With ever-growing demands for sugar and difficulties in expanding cane area to meet such demands, increasing cane productivity per unit area, but with a reduced ecological footprint, has become imperative. The Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) addresses these concerns. This chapter describes the origins of SSI, its basic principles and the significance of tillering architecture, as well as giving an account of SSI field trials in India. The chapter outlines the expansion of SSI to Africa and Latin America and looks ahead to future challenges and developments in this area.
Emeritus Prof. Norman R. Scott
‘Towards’ sustainability of dairy farming: an overview
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There are many challenges to be faced in making dairy farming sustainable for feeding 9–10 billion people by 2050. This chapter defines what sustainability may mean for the dairy industry and assesses the current sustainability of dairy farming today, before going on to consider visions for a sustainable short-term future. These include emerging technologies such as integrating an ethanol producing plant with a dairy and making use of fuel cells. The chapter speculates on the longer term future of the industry up to 2050 and beyond.
John Fulton, The Ohio State University, USA
Variable-rate seeding systems for precision agriculture
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Variable-rate seeding (VRS) is the practice of adjusting the seeding rate or amount across a field in order to maximize yield and profit. This method of precision agriculture relies on site-specific data such as soil type, landscape position and yield maps. In the last decade, adoption of this method has dramatically increased as new planter technologies have emerged. This chapter summarizes current practices in VRS, reviewing the available technology and discussing the key strategies in its implementation. It also discusses the economic value of VRS, and the environments in which it could produce the greatest economic return.
Atik Dharmadi, Research Institute for Tea and Cinchona, Indonesia
Supporting smallholders in tea cultivation
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This chapter describes how smallholder organization can be strengthened to support tea cultivation. Smallholders are weak in terms of productivity owing to low yields and lack of working capital in comparison with large state-owned and private plantations. The chapter describes how the transition from a smallholders’ group to a smallholder-owned company can be managed, and reviews existing literature on smallholder development and lessons that can be learned in this area. It examines the ways in which smallholder-owned companies compete and form partnerships, and looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Prof. Barbara J. Stoecker
Sorghum as a food grain
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Grain sorghum is the fifth most produced cereal crop in the world, preceded only by rice, wheat, corn and barley, and it is a dietary staple for more than half a billion people in more than 30 countries. Sorghum is a principal food in areas of Africa and Asia as well as being used as a raw material for alcoholic drinks and beverages. This chapter describes the protein and starch make-up of sorghum and the effects of cooking and processing sorghum on its digestibility and nutrient availability. It also assesses the protein quality of sorghum for human use, describes the sensory and functional characteristics of food products containing sorghum and outlines the health benefits of sorghum.
Shipra Singh and Anita Pandey, G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, India; and Lok Man S. Palni, Graphic Era University, India
The role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in tea cultivation
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Continuous application of chemical fertilizers in tea gardens may increase production, but it adversely affects the quality of tea. There is therefore growing interest in rhizosphere associates of tea, including symbionts such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). These colonize tea plant roots and support both growth and improvement in the quality-related parameters of tea. This chapter reviews the use of AMF-based bio-inoculants in tea cultivation. It begins by discussing the range of AMF associated with tea and their effects on the tea rhizosphere. We consider the development of an AMF-based bioformulation for use in tea plantations, and then review the effects of using such a bioformulation on both tea plant growth and tea quality.
Apiradee Uthairatanakij
Understanding post-harvest deterioration of mangoes
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Post-harvest deterioration in the quality of mangoes is determined in large measure by pre-harvest factors ranging from the cultivar grown to orchard management and harvest practices. This chapter describes the changes related to ripening in mangoes and the pre-harvest, in-harvest and post-harvest practices which can lead to deterioration or damage. The chapter also addresses measures that can be taken to modify mangoes to reduce the risk of deterioration and damage, including fruit thinning and individual fruit bagging or nets. The chapter discusses viable and cost-effective solutions to mango damage and deterioration and looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Francis X. Johnson, Stockholm Environment Institute, Sweden
Sugarcane as a renewable resource for sustainable futures
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Sugarcane is not only the main source of sucrose but also the world’s most important energy crop with an important role in the global sustainability transition, owing to its high productivity, its concentration in developing and emerging economies and the wide array of commercial products that it can provide. This chapter describes the diversification of sugarcane production systems into multiple energy and non-energy products, improving economic competitiveness and environmental sustainability. The chapter examines how improved sugarcane production can contribute to social equality where good governance and inclusive institutions are designed and implemented. It also focuses on sustainability assessment, including the entire supply chain from cultivation through end use. The chapter finally describes the development of bio-refineries using sugarcane as feedstock and examines the ways in which efficient and effective use of sugarcane resources supports sustainable development pathways.
