, to demonstrate the potential of ‘tools’ to support development of a classical biological control programme targeting this pest. The chapter explores the benefits of classical biological control for IPM of insect pests in perennial crops before looking ahead to future research trends in this area. The chapter provides detailed guidance on further reading on the topic.
Transitioning monocultures to complex forest stands in Central Europe: principles and practice
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The high expectations placed on forests in Europe require an integrative approach to forest management. Heterogeneous mixed-species stands are of special interest as they fulfil many ecosystem services better than monocultures, and consequently homogenous forest stands are now often transformed into more heterogeneous stands. This chapter contrasts even-aged monoculture forests and selection forests, describing the transition from monocultures to more complex forest stands. The chapter presents practical examples of transformation and models for scenario analysis, as well as explaining the principles of selection forest management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Integrated disease management in tree nut cultivation
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Integrated disease management and use of protocols and products that minimize the environmental impact are paramount needs in the cultivation of tree nuts. In this chapter, such approaches are proposed for chestnut cultivation and, specifically, for the management and mitigation of damage caused by one of the most threatening diseases affecting chestnuts worldwide – ink disease caused by Phytophthora spp. The chapter starts by introducing the concept of area-wide integrated ink disease management, followed by sections on monitoring and GIS mapping of the disease, and landscape features of the disease – Phytophthora being easily dispersed via water and infected soil. Also covered are tree and soil treatments used to treat the disease, and a review of the varieties resistant to the disease (breeding of interspecific hybrids has led to resistant rootstocks). The chapter concludes with a discussion on the importance of quality and certification of material for propagation.
Species choice, planting and establishment in temperate and boreal forests: meeting the challenge of global change
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Due to global change, there is a need to question most of the practices used to establish forests. This chapter provides discussion of the current issues for most of the key processes of forest establishment and highlights the importance of the choice of genetic material in the establishment of plantation forests. It confirms that more knowledge and accurate decision support will be needed in the near future and that new resilience strategies are required.
Advances in microbial control in integrated pest management: entomopathogenic fungi
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The use of entomopathogenic fungi to control insect pests has been expanding in recent years, with improvements in formulation and more extensive commercialization. However, there are still limitations on their effectiveness in some situations. Combining entomopathogenic fungi with other control options has been investigated for control of a range of insects. This chapter discusses the use of entomopathogenic fungi in integrated pest management. For the bulk of this chapter, the authors provide examples of successes and explore the wider potential for entomopathogenic fungi if certain obstacles are overcome. Use in combination with conventional chemicals, other natural enemies and botanical extracts are covered, as are habitat manipulation, attraction and deterrence. Not all combinations of entomopathogenic fungi with other agents lead to improved control, and true synergy between agents is rare. However, there are many examples of improved control of target insects and mites through combinations of entomopathogenic fungi and other agents. Several case studies are provided.
Advances in detecting tree nut allergens
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Food allergy remains a major problem affecting consumers. Together with peanut, tree nuts belong to a small group of allergens responsible for the great majority of food allergies. This chapter begins by providing an overview of tree nut allergies and their prevalence. It then discusses allergenic proteins and thresholds, as well as the required sensitivity of detection methods. Finally, the chapter reviews both general issues in developing effective detection methods as well as the range of techniques available for particular tree nuts, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Assessing the environmental impact of greenhouse cultivation
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This chapter aims to address the environmental aspects of greenhouse cultivation, it covers the methodology used to perform an environmental assessment and provides information regarding damaging and beneficial environmental aspects, as well as suggestions to improve environmental quantification methods for greenhouse production systems. The chapter explores the methodology used to account for environmental impacts using a life cycle perspective, including a brief summary of life cycle assessment (LCA) tools, and its application to greenhouse crop production. The chapter describes the different components involved in greenhouse cultivation (including structures, greenhouse management, fertilization, pesticides and waste management) and how to include them in the environmental quantification assessment. Finally, the chapter draws conclusions regarding not only the improvement of environmental aspects of greenhouse cultivation but also enhancement of environmental quantification tools.
Advances in use of entomopathogenic nematodes in integrated pest management
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Entomopathogenic nematodes in the genera Heterorhabditis and Steinernema are potent biological control agents that have been commercialized widely for control of economically important insect pests. This chapter describes the foraging and infection behavior of nematodes and the production technology, formulation, application technology, and commercialization of entomopathogenic nematodes. The chapter considers the factors affecting the efficacy of nematodes in integrated pest management and methods to improve their efficacy. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Emerging technologies to develop new forest products
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Forest trees occupy a central place among lignocellulosic plants, in terms of both abundance of wood they produce each year and also generating a variety of other biological tissues. This chapter focusses on new processes and new applications of wood polymers, notably uses of lignins. The chapter considers the three major biopolymers: celluloses, hemicelluloses and lignins. The chapter focusses particularly on polymers, notably lignins, as the wood constituents are the richest carbon sources of all lignocellulosic polymers and the most important aromatic polymers on earth. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Non-invasive field phenotyping of cereal development
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High throughput field phenotyping (HTFP) allows the selection of crops with unprecedented precision, and plays an important role to understand genotype-by-environment interaction. This chapter describes carrier systems for non-invasive field phenotyping, outlines the principles of envirotyping, and examines the challenge of physiological breeding by means of high-throughput phenotyping of plant development. The chapter describes the importance of the different phases of cereal development and how to phenotype them, and analyses genetic crop models. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Advances in augmentative biological control in integrated pest management
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Augmentative biological control uses mass-reared natural enemies for releases in large numbers to reduce pest populations. Augmentative biocontrol is increasingly applied worldwide in many different crops. It is a cornerstone of integrated pest management (IPM) programmes and plays a key sustainability-determining role in IPM. This chapter describes the scale of augmentative biological control and where this type of biocontrol is applied. The chapter describes the natural enemies commercially available and gives information on their mass production. The chapter discusses the important role of biocontrol in IPM programmes, and its practical use in very different agricultural production systems. Finally, the chapter presents the advantages and disadvantages of this control method, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Advances in breeding of hazelnuts
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Hazelnut (Corylus spp.) is a member of the Betulaceae family, and is widely distributed in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. Cultivated varieties differ from each other in such characteristics as nut size, shape, kernel ratio, shell thickness, etc. Key target characteristics for breeding not only include high yield but also good morphological and vegetative traits as well as resistance to pests and diseases. This chapter discusses advances in the breeding of hazelnuts. Following an introduction, the author first presents a section on floral biology, pollination and compatibility in hazelnut. The chapter then includes information on the development of hazelnut varieties mainly relating to hazelnut breeding programmes in Turkey, Europe and also the United States (where the focus has been for breeding for resistance to Easter filbert blight). Then follows a section on the breeding of rootstocks referring to programmes in the United States, Turkey, Italy and Iran. A number of new key cultivars of hazelnut are then described.
Theory and application of phenotyping in wheat for different target environments
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Phenotyping serves both research and breeding purposes. For research, precise and often costly procedures are employed to phenotype strategic traits in order to gain a better understanding of how genotypes adapt to different environments. For breeding, both strategic and screening traits are considered, the latter typically being measured at high throughput. This chapter describes phenotyping for key traits and environments, as well as the challenges facing reliable phenotyping. The chapter explains applications of phenotyping in breeding, offering a detailed case study of physiological breeding for yield potential and climate change. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and suggests further reading in this area.
Understanding crop responses to controlled climates in greenhouses
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Understanding plant responses to environmental factors is crucial in controlled environment crop production. This chapter summarizes current understanding of interactions of key aerial environmental factors affecting plant growth and their strategic applications to improve the productivity, profitability and sustainability of greenhouse cultivation. It reviews the current body of knowledge regarding plant responses to environmental interactions. Environmental factors discussed include light intensity, temperature, air circulation, relative humidity and carbon dioxide concentration. Interactions of (1) light and temperature; (2) light and carbon dioxide; (3) light and plant canopy structure; (4) temperature and temperature integration time; and (5) humidity, air circulation and light are also presented (it must be noted there are many other combinations of factors, not only of aerial factors but also of root-zone factors). A case study is provided on tipburn management of strawberry using night-time humidity control. The chapter concludes with a look towards future trends in research.