Willmar L. Leiser
Sorghum tolerance to low-phosphorus soil conditions
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Many sorghum growing areas in Africa are affected by phosphorus (P) scarcity. In these areas small-scale farmers depend on sorghum for food security and income, but have difficulty accessing or paying for P fertilizer. With the expected future price increases for P fertilizer, this problem is likely to increase. Enhancing sorghum tolerance to low P soil conditions is therefore of great importance both now and for the future. This chapter first gives an overview of the worldwide P challenge, and then focuses on the challenges of breeding sorghum for low soil P conditions, taking breeding for smallholder farmers in West Africa as a case study. We summarize the implications for applied sorghum breeding in West Africa, and review the future trends and challenges (both breeding and agronomic/socioeconomic) in bringing benefits of sorghum low-P tolerance to West African farmers.
Ingunn Stensland, Linley Valley Pork, Australia and John R. Pluske, Murdoch University, Australia
Use of probiotics and prebiotics in pig nutrition in the post-weaning period
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Prebiotics and probiotics have attracted considerable interest as alternatives or replacements for growth-promoting antibiotics and/or some heavy metals in diets for pigs, particularly in the post-weaning period where the newly weaned pig is subject to considerable challenges in its new environment. This chapter briefly reviews the microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract of the young pig and the important role it plays in the early stages of life. The chapter then defines probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics, in addition to reviewing the research conducted on the topic, including a case study where a probiotic product (Peribios™) has been used commercially to modulate the production around parturition. Finally, it looks ahead for possible future trends and offers suggestions on where to look for more information on the topic.
Dr R. Perumal
Sorghum breeding for biotic stress tolerance
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Sorghum breeding is poised to take advantage of remarkable advances in genomics and molecular technologies. Thus, while classical breeding methods have been successful in identifying and incorporating resistance to biotic stresses, this chapter will feature the use of the new tools and technologies that can inform, simplify and accelerate breeding of improved sorghums. We also aim to document many of the previously discovered genetic sources of resistance, since these will be of use with rapidly developing technologies for gene editing and gene transfer. We first review recent classical and molecular developments relating to the major biotic stresses of sorghum, which include diseases (fungal, bacterial and viral), pests, the witchweed, Striga, and nematodes. We go on to consider the structure and function of resistance of ‘R’ genes and their deployment.
Agustin Zsogon, University Fedefrale de Vicosa, Brazil
Understanding and improving water-use efficiency and drought resistance in tomato
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The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is both a well-established genetic model for plant biology and a horticultural cash crop of increasing importance to human nutrition. Tomato is mainly cultivated under irrigated conditions, so water use is of considerable significance for healthy plant growth and adequate yield. This chapter reviews recent advances in tomato physiology, with particular emphasis on the promising convergence between developmental physiology and water relations. It also endeavours to integrate recent findings with selected earlier studies, and includes a case study of the potential of the wild species Solanum pennellii as a source of drought-resistance for cultivated tomatoes.
C. J. C. Phillips, University of Queensland, Australia
Understanding the behaviour of dairy cattle
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In recent years, I have developed the necessary tools to gain a thorough understanding of cow behaviour in intensive management systems. This improved understanding can facilitate the design of new, sustainable management systems, which promote cattle welfare. In this chapter, I provide an overview of the study of cattle preferences and behaviour. I consider the importance of understanding the perceptual world of cows, and then how the preferences and emotions of cows are revealed through their social, nutritional and reproductive behaviour; their movements; and their responses during transport and slaughter. Careful research to identify cows’ emotional responses to increasingly artificial environments should facilitate the identification of systems that are more conducive to high levels of welfare.