Advances in understanding forest ecosystem services: conserving biodiversity
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Forest biodiversity is fundamental to ecosystem functioning, facilitating processes such as nutrient cycling, pollination and seed dispersal. A healthy forest provides a range of economic, societal and cultural values and services beyond timber production, including recreation, carbon sequestration, ecotourism, landscape aesthetics and the intrinsic value of biodiversity to society. Despite this, forest biodiversity remains under increasing pressure from agricultural conversion and intensive, large-scale, yield-driven forest management approaches. In this chapter, the authors explore how these approaches alter forest biodiversity and, in particular, species of conservation concern. The authors outline how sustainable forest management can be used to maintain or enhance biodiversity. Two case studies are provided that illustrate these concepts in contrasting biomes: managing forest biodiversity in landscapes of low forest cover, a case study from temperate plantation forestry in Ireland; and, managing forest biodiversity by emulating natural ecosystem dynamics, a case study from boreal mixedwood forests in Canada.
Selection strategies in hybrid rye with special consideration of fungal disease resistances
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Although winter rye is known for its high tolerance to biotic stress factors, several diseases are occurring in most rye-growing countries: snow mold, brown foot rot, powdery mildew, leaf rust, stem rust, Fusarium head blight, and ergot. For hybrid breeding, resistance selection is important due to the restricted genetic variation within a cultivar. For powdery mildew and the two rusts, race-specific qualitative resistances based on single resistance (R) genes and quantitative resistances have been described. For the other diseases only quantitative resistances can be selected. This chapter describes the features of snow mold, foot rot, powdery mildew, leaf rust, stem rust, Fusarium head blight and ergot. The chapter examines and assesses strategies for resistance selection and looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Marker-assisted trait introgression for wheat breeding and research
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Trait introgression, the incorporation of a specific character, is a cornerstone of both wheat breeding and research allowing a specific line or variety to be improved for the character. Varieties can be improved by introgressing the trait of interest into their genetic background through backcrossing techniques especially when the underlying genetic control is relatively simple. Moreover, the agronomic value of the variety can be easily and rapidly recovered or improved by combining backcross and double haploid (DH) approaches. This chapter describes the principles of backcross breeding and explains the use of marker assisted doubled haploids for trait introgression. The chapter describes the results of combining backcross and DH introgression and outlines the principles of marker assisted speed breeding.
Development of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers for cereal breeding and crop research: current methods and future prospects
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Modern cereal breeding and research increasingly relies upon the application of molecular genetics. This chapter provides an overview of the development of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers for use in such breeding and research. Fluorescence detection methods are fully reviewed as this field is experiencing an explosion of interest among plant biologists and crop breeders. More than 20 modern fluorescence-based methods for SNP identification and discrimination are included and the specific advantages and disadvantages of each covered. This variety of approaches gives researchers and industry the freedom to adapt and improve upon existing methods and develop novel techniques to suit specific SNP analyses. The majority of the described SNP methods are already widely used in plant biology and crop breeding, whereas others are more popular in medical research yet have potential applications in plant research.
Advances in nutrient and water management in forestry: monitoring, maintaining, and restoring soil health
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A number of important advances in nutrient and water management in forestry have been made since the middle of the 20th Century to maintain and improve soil health. Many concerns have been expressed about the sustainability of forestry operations with intensification of management and harvesting disturbances and the occurrence of natural disturbances. The most important of these advances is implementation of the concept of Best Management Practices (BMPs). The use of BMPs involves a continuous cycle of design, analysis, planning, implementation, review, monitoring, and modification. The core of the BMP concept is the Streamside Management Zone (SMZ). The focus of the SMZ is on forestry management activities on lands adjacent to streams and waterways, and how these activities can be conducted to maintain water quality and site productivity. Other advances include soil testing and monitoring to ensure maintenance of physical properties, water status, and nutrient conditions that are the foundations of site productivity.
Advances in irrigation management in greenhouse cultivation
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The advantages of greenhouse include the ability to secure better conditions than outdoor environment for crop growth and development, increased off-season production and autonomy from external weather conditions. This chapter provides an up-to-date critical overview of scientific advances in irrigation management for greenhouse vegetables and ornamentals. The chapter presents a technical design of a typical greenhouse irrigation system, before covering water balance and crop evapotranspiration techniques as well as the use of high-tech moisture sensors for irrigation scheduling. In the context of enhancing the water use efficiency of greenhouse crops, the chapter also discusses innovative management practices such as biostimulants and grafting. Finally, the chapter concludes by looking ahead to future prospects and research breakthroughs.
The role of specific cereal grain dietary components in poultry gut function
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Cereal grains constitute the greatest proportion of most practical poultry diets. As dietary components, cereal grains provide most of the dietary energy and help to support the development of the structural and functional integrity of the digestive tract. However, many cereal grains contain one or more deleterious factors, which may negatively affect the structural and functional development of the gut. Some of the key factors are carbohydrate in nature, but there are non-carbohydrate fractions which may actually not provide any nutrients but function mainly as anti-nutrients. This chapter broadly explores the normal structure and function of the digestive tract in poultry in the absence of dietary factors. It then highlights the nature of the key components of cereal grains, particularly the components that may influence the development of intestinal structure and function. Finally, the chapter examines the role of cereal grain components on poultry gut function and the possible mechanisms by which these interactions take place.
Genomic prediction in crops: advantages and drawbacks
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Genomic Selection evolved as a promising new method to support decision making for plant breeders. This chapter provides a short introduction to genomic prediction and its usefulness as a selection tool. In addition, the chapter highlights some of the most important factors to be considered when implementing and applying genomic selection in research and plant breeding. The chapter focuses on the application of genomic selection in plant breeding and the discussion of some of the advantages and drawbacks of this method. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and provides guidance on further reading in this area.
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in barley
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In recent years, the limiting factors for Genome-wide Association Studies (GWAS) in barley have shifted from the number of markers to the number of individuals, and to the deepness of phenotyping, particularly in field experiments of required size. Recent advances in methodology provide an increasing number of models available for research. This chapter provides an up-to-date review of issues relevant to GWAS approaches, with a particular focus on barley. The chapter offers an overview of all GWAS studies performed on barley and a summary of the results achieved. The chapter describes such methodological challenges as linkage disequilibrium, ascertainment bias, genetic and physical distances, resolution to single genes and the impact of population structure on detecting major loci in wheat. Finally, the chapter briefly introduces several new developments that enrich the outcome of GWAS studies, like genotype-environmental association suitable for landrace and wild materials, the inclusion of environmental effects to explain QTL effects, and the analysis of gene regulatory networks.
Understanding gut function in poultry: immunometabolism at the gut level
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In poultry production, a trade-off has been made between growth and efficiency on the one hand, and immune potential and disease resistance on the other. The emerging field of immunometabolism, brought to the fore by research into human metabolic syndrome and cancer, is an opportunity in poultry production to eliminate this trade-off and have both production efficiency and immune robustness. This chapter provides an overview of metabolism and immunometabolism, including the most important links between metabolic and immune pathways. The chapter describes methods of investigating metabolism and addresses the components of feed that lead to inflammation, and how to mitigate this effect. Finally, the chapter discusses the future of research in this field, using examples of how feeding the immune system is already enhancing growth and immune response in poultry.
Alien introgression and breeding of synthetic wheat
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Wheat is a major food grain source of humans and genetic improvement has contributed significantly to its production. However, the genetic gain of wheat production has slowed in recent years due to its narrow genetic variability and draining of the gene pool in wheat breeding. This chapter elucidates both the contribution of wheat-related species to wheat improvement through alien introgression and breeding of synthetic wheat. The section on alien introgression from wheat-related species into wheat covers gene introgression from both annual and perennial wheat -related wild species as well as wheat-related crop species. This is followed by a comprehensive review of chromosome engineering technologies. The chapter concludes with a summary on the breeding of synthetic hexaploid wheat, and the issues of genome instability and homoeologous gene expression.
Sustainable plum and apricot cultivation
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Sustainable fruit cultivation may depend on the combination of a number of factors; these include optimal growing conditions, correct selection of cultivars and rootstocks, and application of modern crop-cultivation techniques. Sustainability also implies promotion of biodiversity, improvement of microbiological processes in the soil, and protection of the environment (e.g., by avoiding pollution from fertilizers and pesticide runoff). It has been estimated that fruit production may need to increase two- to three-fold to meet future demand, but this needs to be achieved in a sustainable way. This chapter explores ways this might be achieved for plum and apricot production. Sections are included on the genetic resources available for cultivation of these fruits and the environmental factors affecting plum and apricot cultivation. Then follow separate sections on plum and apricot (also covering prune) cultivation. The authors conclude the chapter with a discussion on future trends in plum and apricot cultivation.
Advances and challenges in sustainable raspberry/blackberry cultivation
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Rubus crops are important for human health and for employment in rural communities. As demand for these berry crops increases at a time of changing climate and consumer awareness of real and/or perceived risks associated with traditional growing practices including inputs, new breeding strategies and cultivation practices are needed. This chapter addresses some of the challenges and solutions to continued sustainable growth, including pest and disease stresses, environmental impacts, effects of climate change and environmental stresses. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Challenges and opportunities in pear cultivation
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Excessive vigor of European pear varieties and a dearth of dwarfing rootstocks create significant challenges to the establishment and management of modern high-density orchards. The pronounced negative relationship between pear tree vigor and precocity requires considerable intensive horticultural intervention to expedite a return on investment and to achieve maximum yield potential. Plantings of low-to-moderate tree densities are no longer economically sustainable given their characteristically inconsistent fruit quality and suboptimal yields. Nascent technologies and novel horticultural strategies have potential to balance reproductive and vegetative development of pear trees and facilitate the cultural management of high-density orchards. This chapter presents the challenges and opportunities in pear cultivation. A review of pear floral biology and fruit setting habits and their complex interaction with environmental factors is presented along with practical horticultural strategies to promote balanced canopies. The physiological bases for applying these strategies and their implications on agronomic processes and whole plant performance are highlighted.
Advances in pest and disease management in greenhouse cultivation
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Greenhouse crops are continuously under pressure of infestations by a wide range of pests and diseases. This chapter describes the myriad practices that can contribute to managing pests and diseases, and how to integrate these practices in an ecologically based integrated pest management (IPM) approach. The chapter offers a historical perspective on the development of IPM, together with an explanation of its underlying rationale and main challenges. The chapter discusses the different components of IPM, including sanitation, cultural control, preventative and curative biological control. The chapter examines food web complexities, which inevitably result from integrating multiple biological control agents in a single crop, and offers a detailed case study on IPM implementation in tomato. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Developments in growing substrates for soilless cultivation
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Growing substrates are used to provide physical support, as reservoir for water and nutrients, for providing air space for free gas exchange, and also for providing a habitat for beneficial microorganisms. Peat- and coir-based substrates and rockwool are the most commonly used substrates in modern advanced greenhouse operations. This chapter examines the materials commonly used in forming growing substrates and addresses methods and technologies for assessing them. The chapter looks at the use of beneficial microorganisms to create a resilient rootzone and considers the implementation of integrated rootzone management (IRM). Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Advances and challenges in peach breeding
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Peaches are found in diverse climates and growing regions, plus its relatively short juvenile period, self-pollinated fruitfulness, small genome size and important identified Mendelian traits have made peach a model fruit for breeding and genetics research. This chapter reviews the moderate chill peach variety development programme that commenced in the United States in 1986 as a cooperative regional effort involving the USDA-ARS, the University of Georgia and the University of Florida, and is located at the University of Georgia Research and Education Center outside of Attapulgus, Georgia. The chapter reviews the identification of a locus for resistance to peach fungal gummosis (PFG) and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Advances and challenges in sustainable apple cultivation
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Developing sustainable apple cultivation is based on both a better knowledge of tree architecture and physiology in relation to fruiting, and on how the tree interacts with its abiotic and biotic environments. Improving knowledge in these domains is crucial to take into account the societal demand towards less input-dependent orchards. This chapter provides an overview of apple tree growth and fruiting, exploring the bases for sustainable apple training and pruning management. The chapter also challenges the current apple production agroecosystem and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
In ovo development of the chicken gut microbiome and its impact on later gut function
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Beneficial as well as pathogenic microorganisms, derived from external and maternal sources, can inhabit the gut of hatchlings. In an effort to optimize the enteric development of chicks and to assist in the establishment of intestinal bacteria populations that are conducive to their good health and for their subsequent protection against invading pathogens, the in ovo administration of various biologics has been explored in various laboratories. This chapter discusses the various biologics tested for their effects on the gut microbiome and examines competitive exclusion cultures, specifically identified probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics and nutrients. The chapter also looks at the prospects for the commercial in ovo use of these biologics during transfer, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Greenhouse production systems have been introduced to improve growth conditions for plants to increase yield and quality. While initially greenhouses were mainly found in cool climates, water saving has become an important driver for the expansion of the greenhouse industry, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Over the past few decades, the level of control in greenhouses has increased rapidly due to an increased use of technology. During the last 30 years, the yield per unit land area has doubled for several crops. We expect that the application of new technologies will continue to expand in the coming years while at the same time biological and ecological principles will be increasingly applied. This chapter provides key figures on production in greenhouses, discusses the sustainability of greenhouse production and describes current and future trends in greenhouse production.
Optimizing production of quality nursery plants for fruit tree cultivation
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It is now possible to purchase specific nursery tree types that are more compatible with an intended training system, improving planting efficiency and encouraging early production. Although single axis, well-feathered scions suitable for high-density spindle training systems have dominated nursery production over the past two decades, recent nursery trends increasingly produce double axis scions for pear, apple and even stone fruits, to obtain uniform and early producing fruiting walls. This chapter summarizes current knowledge of the physiology of grafting and recent innovations in such fruit tree nursery techniques. New approaches to regulate nursery plant growth and development are reviewed. In vitro propagation is also included which is becoming more and more powerful for producing rootstocks and self-rooted varieties of several fruit species. Sections on scion grafting and budding techniques are covered and the biochemical and physiological aspects of graft incompatibility are discussed in detail. The chapter concludes with a section on tree production in the nursery.
Advances and challenges in blueberry breeding
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Efforts have steadily increased towards understanding the biological processes underlying key physiological traits in blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum). Studies have shown high levels of genetic diversity are present within this species, much of which remains to be harnessed. This chapter introduces both the recent advances and current challenges in the breeding of blueberries, with particular focus on demand and production in the United Kingdom. Key cultivars currently used in the industry are listed and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. The genetic material available and its use in breeding programmes are also covered including crossing with other species within the genus Vaccinium to obtain desirable traits. Also included are sections on phenotyping and marker-assisted breeding. An extensive discussion on the improvement of flavour in blueberry is also provided. The chapter concludes with a summary and a look ahead to future trends in research.
Modelling the environmental impacts of pesticides in agriculture
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The active ingredients of pesticides, which are widely applied in agriculture worldwide, are important contributors to global human and ecological health burden. Modelling emissions and related human toxicity and ecotoxicity impacts of agricultural pesticides in environmental and life cycle assessment is therefore crucial, but also comes with challenges. This chapter provides an overview of how pesticides are currently addressed in emission inventory and impact assessment, along with a case study focusing on emission, exposure and toxicity quantification of four selected pesticides applied to potatoes in a real-life scenario, and details on remaining challenges and ways forward. The chapter discusses the relevance of spatiotemporal variability in modelling emissions and the toxicity and ecotoxicity impacts of pesticides, and how substitution scenarios can be used to identify more sustainable pesticides. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Antibiotics and gut function: historical and current perspectives
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Antibiotics play a central role in human health, and the sensitivity of bacteria to these compounds is a natural resource that must be husbanded to keep from losing their effectiveness from increasing antibiotic resistance in the environment. This chapter places the use of antibiotics in poultry production in its historical context to understand the benefits that antibiotics have conferred on animal production to date. The chapter considers past, present and future use of antibiotics, focusing on the use of bacteriocins and phytochemicals.