F. M. Shapter, A. Crowther, G. Fox, I. D. Godwin and L. Watson-Fox, University of Queensland, Australia; I. J. C. Hannah, AGR Industries, Australia; and S. L. Norton, Agriculture Victoria, Australia
The domestication, spread and uses of sorghum as a crop
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Although only a minimal component of human food in developed countries, sorghum remains the fifth most important cereal crop in terms of production and acreage. This is due to its robustness as a cereal crop, biotic and abiotic tolerances, and diversity of both varieties and uses. This chapter describes the diversity of sorghum and its related species, its anthropocentric origins, spread and domestication as well as reviewing its utility as both a source of nutrition for humans and domestic animals. The chapter also examines the population genetics of global sorghum and the crop’s relationship to its wild relatives.
Sami Dridi, University of Arkansas, USA
Understanding feed and water intake in poultry
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Feed and water efficiency are two vital economic and agricultural traits. Selection for phenotypic feed efficiency has tremendously improved livestock productivity over the past 50 years. However, there have been a number of undesirable changes in the regulation of energy homeostasis and probably water balance associated with this success. Feed and water efficiency encompasses complex mechanisms regulating feed and water intake, energy expenditure, water retention and excretion, and intermediary metabolism related to nutrient and water utilization and partition. Knowledge of these should be used to guide more effective selection. This chapter focuses first on feed intake regulation, offering a review of current understanding of both central feed intake regulation and peripheral and hormonal regulation. It then turns to the issue of the regulation of water homeostasis. It aims to facilitate further progress by asking new questions which may help in developing mechanisms-based strategies to improve both feed and water efficiency.
Nick Bell, The Royal Veterinary College, UK
Preventing and managing lameness in dairy cows
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Lameness in dairy cows is a major economic and welfare problem worldwide. Despite its importance there are still significant gaps in the published evidence-base, particularly on the subject of disease pathogenesis, treatment and herd interventions. None-the-less, using a systematic approach involving quantifying lameness levels, analysing recorded lesions causing lameness, evaluating risk factors and prioritising interventions it is possible to support producers in the process of improving herd foot health. This chapter reviews the published evidence underpinning control programmes for the prevention and management of lameness in dairy cows.
Yasumi Horimoto, University of Guelph, Canada and Hajime Hatta, Kyoto Women’s University, Japan
The nutritional and physiological functions of egg yolk components
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Eggs are of particular interest in nutrition because they contain all the nutrients necessary for human health, except for dietary fibre and vitamin C. The aim of this chapter is to discuss current trends in the study of nutritional and physiological functions of egg yolk. In particular, we will focus on the bioactive components derived from egg yolk (focusing on proteins/peptides and lipids), issues related to egg cholesterol and recent applications of IgY. Research on other areas such as sialic acids and lutein is covered, although in less detail. To place these trends in context, a brief overview of background knowledge about egg yolks is also provided. This chapter updates and expands on the review provided by Hatta et al. (2008).
Sam W. Peterson, Massey University, New Zealand
Producing quality milk from sheep
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This chapter describes the sheep dairy industry and begins by analysing the advantages and disadvantages of different sheep breeds for production of high-quality sheep milk. The chapter addresses in detail various issues arising from the dairy farming of sheep, including frequency of milking, the nutritional needs of pregnant and lactating ewes, the weaning of lambs, photoperiod and season. It also examines milk quality and the common problem of mastitis in ewes and possible prevention and management strategies for the condition. The chapter concludes with future directions the sheep dairy industry might take and points the reader towards further reading on the subject.
K. Wang and A. K. Handa, Purdue University, USA; and A. K. Mattoo, USDA-ARS, USA
Understanding and improving the shelf life of tomatoes
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The shelf life of tomatoes is regulated via a myriad of physiological, biochemical and environmental processes. Tomato, a climacteric fruit, undergoes increases in respiration and ethylene production at the onset of ripening; once the ripening process is initiated it cannot be reversed. Ripening is associated with marked changes in gene expression, regulating the biosynthesis of a large number of catabolic enzymes, including cell wall hydrolases implicated in fruit softening. This chapter explores the advantages and disadvantages of cultivating ripening-impaired tomato mutants and genetically engineered genotypes characterized by inhibition of the ripening process. It shows how control of tomato diseases during both pre-harvest and post-harvest operations can avoid devastating losses, and considers the use of ethylene inhibitors, such as aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG), and 1-MCP, post-harvest management through modified atmosphere packaging, temperature and humidity control, and off-vine ripening of mature green tomato fruit during transit or the marketing chain.