Improvement options for agricultural crop production for food, feed and bioenergy
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Agriculture currently faces the dual challenges of both having to increase its overall biomass output while contributing to the mitigation of pressing global environmental changes. It is therefore urged to reconcile these challenges by drastically increasing its performance in the short term. This chapter reviews the agronomic options available at the crop production level to participate in this effort, from single practices to a more integrated systems approach. Strategies such as improved tillage, fertilizer management, the inclusion of legumes in crop rotations, irrigation management, intercropping, and disease and weed management are appraised using the life-cycle assessment framework, the use of which currently prevails to inform on sustainability. The chapter concludes with a summary of these options and suggests avenues for future research whether into a better estimation of performance or towards the implementation of low-impact crop production systems.
Optimizing disease management in fruit cultivation
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Sustainable management of plant diseases is a perennial challenge for pome fruit and stone fruit producers in humid regions throughout the world. Delayed orchard profitability, decreased orchard longevity, reduction in fruit quality and unsalable fruit caused by fungal and bacterial diseases of tree fruit result in devastating economic losses annually. Globally, tree fruit growers are increasingly relying on an integrated management approach through the incorporation of predictive modelling and biological, chemical and cultural control methods to mitigate disease-associated losses. This chapter provides an introduction of tree fruit production and general management paradigms, followed by a discussion of main pre-harvest fungal and bacterial diseases, methods of integrated disease management and a discussion of advances in technology for pathogen detection and disease management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future challenges of the tree fruit industry and provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Advances in understanding tree fruit-rhizosphere microbiome relationships for enhanced plant health
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Host–microbe interactions in the rhizosphere influence numerous processes that determine plant productivity and health. The rhizo-microbiome influences functions ranging from protection of the plant from pathogen attack to enhanced nutrient availability and uptake. This chapter examines the use of ‘omics’ technologies to address key issues in plant–microbe interactions including the effects of the rhizosphere microbiome in determining plant health and production when interacting with their environment. After examining the contribution of the microbiome in directing plant responses to their environment, the chapter provides two case studies focusing on manipulation of the rhizosphere microbiome to optimize crop production on orchard replant sites. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Uses and health benefits of chestnuts
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Production and consumption of chestnut has shown a steady increase in recent years, driven by both increased consumer awareness about food composition and the health benefits of a nut-rich diet. This chapter provides an overview of the uses and health benefits of chestnuts (Castanea spp.). Starting with an overview of recent research on chestnuts, the chapter goes on to review the general uses of chestnuts in the Mediterranean and Europe. The specific nutritional features of chestnuts are discussed, as are the effects of cooking on the quality of chestnuts. The importance of good post-harvest handling and storage are considered – chestnuts are extremely susceptible to damage during storage. Uses, such as in growing media or skin care products, for chestnut co-products (bur, shell, leaves, curing wastewater etc.) left behind by processing are discussed. The chapter concludes with a comprehensive overview of the health benefits of eating chestnuts.
Advances in automated in-field grading of harvested crops
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Mechanical harvesting machines such as canopy and trunk shakers are widely used for yield collection from some crops; however, most fruits and vegetables produced for the fresh market have to be collected manually. This chapter reviews the current state of mechanized collection technology, such as the development of harvest-assist platforms, as well as the possibilities of these machines to incorporate artificial vision systems to perform an in-field pre-grading of the product. The main advantages of each system are discussed and the problems encountered in the field are described. A case study on the use of harvest-assist platforms in citrus orchards is presented describing prototypes that are capable of both inspecting collected fruits and separating them into categories using computer vision.
Optimizing plant growth, yield and fruit quality with plant bioregulators
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Plant bioregulators (PBRs) are used extensively in the tree fruit production industry. They influence many processes in a plant including shoot growth, branch angle, bud break, flower bud formation and fruit abscission, ripening, shape and finish, and as such can be used to optimize not only plant growth but also fruit yield and quality. The chapter starts with a classification of PBRs, followed by a detailed discussion on the application of PBRs and their use such as in the development and maintenance of tree structure, and also the control of vegetative growth. The use of PBRs in crop load management and their influence on flowering and fruit set is also presented concluding with sections on both the pre-harvest application of PBRs and their use in improving fruit shape and appearance.
Understanding agroecosystems and pest management: from chemical control to integrated biodiversity management
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Agroecology analyzes the different components that make up an ecosystem such as soils, climate, plants and animals, and their interactions within agricultural landscapes. Bringing together a wide range of disciplines, agroecology encompasses different scales from the individual field through to farms and landscapes and, even, complete food systems from farm to fork. There is a strong focus on protecting natural resources to ensure sustainable agricultural production. This chapter explores agroecology and pest management practices, using the example of a particular agroecosystem: rice paddies in Japan. It discusses how an understanding of agroecosystem dynamics explains the limitations of early attempts at chemical control of rice insect pests. It also shows how this understanding has informed the development of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies and is now leading to new concepts such as integrated biodiversity management (IBM). Finally, the chapter explores how agroecological concepts can help address challenges such as invasive species and climate change.
Integrated pest management of mites
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Plant feeding mites are major pests of agricultural crops and ornamentals. They disrupt physiological processes, change the physical appearance of the plant, and transmit diseases to crops. This chapter takes a holistic approach to integrated mite management by reviewing the basics of mite taxonomy and morphology and then studying key plant mite families focusing on major plant feeding mite pests as well as natural predators that regulate these mite populations. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading on the subject.
Advances in cultivation of pistachio
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Pistachio is grown most intensively in Iran, Syria, Turkey and the USA. The other pistachio-producing regions are the Near East, North Africa and Southern Europe. The most important characteristics of pistachio nuts from a marketing viewpoint are large size, high percentage of shell splitting, low percentage of blank nuts, high oil and protein content, regular bearing and high percentage of green kernels (although this is a varietal characteristic, it is also related to altitude and time of harvest). This chapter discusses recent advances in the cultivation of pistachio. Following an introduction, a section on pistachio genetics is provided. Then follows information on the climatic requirements of pistachio, which requires a period of chilling as well as a hot, dry climate for fruiting. The flower and fruit characteristics of pistachio are then discussed with information provided on how to plan orchards as pistachio is a dioecious species. Both pistachio cultivars and rootstocks are listed. Propagating techniques (both by seed and budding) are then presented, followed by a discussion on establishing, planting and managing orchards. The chapter concludes with sections on pests and diseases and how to improve crop yield.
Advances in fruit genetics
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Sustainability of fruit production worldwide is heavily dependent on advances in fruit genetics. Changing environments, innovative production systems, increased pest and pathogen pressure and fluctuating consumer preferences are forcing fruit producers to adjust at a higher pace than ever before. This chapter provides an overview of the advances in fruit genetics as they pertain to discoveries in fruit quality and disease resistance, and their application to the improvement of fruit production and sustainability. The chapter looks at developments in genomic mapping, marker-assisted breeding and biotechnology. The chapter also examines the genetics of fruit quality and disease resistance, and includes a detailed case study on hot spot on chromosome 4 in Prunus. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Advances in understanding the nutritional profile and health benefits of almonds
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Almond (Prunus dulcis) is widely grown in countries with a Mediterranean climate and is considered a healthy source of many nutrients. This chapter discusses the nutritional composition of almonds and, in particular, those nutrients with nutraceutical properties, from phenolics and fatty acids to phytosterols. The author shows how this unique nutritional profile translates into health benefits related to almond consumption. Following an introduction, a section is provided on phenolics in almonds (including a breakdown on the compounds found in almond skins). Then follows a section on lipid and fatty acid content; here information is provided on the fatty acid composition of almonds from different cultivars, and also a comparison with other nut crops including hazelnut, peanut, pistachio, and walnut. Phytosterols and tocopherols are then discussed as almonds are considered a good source of both nutrients. The chapter concludes with a section on the health benefits of almonds.
The use of farm-level models to assess the environmental impact of livestock production
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In light of a changing climate, the international community is committed to taking action to reduce overall levels of greenhouse gas emissions. Agriculture will play an important role here given that agriculture and land use are responsible globally for around 24% of such greenhouse gas emissions. This chapter looks at the use of farm-level models to assess and mitigate the environmental impact of agriculture, with a focus on greenhouse gas emissions and livestock production. Sections are first included on the rationale for environmental modelling in agriculture and methodologies for accounting for agricultural emissions. The authors then describe a range of tools and critically assess their use for farm-level benchmarking and mitigation assessment. The chapter also discusses the technical aspects of modelling farm-level emissions and environmental impacts within the defined framework, in order to provide a synthesis of the current state of the art and a basis for the consideration of specific development objectives.
The use of intelligent/autonomous systems in crop irrigation
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Climate change, combined with the need to feed an increasing population with decreasing arable land, requires to radically re-think the way water is delivered to crops to increase efficiency and minimize wasted water. This chapter examines how robotic and artificial intelligence can be used to improve precision irrigation in vineyards. The chapter pays particular attention to robot-assisted precision irrigation delivery (RAPID), a novel system currently being developed and tested at the University of California. The chapter presents preliminary results from RAPID testing and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
The use of agricultural robots in crop spraying/fertilizer applications
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Spraying pesticides is a main element of agriculture worldwide, since 30% to 35% of crop losses can be prevented when harmful insects and diseases are eliminated by applying pesticides. A robotic sprayer can help reduce pesticide application while removing the human operator from the hazardous pesticide environment. This chapter provides an introduction to robotic sprayers and describes in detail a case study of the development of a smart robotic sprayer with its key components. The chapter also describes the operational framework developed for such a robot that supports human-robot collaboration. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Nested association mapping in barley to identify extractable trait genes
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Wild germplasm contains a wealth of alleles, which are useful in modern agriculture. Nested association mapping (NAM) makes use of wild germplasm by developing multi-parental populations after crossing a single elite cultivar to a number of exotic donors. The resulting NAM lines are subsequently characterized through SNP genotyping and quantitative trait phenotyping. Both data sets are finally merged to conduct genome-wide association studies (GWAS) leading to the identification of quantitative trait loci (QTL), which are involved in controlling these traits. This chapter describes the principles of QTL mapping and NAM mapping, and outlines the sequencing the barley genome. The chapter includes a number of detailed barley NAM case studies from around the world. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Ecological impacts of pesticides and their mitigation within IPM systems
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Chemicals, frequently the main method of pest control in agriculture, have negative effects on natural enemies that also control pests. Mitigation of pesticide impacts depends on increasing the role of natural enemies, reducing chemical application while still controlling pests and maintaining yields. This chapter outlines the ways in which pesticide use leads to increased pest problems and examines strategies for mitigating pesticide impacts. The chapter includes a detailed case study focussing on the diamondback moth (DBM). Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Life cycle assessment methodology for agriculture: some considerations for best practices
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Life cycle assessment (LCA), a method that originates from the manufacturing industry, is increasingly applied to agricultural systems as a more holistic perspective and approach with respect to managing agricultural product life cycles. However, the practice of applying LCA to agricultural systems is far from being standardized. Key methodological issues remain unresolved, resulting in a plethora of ways in which LCA is applied in practice that sometimes provides conflicting results. This chapter discusses issues associated with LCA including delimitation of systems boundaries, defining the functional unit, handling co-production, and the choosing of impact assessment methods. This chapter addresses the methodology of agricultural LCA, supported by detailed case studies. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Fungal diseases affecting oil palm
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Oil palm is prone to attack by a number of fungal diseases such as basal stem rot (BSR), Fusarium wilt (vascular wilt) and bud rot disease. To date, only partial resistance materials have been identified for BSR. This chapter provides further insights on the BSR that is a major problem for plantations, particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia. The chapter focuses particularly on one variety of BSR, Ganoderma boninense, but also addresses Fusarium wilt and bud rot disease, examining the latest research on resistance materials.
Assessing socio-economic impacts of agriculture
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Economic assessments remain the dominating form of socio-economic assessment in agriculture; yet practical implementation often suffers from severe limitations. However, much of the early criticism has slowly been adopted and integrated in the form of significant improvements in the consistency and completeness of the economic assessment techniques. What remains is a better integration with the qualitative understandings developed in the social impact assessment community. This chapter is dedicated to impacts that are related to social and economic pressures, such as underpayment of labour, illegitimate resource acquisition and control, and inadequate work conditions. The author describes the development and state of the art of cost–benefit assessment and social impact assessment in agriculture (Sections 2–6) and their integration into models and tools with an economy-wide supply chain perspective (Section 7). Socio-economic impacts of agricultural development are covered in Sections 8–11. The final section considers the role of certification and fair-trade schemes.
Tropical agroforestry and ecosystem services: trade-off analysis for better design strategies
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A large body of research has documented a wide list of provisioning and regulating services from tropical agroforestry systems (AFS). This chapter offers an overview of ecosystem services delivered by tropical AFS and presents practical approaches for trade-off analysis between ecosystem services and plant biodiversity for better design (or redesign) and management of AFS. It is structured as follows: Section 2 highlights the main provisioning and regulating services provided by tropical AFS (covering pest and disease regulation, nutrient cycling and soil quality, carbon sequestration, and water regulation); Section 3 provides an overview of practical approaches to assess trade-offs; and Section 4 presents a case study of trade-off analysis. This last section uses data from a so-called Sentinel Landscape–El Tuma-La Dalia in Nicaragua, and is useful to derive recommendations to enhance the delivering of ecosystem services from five AFS (cocoa AFS, coffee AFS, pasture-silvopastoral, grain fields, and homegardens).
Advances in understanding species ecology: phenological and life cycle modeling of insect pests
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The modeling of insect phenology has been an important component of IPM decision support systems for several decades. This chapter describes general concepts and methods of the systems approach using applied phenology modeling as an example. The authors outline the steps of model construction from a systems perspective, and then discuss funding challenges, types of resources, and major sources of error in phenology model development and implementation. The chapter also compares some of the trade-offs and pitfalls of using linear and non-linear approaches to modeling temperature-development data. It provides an example of using the systems approach by presenting a life cycle systems model for the spotted wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii, a major fruit crop pest in the US and Europe. The model can serve as a way to summarize current knowledge and potential best management practices that can guide the development of IPM programs.
Use of palm oil for biofuel
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The use of fossil fuels depletes the world’s limited supply of coal, oil and gas and releases stocked CO2 into the atmosphere. Biofuels, derived from biomass, are renewable and carbon neutral, because consumption merely releases CO2 that was taken from the atmosphere by the growing biomass a few years before. However, increasing the use of biofuels could also increase the pressure on ecosystems which must support the production of additional biomass. In this chapter, we review the sustainability of biofuels, discuss their production and economics and consider levels of government support for production and related geopolitical issues.
Human–robot collaboration in agricultural robots
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Agricultural robots are being developed for many on-farm tasks; however, in practice, current working agricultural robotic systems are limited and fully robotized farms are not yet available. This chapter presents initial work carried out in the domain of human–robot collaboration in agriculture and provides directions about how it should be further adopted to enable successful robotization of agricultural operations. The chapter discusses the various interaction roles a human may have with a robot and also the levels of human–robot collaboration. Aspects of interface design are also included, and human–robot collaborative tasks such as detection, navigation, harvesting and spraying are discussed. The chapter concludes with a look on the future of agricultural robotics where the role of humans in agriculture will not be eliminated by introducing robotic systems, and should more autonomous systems become feasible, humans will still be needed for supervision and collaboration.