Megh R. Goyal, formerly University of Puerto Rico , Puerto Rico
Trickle irrigation systems
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Trickle irrigation is the practice of dripping water into soil at very low rates, using outlets placed closed to the plant to ensure targeted application to the root zone. Since the 1950s, trickle irrigation technology has become increasingly advanced and widespread. It is believed that the technique will become still more important with the depletion of existing water resources and the long-term effects of climate change. The present chapter focuses on surface trickle irrigation, presenting a summary of the basic components of the technology, before discussing the main advantages and disadvantages of the technique. Trickle irrigation makes use of water in a highly efficient way, in that it avoids typical causes of water loss and allows poorer-quality water to be used. However, trickle irrigation systems are costly to install and challenging to maintain. There is a need to develop cheaper, small-scale trickle irrigation systems that are better suited to smallholder needs.
Sanford D. Eigenbrode, University of Idaho, USA; and Sarina Macfadyen, CSIRO, Australia
The impact of climate change on wheat insect pests: current knowledge and future trends
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Assessments of sustainability of wheat production systems under climate change must eventually include projected impacts on pests, weeds and diseases. Generating these projections is challenging because of the various mechanisms by which climate change can influence prevalence and impacts of these biotic constraints on production are diverse, and data are limited. This chapter reviews the literature on the potential impact of climate change on principal insect pests of wheat, the different methods that have been employed to assess likely impacts, and the gaps in knowledge that exist. It suggests a research agenda to address these gaps.
Jennifer M. Young, North Dakota State University, USA
Transport and lairage of pigs
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Defects in meat quality cost the swine industry millions of dollars each year. Reduction in stress prior to slaughter can help alleviate these costs. This chapter describes the main events that may contribute to pre-slaughter stress and their impacts on animal welfare and pork quality, from on-farm loading facilities and handling to transportation, lairage and handling at the slaughter facility. The chapter evaluates the effects of different pre-slaughter events on animal welfare and pork quality, and describes what producers, truck drivers and slaughter facilities need to do in order to mitigate these factors.
M. L. Thonney, Cornell University, USA
Sheep nutrition: formulated diets
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The primary feeds for sheep are renewable and contain high concentrations of components that are not suitable for human consumption, making sheep farming sustainable. In some economies, maize, barley, sorghum, wheat, soya beans, rapeseed and their by-products are inexpensive enough to be fed strategically during some stages of the life cycle of sheep. This chapter provides a general overview of sheep nutrient requirements, discusses the measurable components of sheep feeds that supply those nutrients (including fermentable fibre), and suggests practical methods of combining feed ingredients to achieve functional supplements and diets.
S. A. Clay and S. A. Bruggeman, South Dakota State University, USA
Site-specific weed management
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Weeds vary in species and density across fields, but an attempt at uniform management is typically implemented. In this chapter, we review the definition and underpinnings of site-specific weed management, and discuss how information about weed spatial and temporal variability can be used to determine if weed management strategies should be varied by location. We consider how data regarding weed distribution can first be collected using satellites, aerial platforms and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and then verified (ground-truthed) by scouting. We also review the advantages of site-specific weed management, as well as the major factors which stand in the way of its adoption.
Dr Dr Sambasivam Periyannan
Trends in exploring wheat and barley germplasm for novel disease resistance traits
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Wheat and barley are major food crops grown for human consumption worldwide, yet the sustained production of these important cereals continues to be threatened by rapidly evolving fungal pathogens. This chapter highlights recent advancements in phenotyping, genotyping and other breeding technologies that have the potential to speed up the discovery and utilisation of new sources of disease resistance for wheat and barley. Technologies covered include Focused Identification of Germplasm Strategy (FIGS), speed breeding, genome-wide association studies and genomic selection. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
M. S. Lilburn and R. Shanmugasundaram, Ohio State University, USA
The effect of incubation temperature on embryonic development in poultry
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The aim of this chapter is to examine the specific effects of exogenous and endogenous heat on embryonic growth during different stages of incubation, with an emphasis on controlled incubation temperature studies. The chapter explores the challenges inherent in establishing a temperature recommendation for incubation of poultry eggs, and considers forms of pre-incubation holding as well as the outcomes of both early and late incubation temperatures. Finally, the chapter addresses the connection between incubation temperatures and poultry immunology, as well as thermal manipulations and the potential impact on moderating post-hatch heat stress in chicks. Suggestions on where to find further information is provided as well as suggestions for future lines of research in this area.