Prerequisites, procedures and potential of hybrid breeding in wheat
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Hybrid wheat breeding offers great potential to deal with increasing demands for food and feed of future generations. Wheat hybrids possess substantial heterosis for grain yield and can combine disease resistance and quality traits with higher grain yield compared to line cultivars. Moreover, hybrid wheat breeding offers the smart stacking of major dominant genes. Major challenges are the establishment of heterotic groups and the need to increase the cross-pollination capability of wheat for a more efficient hybrid seed production. The chapter describes heterosis in wheat and heterotic groups, before moving on to consider hybrid seed production. Finally, the chapter discusses the relative advantages of hybrid versus line breeding.
Advances in conservation biological control and habitat management for IPM
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Conservation biological control and habitat management are key components of integrated pest management (IPM). These related approaches suppress pests by promoting natural enemy survival and impact and by exploiting direct, suppressive effects on pests from vegetation structure. During this century, substantial progress has been made in research and practical use of these approaches. Chemical ecology, integration of molecular techniques and understanding of landscape and regional scale effects are areas where key developments have been made. This chapter focusses on advances in this field of study. It first discusses the terms ‘conservation biological control’ and ‘habitat management’, and differences between them. It goes on to put forward the rationale for conservation biological control and habitat management, and elucidate advances in these areas. The chapter concludes with a section on future directions – the primary challenge being to translate this body of research knowledge into practicable strategies and on-farm adoption.
Use of the secondary gene pool of barley in breeding improved varieties
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Barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare L.) is an important crop species and breeding efforts over the past century have resulted in agronomically advanced cultivars. These efforts have also resulted in reduced genetic diversity of elite barley germplasm, hampering the ability of breeders to improve cultivars in the future, especially with respect to new diseases and a changing climate. This chapter describes in detail the use of H. bulbosum to improve cultivated barley. The chapter offers an account of doubled haploid production, introgressions, linkage mapping and next-generation sequencing before looking ahead to future research trends in this area.
Towards sustainable production of walnut (Juglans regia L.)
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Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.) is the only species of the genus Juglans widely cultivated for nut production. Over the last 20 years, global walnut production has grown by almost 250%, with China, the United States and Iran as leading producing countries. This enormous growth is mainly attributed to an increase in regular consumption of walnut due to its high nutritional value and numerous benefits to human health. Walnut breeding programmes are facing the challenge of increasing production sustainably because of climate change and human population growth. This chapter reviews recent efforts and achievements in ecologically and economically friendly walnut cultivation. The chapter describes different practices that have been applied in this direction, such as the development of new cultivars with genetic resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, the identification of solutions for reducing input consumption, and the exploration and conservation of genetic diversity in walnut.
A holistic approach to sustainable agriculture: trees, science and global society
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Despite great advances in our understanding of the environmental, social and economic role of trees in farming systems, much remains to be done, especially regarding the wider adoption of agroforestry and its up- and out-scaling. This chapter explores the relationship between trees, science and global society. The chapter offers an overview of tree agroecology, tree domestication, commercialization of trees and the relevance of development studies to this field. The chapter assesses the potential for upscaling the exploitation of trees as a sustainable resource and examines relevant issues connected with policy and agribusiness.
Managing hedgerows to optimise ecosystem services in agroforestry systems
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Hedgerows are composed of trees and/or shrubs and serve as natural fences, often between pastures and arable fields. This chapter discusses the importance of hedgerow management and maintenance to enhance multiple ecosystem services such as biomass production, wind and water protection, habitat provision and landscape aesthetics. It develops a categorisation of existing hedgerows, applicable to linear woody-features such as hedgerows, windbreaks and riparian buffer strips, and evaluates the condition of each category with respect to multiple ecosystem services. It considers different measures for improving hedgerow condition and provides guidelines for hedgerow restoration and management under consideration of potential conflicts between services. The chapter highlights key constraints to hedgerow management in Germany and applies the developed concept to an agricultural area in the federal state of Brandenburg. It estimates the biomass potential of hedgerows in this area and demonstrates the application of a restoration and management strategy to selected hedgerows under two different scenarios.
Optimizing fruit production efficiencies through mechanization
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Many technological advances in farming have been adopted over the last century transforming various operations. However, some processes in fruit and vegetable production such as tree fruit and berry harvesting have not changed, and crops such as apples, cherries, peaches, blueberries, and strawberries are harvested manually, an operation that is highly labor intensive, demanding a huge seasonal workforce in rural areas around the world. This chapter looks at optimizing fruit production efficiencies through mechanization. Starting with an introductory section on challenges faced in tree fruit harvesting, the chapter goes on to discuss harvest-aid (or labor-assist) machines (or platforms), which as the name suggests, are designed to assist human fruit pickers. Mass and robotic harvesting systems, which on the other hand, are designed to remove the need of manual picking, are also covered, with specific examples included. Fruit conveyance and handling, and mechanical pruning are also discussed.
Advances and challenges in cherry breeding
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Cherry breeding is currently carried out in many countries, by public and private programmes, and sweet cherry cultivars are continuously being released. However, classification into clear-cut groups of existing cultivars is difficult, because there is a vast continuum of morphological diversity and many traits are influenced by differences in environmental factors among growing locations, including climate and soil characteristics as well as cultural practices. Despite the high number of available commercial cultivars, both sweet and sour cherry cultivation are still based on a small number of cultivars. After offering a historical overview of cherry breeding, this chapter describes the main achievements in conventional breeding, before considering methodologies and the latest advances and key cultivars. The chapter considers new approaches and phenotyping protocols. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
The role of food safety in food waste and losses
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Food loss and waste from the initial stages of food production to consumption is causing a growing concern. As yet, no food safety issues have been linked to food loss and waste, but numerous incidences of failure to comply with regulatory criteria have resulted in outbreaks of foodborne disease and food recalls due to microbiological or chemical hazards in the food. Overly extensive food safety concerns through exacting regulatory standards and quality control also cause enormous losses worldwide. In this chapter, we review the food safety challenges and drawbacks at each stage of the food supply chain by discussing relevant cases and their contribution to food loss and waste. The disparities between developing and developed countries are addressed to underline the global effect of food safety policies on food production and waste. Recent food safety trends and initiatives are also discussed.
Advances in understanding health benefits of hazelnuts
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Hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.) are rich in fats, protein, valuable fibre content, phytonutrients and antioxidants such as vitamin E. The health benefits of hazelnut consumption arise from the synergic action of unsaturated fat or bioactive compounds including plant sterols and dietary fibre. After introducing the key nutritional features of hazelnuts, the chapter describes advances in metabolomics and outlines the results of epidemiological and clinical studies on both healthy and unhealthy volunteers. The chapter considers molecular studies of both nutrigenomics and nutri-epigenomics before looking ahead to future trends in this area of research.
Leveraging the QTLome to enhance climate change resilience in cereals
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Global food security relies on the release of cultivars more resilient to the negative effects of abiotic stress caused by climate change. Attaining this daunting goal will require a substantial increase in selection gain achieved so far with conventional breeding. To this end, the identification of molecular markers associated with major quantitative trait loci (QTL) for the adaptive response to abiotic stress enables marker-assisted selection, boosts gain from selection while promoting a better understanding of the functional basis of abiotic stress resilience. This chapter presents an update and partial synopsis of the vast literature on the dissection of the QTLome in cereals and how this information is being leveraged toward the release of climate-resilient cultivars. Among the literature available on the topic of this review, the authors have focused on both recent articles as well as a number of reviews thus providing a critical assessment and appreciation of the merits and shortcomings on the adoption of a QTL-centric approach.