Susanne Padel, The Organic Research Centre, UK
Setting and reviewing standards for organic farming
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One of the cornerstones of organic farming is the fact that it is governed by clear standards which are legally protected in many parts of the world, but there is concern that the current certification system does not fully safeguard the objectives and principles of the movement and encourage further improvements in sustainability. The chapter provides a brief history of organic standard development, and introduces the values and principles of organic farming that have guided this process. The chapter discusses advantages and disadvantages of the different types of rules currently used to achieve common objectives, such as prohibitions or obligations to use specified inputs and practices. The chapter explores whether trends in sustainability assessment could help to close the gap between ambition and rules, concluding that research can improve the evidence base, evaluate the impact of standards and produce a better understanding of the barriers that prevent new producers from converting to organic farming.
Jungsoo Joo, University of Maryland, USA; Aishwarya Pradeep Rao, University of Maryland and University of Arizona, USA; and Debabrata Biswas, University of Maryland, USA
Safety management on the poultry farm
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Transmission and colonization of poultry pathogens and infectious diseases can be controlled, and the colonization of major zoonotic pathogens in the poultry can be minimized, through better farm safety management, phytosanitary measures and a pre-harvest Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. Such safety management practice can also significantly reduce food safety challenges that are present during post-harvest processing and packaging, improve the microbial quality of poultry products, better protect consumer health and mitigate environmental contamination. Appropriate control of pest and wildlife infiltration and a well-designed, low-stress environment are fundamental to maintaining optimal flock health. Safety training and education of breeders, farmers, suppliers and workers are essential to produce healthy birds while ensuring that poultry farming remains sustainable and economical.
Richard K. Gast, USDA-ARS, USA
Sampling and detection of Salmonella in eggs
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The detection of Salmonella in the edible internal contents of eggshells provides the most incontrovertible and epidemiologically relevant evidence that laying flocks might pose a threat to consumers. Accordingly, dependable tests for Salmonella in eggs remain essential for achieving public health objectives. Research has helped explain how eggs are contaminated by Salmonella, where the pathogen is deposited and how it potentially multiplies during egg storage, and what types of assays are best able to find contaminants. However, effective utilization of egg testing results is constrained by the methodological challenges of rapidly detecting contamination, which occurs at extremely low cell numbers and prevalence.
Walter Bottje and Byung-Whi Kong, University of Arkansas, USA
The cellular basis of feed efficiency in poultry muscle: mitochondria and nucleic acid metabolism
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Feed is one of the most significant costs involved in animal production, and feed efficiency is therefore a very important genetic trait in animal agriculture. In poultry, a clear link between breast muscle mitochondrial function and feed efficiency has been reported. This chapter provides an overview of the mitochondrial processes which occur in muscle cells, presents the evidence that enhanced mitochondrial functions lead to high feed efficiency, and then considers the role of enhanced nucleotide metabolism and muscle cytoarchitecture in the feed efficiency of broilers.
Shlomo Yahav, Institute of Animal Science, ARO, Israel
Thermal adaptation and tolerance of poultry
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Fowls are endothermic species controlling body temperature (Tb) within a relatively narrow range, despite moderate to extreme changes in environmental conditions. Tb is recognized as the main characteristic that reflects thermal status. Significant developments in the genetic selection of domestic fowl enhanced performance-improved feed efficiency and increased metabolic rate, leading to low capability to balance energy expenditure and maintain body water balance under extreme environmental conditions. This chapter will focus on the effect of combinations of environmental conditions (temperature, ventilation, relative humidity) on thermal status and performance parameters of broilers, turkeys and laying hens. Furthermore, it will offer the use of epigenetic temperature adaptation during embryogenesis as a tool to improve thermotolerance and performance.