Doubled haploid (DH) production for barley
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Current European barley breeding programs predominately rely on doubled haploid (DH) technology delivering several essential advantages, such as accelerated development of homozygous genotypes, early recognition of major recessive traits, enabling to select faster and much more robust, and facilitation of maintenance breeding starting directly from homozygotes. This chapter gives a general overview of the different methods involved in doubled haploid technology, focusing on their relevance the application in practical barley breeding programs. The chapter examines wide hybridization, anther culture (AC), isolated microspore culture (MC) and parthenogenesis.
Agroforestry practices: windbreaks
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Windbreaks, also known as vegetative environmental buffers (VEB) or shelterbelts, are a common feature of agricultural systems around the world. These strips of trees, shrubs, and other perennial or annual vegetation perform a number of functions, including providing protection from the wind for homesteads, livestock, and crops; reducing soil erosion; providing protection from drifting snow; providing wildlife habitat; and enhancing aesthetics in agricultural landscapes. This chapter offers an overview of the benefits of windbreaks and examines the process of tree and shrub selection and planting. The chapter looks at designing windbreaks to reduce wind speed and snow drift, as well as describing the use of windbreaks for particulate capture, odor mitigation, and wildlife conservation. Finally, the chapter looks at future research trends in this area and offers detailed suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Modelling agroforestry systems
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An agroforestry system is an interconnecting network of woody vegetation with crops and/or animals that work together. This chapter sets out to discuss how to model such systems, which can be highly complex in nature. In the first section, the authors look at the current state of agroforestry modelling, going on to describe two European agroforestry projects that involved modelling, the Silvoarable Agroforestry For Europe (SAFE) project and the AGroFORestry that Will Advance Rural Development (AGFORWARD) project. Looking towards the future, the final section considers current agroforestry modelling needs and potential trends. The authors stress that it is important to note that agroforestry models have a role beyond just agroforestry. Other points for consideration must also include the accessibility of agroforestry models, the benefits of long-term support, the need to know when to stop model development, the availability of data and societal assessments.
Agroforestry for hardwood timber production
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Managing hardwood trees for high-quality sawlogs within the agroforestry practices of alley cropping, silvopasture, forested riparian buffers and upland (windbreaks) buffers means intensively managing relatively wide-spaced trees and a ground cover as a companion crop on the same unit of land. This chapter synthesizes available information on managing such trees for production of veneer and high-quality sawlogs within the agroforestry practices aforementioned. Sections on the impact of ground cover on tree growth are provided, as are growing-space requirements for hardwoods. Pruning recommendations and practices are also covered as pruning is essential for production of high-quality logs of most species in any agroforestry practice. The chapter concludes with a section on log and wood quality and the general requirements of veneer logs (e.g. nearly cylindrical shape with a well-centred heart, a minimum of internal defects, uniform wood colour and texture and properly sawed to length without debris) discussed.
Agroforestry practices: forest farming
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Forest farming is a relatively low-tech agroforestry practice for the cultivation of shade-tolerant non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as medicinal plants, mushrooms, fruits, nuts, tree syrups and/or nursery stock. It is an ecologically sustainable way for forest owners to generate income, while maintaining forest health (productive conservation). This chapter introduces the concept of forest farming with sections on both estimating yields and how to select sites for such practices. Products with the greatest potential for income generation are covered such as shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes) where logs begin yielding relatively soon after their inoculation, and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) which has greater income-generating potential, although requires many years before it begins to yield. Other NTFPs are also covered including medicinal plants, fruits, nuts and tree syrups. The chapter concludes with two case studies, one on the forest farming of tree nuts and the other on the production of wild leeks (Allium tricoccum).
Advances in breeding of pistachio
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Pistacia vera L. (pistachio) has the only commercially important edible nuts in the genus, and wild species are used for rootstock. Breeding in pistachio is very slow, time-consuming and expensive due to very long juvenile period and the plant’s dioecious character. This chapter describes the objectives of pistachio breeding, the genetic resources available and the importance of cytogenetics to this field. The chapter then examines the use of molecular markers, genome and transcriptome sequencing, and the role of micropropagation and breeding achievements in the area of pistachio cultivation. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading.
Modelling the environmental impacts of agriculture, focusing on oil palm
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Cultivation of crops affects the environment via flows of energy and materials. Impacts are felt in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, surrounding terrestrial ecosystems and the field itself. Models are useful tools for improving our understanding of the processes and predicting how they might be affected by changes in management. Current models range from simple indicators of risk or impact, based on empirical relationships, to dynamic process-based models. Increasingly complex and comprehensive models with increasing spatial and temporal resolution and extent are being developed, mostly by coupling diverse sub-models. This chapter reviews the range of models developed for oil palm systems, and discusses how other existing models might be adapted for oil palm.
Site-directed genome modification
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The principle of customized endonuclease-triggered genome modification offers unprecedented opportunities for the elucidation of gene functions and the improvement of crop plant performance. The advantage of this technology lies in the possibility of defining the genomic site where a modification is to be made. This chapter provides an overview of the principles of targeted mutagenesis, the state-of-the-art, current limitations, applications of the technology as well as future perspectives on the use of customizable endonucleases in research and breeding devoted to wheat and barley.
Sustainable use of energy in greenhouses
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Greenhouse crops are continuously under pressure of infestations by a wide range of pests and diseases. This chapter describes the myriad practices that can contribute to managing pests and diseases, and how to integrate these practices in an ecologically based integrated pest management (IPM) approach. The chapter offers a historical perspective on the development of IPM, together with an explanation of its underlying rationale and main challenges. The chapter discusses the different components of IPM, including sanitation, cultural control, preventative and curative biological control. The chapter examines food web complexities, which inevitably result from integrating multiple biological control agents in a single crop, and offers a detailed case study on IPM implementation in tomato. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Advances in using robots in forestry operations
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Forestry operations have a role to play in the supply of fossil-free raw material to present and future bio-economies. Advances in automation will enable forestry operations to be conducted in a more sustainable way, with better consideration of economic, ecological and ergonomic requirements. This chapter examines the challenges associated with using robots in forestry operations, focusing on the importance of knowing the state of the machine, where the machine is located, the location of surrounding objects and how to plan the work. The chapter looks at the challenges of moving around in the forest, reaching and handling the trees, converting trees into products and extracting logs or trees to roadside landings. The chapter also considers remote-controlled operations. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and makes detailed suggestions on further reading.
The nutritional value of red palm oil
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There is a great deal of confusion regarding the nutritional value and health effects of palm oil. The controversy and conflicting views still continue on whether or not palm oil is atherogenic. Based on current evidence, it would appear that palm oil has both favourable and unfavourable effects. The primary focus of the present chapter is on the nutritional value of crude (red) palm oil, specifically as a source of vitamin A. The chapter includes a detailed case study on the use of red palm oil in Burkino Faso and looks ahead to future trends for research in this area.
Sustainable sweet cherry cultivation: a case study for designing optimized orchard production systems
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Sweet cherries are an inherently challenging crop to produce sustainably, subject to crop loss from climatic events, birds, insects, and diseases, and requiring extensive manual labor due to large tree canopies and small delicate fruits. Nevertheless, cherry production has increased dramatically worldwide for the past two decades, driven by strong consumer demand and innovations in (a) plant materials (self-compatible cultivars and precocious, vigor-limiting rootstocks); (b) efficient orchard training systems; (c) orchard microclimate modification technologies, and (d) physiological knowledge for successful adoption of these tools. This chapter examines sustainable sweet cherry cultivation, starting with opportunities and challenges in this field of research, then follows coverage of cherry morphology, growth, and fruiting. Cultivars and rootstocks for sustainable production are discussed, as are tools for optimizing orchard tree development. The author then explores rationales and innovations for designing optimized orchard production systems. The evolution of very narrow, planar (two-dimensional) canopy architectures that utilize multiple leaders per tree (in proportion to the composite vigor of the rootstock, cultivar, climate, and soil) is proposed as being increasingly important for labor-efficient, partially-mechanized, crop load-optimized production of sweet cherries, as well as that of other tree fruits as well. The chapter concludes with a section on mitigating abiotic and biotic risks to sustainable production.
Advances in understanding reproductive development in fruit-bearing plants
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In recent years, a physiological understanding of the reproductive development process in fruit trees has accumulated through numerous molecular and genetic studies. Although the physiological traits of perennial or woody fruit trees often hinder studies of the mechanisms driving their reproductive physiology, such studies can provide important new findings in plant science, and beneficial information and new ideas for fruit production. This chapter reviews recent research on the physiology and genetics of reproductive development in fruit trees. Beginning with an introductory overview, the chapter goes on to include sections on the physiology and genetic analysis of reproductive meristem development, bud dormancy and flowering, sexual determination and development of flower structures. The physiology of pollination, fertilization and gametogenesis is also discussed. The chapter concludes with sections on the physiology and genetics of fruit development and phytohormones, and lastly, fruit maturation and ripening.
Advances in cultivation of almonds: effects of genotypes, environment and cultural techniques
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The chapter is an overview of the recent research advances in almond scion and rootstock genotypes, orchard management, including irrigation and fertilization, emphasizing an integrated approach including the environment. The chapter looks ahead to areas for further research in almond tree eco-physiology and cultivation, with a special emphasis on key factors determining almond tree yield potential. The discussion highlights the need to adopt the concept of ‘sustainable intensification’ to reduce the environmental impact of modern almond production systems based on high-input, high-return models. Finally, the chapter provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in wheat
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Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have become a very popular method for dissecting the genetic basis of complex traits in plants, including wheat. The benefits of GWAS are a relatively detailed mapping resolution and that no population development is required. The surge of interest in GWAS has been fueled by recent developments in genomics that allow for rapid identification of genetic markers. This chapter describes the features of GWAS, including high-density genotyping, phenotyping and GWAS design. The chapter explains the use of GWAS for controlling population structure and familial relatedness, considering the estimation of linkage disequilibrium (LD) and considering issues of research replication and validation. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in research in this field and includes a detailed case study on genomic regions conferring increased grain weight.
Bioactive/nutraceutical compounds in fruit that optimize human health benefits
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In the past decade, numerous reports demonstrate that high consumption of fruits and vegetables is beneficial for health, being associated with a reduced risk of degenerative diseases. This chapter provides a brief description of the chemistry of bioactive compounds (BCs) and their presence in temperate fruits, and discusses recent advances in strategies towards improving sustainable crop production for nutraceuticals. The chapter examines polyphenols, carotenoids, vitamin C and production practices that influence bioactive compound synthesis. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
The palm oil market: growth and trends
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For many years, palm oil has proved to be the most productive, highest yielding oil crops, with a yield 4 to 10 times higher than any other vegetable oil, a factor that has helped palm oil become the most consumed vegetable oil in the world. This chapter provides an overview of oil palm cultivation and palm oil production throughout the world, with a particular focus on Indonesia and Malaysia, and describes the growth of the palm oil industry and the nature of the global market for palm oil. The chapter also addresses the diverse ecological and social impacts of palm oil and suggests the directions that palm oil production might take in the future.
Advances and challenges in raspberry and blackberry breeding
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Raspberries and blackberries (Rubus spp.) are important fruit crops that have gained substantial economic interest. Since 1996, berry production has been increasing. With the advent of economic and environmental constraints, sustainability is also becoming increasingly important. This chapter focuses on the upcoming challenges, the available breeder tools and the future of breeding for sustainability of raspberry and blackberry crops. The chapter examines desirable traits for sustainability, molecular tools and resources, and looks ahead to future trends in the breeding of raspberries and blackberries.
Advances in nutrient management in greenhouse cultivation
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Precise nutrient management is essential to produce high-quality and high-yielding greenhouse crops while limiting cost and environmental damage. Traditional nutrient management strategies are being replaced by new types of fertilizers combined with precision delivery and management. This chapter reviews fundamental greenhouse crop nutrition concepts and including current methods of nutrient delivery with the importance of integration nutrition with irrigation systems. Different approaches to managing nutrients in soilless substrates and hydroponic systems, both conventional and organic, are summarized, as is the emerging role of beneficial microbes and biostimulants in greenhouse nutrient management. Fertilizer strategies to improve crop postharvest shelf life and reduce fertilizer leaching are also presented, as are the fundamental components of a comprehensive monitoring and management plan for greenhouse crop nutrition. This chapter concludes with a discussion of future prospects for nutrient management, as well as resources for readers to look for further information.
Assessing the impact of environmental factors on the quality of greenhouse produce
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In recent years, product quality has become more and more important, due to consumer concerns paired with well-being and a healthy lifestyle. Product quality is a complex, multidimensional and multi-factorial issue that relates to different factors. In this chapter, the objective, measurable and intrinsic aspects of quality related to the reaction of greenhouse plants to several environmental and pre-harvest factors is outlined. With reference to studies carried out from the beginning of this century, the effects of such factors on visual, organoleptic and nutritional product quality properties are presented. The main factors influencing the quality of produce are covered, these include assessing the impact of light, temperature, air humidity, carbon dioxide enrichment, root environment and growing techniques and cultural practices. The degree of produce maturity and ripeness at harvest is also discussed. The chapter concludes with a look towards future trends in research.
Research trends in oil palm cultivation
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Since its establishment as a commercial crop in Malaysia in 1917, palm oil has become the most important vegetable oil traded in the world. Its standing in the world market is attributed to the oil’s versatile applications, stable supply and affordability. With the estimated global world population reaching nine billion by 2050, the supply of palm oil must grow to help meet the demand for vegetable oils. This chapter summarises the trends in research which have been driven by key challenges faced by the industry. It covers the establishment of oil palm as an economic crop, the improvement of yield by selective breeding, the use of genomics to expedite research and a holistic approach to remodelling cultivation systems for eco-efficiency.
Challenges and developments in hybrid breeding of barley
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Over a long period of more than a century, breeding and improvements in cropping systems have led to a constant increase in grain yield in barley. Due to its autogamous propagation, commercial barley varieties are normally true inbred lines or doubled haploid lines normally having completely homozygous genomes. Hybrid breeding in autogamous cereals such as barley, however, is still in its infancy. This chapter describes the principles of heterosis in barley and its potential for yield enhancement. The chapter explains the potential of hybrid breeding in winter barley and examines the challenges associated with broadening the genetic basis for heterosis in winter barley. The chapter describes the cytoplasmic male sterility system for hybrid seed production in barley and looks at the environmental and genetic effects of hybrid breeding on the stability of cytoplasmic male sterility.
Pre- and post-harvest strategies to optimize fruit quality and shelf life
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Ensuring a sustainable tree fruit industry with regard to post-harvest quality management involves engaging approaches and technologies that encompass both pre- and post-harvest issues. The adoption of new, non-destructive technologies is important for quantifying and evaluating the challenge of quality management of fruit in post-harvest systems. This chapter examines the challenge of managing biological variance to improve the success of post-harvest technologies. The chapter looks at ways of measuring harvest maturity and improving sorting operations, as well as considering post-harvest technologies and temperature control. The chapter includes a detailed case study of post-harvest strategies in cherry cultivation in British Columbia. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in the field and provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Integrated pest management in sustainable palm oil production
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Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is central to sustainable palm oil production. This chapter explores the rapid expansion of oil palm and its impact on the environment, the range of pest species found in plantations, and the impact of replanting on pest numbers. The chapter introduces the concept and history of IPM in oil palm as well as the diverse range of approaches that form IPM strategies, including plant breeding, targeted chemical applications, management to reduce pest numbers and transmission, and management to increase the numbers of natural enemies and pathogens of pests. The chapter concludes by considering how approaches focused on more diverse oil palm landscapes and more diverse pest control species assemblages can increase the effectiveness of IPM.