Marion O. Harris, North Dakota State University, USA; Jens Jacob, Julius K ü hn-Institut, Germany; Peter Brown, CSIRO, Australia; and Guiping Yan, North Dakota State University, USA
Wheat pests: introduction, rodents and nematodes
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Three major groups of organisms cause biotic stress in wheat: pests, diseases and weeds. This chapter and the chapter that follows are about wheat pests. Three major pest taxa affect wheat: rodents, nematodes and arthropods. Rodents and nematodes are introduced in this first chapter, along with unique features of pests and wheat pest management. Insect and mite arthropod pests are introduced in the second chapter.
Dr Daniel D. Buskirk
Traceability in the beef supply chain
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Traceability, or rapid access to knowledge of the history, treatment and location of cattle and beef products through supply chains, is of paramount importance to food safety investigations, corrective actions and product recalls. This chapter defines traceability as applied to beef before describing in detail methods of unique identification for cattle, such as radio-frequency identification and DNA profiling. The chapter explores the traceability of beef offered by barcoding and provides a case study of cattle and beef traceability through a supply chain from farm to retail using a distributed network, along with detailed suggestions for further reading on the subject.
David C. Barrett, Kristen K. Reyher, Andrea Turner and David A. Tisdall, University of Bristol, UK
Responsible and sustainable use of medicines in dairy herd health
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As well as having a moral obligation to safeguard animal health and welfare, veterinarians and dairy producers also have One Health responsibilities to protect human health and the environment from the risk of antimicrobial resistance and the food chain from medicine residues. This chapter describes the regulatory control of medicines in the United Kingdom and European Union, and discusses the wider implications of antimicrobial use in dairy production and the need for change in the way we view and use medicines. The chapter proposes how medicine prescribing practices might be changed in the dairy industry, and reports data showing that certain critically important antimicrobials can be phased out over a relatively short period, whilst simultaneously improving animal health, welfare and milk production.
Dr Michael Blümmel
The use and abuse of cereals, legumes and crop residues in rations for dairy cattle
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The production of animal feed requires a significant amount of water, competes with food production through the allocation of arable land, and restricts organic matter availability for soil health. Once feed is consumed, inefficient conversion then contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and other pollution. When choosing feed sources and feeding methods, it is therefore essential to consider context-specific trade-off analyses and optimization strategies, and to take into account the relationships between use of natural resources, feed products and the livestock in question. This chapter will review key elements in trade-off analysis and explore opportunities for and limitations to making better use of existing feed resources and producing more feed biomass of higher fodder quality with reduced environmental foot print.
Dr Dr R. Onwonga
Supporting smallholders in organic crop cultivation: the case of East Africa
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The value chains of several vegetables and other crops in Eastern Africa are growing in volume and value and are potentially making an impact on the livelihood of the involved producers, processers, transporters, retailers and sales-sites. This chapter reports the outcomes of selected ProGrOV case studies in East Africa involving farmers, students and scientists together with advisors from organic organizations in developing and testing agroecological practices for the intensification of kale, maize, sweet pepper and tomatoes for organic markets. After outlining the methodology of the field study approach, the chapter examines challenges and innovations in pest, weed and soil fertility management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
John M. Brameld, David M. Brown and Tim Parr, University of Nottingham, UK
The use of growth promoters in pig nutrition
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This chapter will describe the use of growth promoters in pigs, specifically growth hormone (GH) and beta-adrenergic agonist (BA), with the latter focussing on ractopamine. After introducing each growth promoter, their individual effects on growth and feed efficiency will be described, followed by sections on their mechanisms of action and effects on muscle fibre type and meat quality. Lastly, the recent studies on the use of the two growth promoters in combination will be described along with consideration of their future use commercially in relation to issues of global food security.
Deana R. Jones, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, USA
The effects of housing systems for laying hens on egg safety and quality
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Since the turn of the century, there have been rapid shifts worldwide in the housing and management systems used for laying hens. These have been mandated partly as a response to consumer concern for hen well-being. However, factors such as the quality, safety and price of eggs are also very important to consumers. In this chapter, we examine the impact of different housing systems on the safety and quality of eggs. Sections 2, 3 and 4 concentrate on safety, and review recent research about how hen housing and flock management affect indicator populations, food borne pathogens, and chemical contamination. Section 5 then considers the quality of both the egg’s shell and its interior. We also note how different research settings and methods have produced apparently contradictory results, and make recommendations for the direction of future research.
Michael A. Grashorn, University of Hohenheim, Germany
Poultry meat quality: an overview
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Meat quality is a complex issue, with different requirements from consumers and processors. Consumption quality is based on an assessment of subjective sensory qualities, nutritive value and assurance that animal welfare issues have been respected. In contrast, processing quality is mainly based on objective physical and/or chemical features. This chapter summarizes current research on poultry meat quality. Aspects of poultry meat quality (ingredients, nutritive-physiological value, hygiene and toxicology, physical and technological properties, sensory characteristics) are defined, factors affecting these aspects are named and methods for determining the aspects are described in detail. Indicators of meat maturation such as pH or conductivity are described as the main basis for consumption and processing quality of the meat. Attention is also drawn to poultry meat as an enriched food (for example, with n-3 fatty acids), to the incidence of and probable reasons for quality aberrations and to hygienic risks.
Charlotte Lauridsen
Recent advances in understanding the role of vitamins in pig nutrition
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Requirements for vitamins in modern intensive swine production are still based on genetically outdated lines of pigs and production conditions which have changed dramatically during the last 30 years. This chapter describes recent advances related to the role of vitamins and their importance for some aspects of oxidative mechanisms, especially in relation to the development and competence of the immune system. The chapter outlines the potential contribution of both fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins and offers new perspectives on the relationship between vitamins and antioxidation capacity.
Dr M. M. Makagon
Understanding poultry behaviour
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In the context of poultry production, behavioural studies have been particularly useful for optimizing management strategies and understanding the welfare of commercially raised poultry. This chapter aims to provide an overview of the contributions that the study of animal behaviour has made to poultry science, and to provide general guidance on the design, execution and interpretation of behavioural research. We begin with an overview of commonly used research methods and methodological challenges that should be considered before behavioural data is collected. Next, we provide specific examples of how behavioural approaches have been used to explore the importance and consequences (positive and negative) of perch access. We offer some thoughts on current and future trends in applied ethology and conclude with a list of resources on the topics covered here.
Tia M. Rains and Mitch Kanter, Egg Nutrition Centre, USA
The nutritional role of eggs
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Eggs are an affordable, accessible and nutrient-dense form of food, and as such make a valuable addition to human diet. This chapter begins by reviewing the nutrient composition of chicken eggs. It then considers the relationship between egg consumption and human health and disease. This includes reviewing current research on the connection between egg intake, cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Eggs are also considered as part of a high-protein diet for the promotion of weight loss. Finally, some additional potential health benefits of eggs are briefly reviewed, and directions for future research are suggested.
Dr Dr Dana L. M. Campbell
Welfare issues affecting free-range laying hens
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Free-range laying hen production systems involve providing flocks of hens with the chance to use minimally controlled outdoor areas, rather than keeping them in intensive, environmentally controlled, indoor housing. Such systems are considered more natural and ethical. However, highly productive modern genotypes, selected for cage production, are harder to manage in large flocks and outdoor environments. To sustainably improve free-range housing and management, we must understand how hens behave in these systems, the welfare challenges they face and what modifications will, in practice, adequately address hens’ needs. This chapter reviews the following areas of significance and concern: individual differences in range use, behavioural expression on the range, correlations between ranging and health variables, parasite loads, adequate nutrition, grass impaction, feather pecking and cannibalism.
Dr Pasquale Steduto
The challenge of sustainable water resources management under water scarcity
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Historically, water control developments were mostly small-scale, locally managed and hydrologically independent, with annual rainfall, runoff and recharge setting the limits to annual use. In recent decades, the vast expansion of irrigation (the largest water user with about 70% withdrawal worldwide) has resulted in dramatic increases in water consumption. The escalation of water scarcity, further impacted by climate change, is posing huge challenges for sustainable water resources management. A solution, which has prominently influenced the agenda of planners, policy makers and financial institutions, for improvement of irrigation technology is replacement of traditional ‘inefficient’ techniques with ‘modern’ irrigation systems, assuming that significant amounts of water can be saved and released for other uses. This chapter reports case studies which demonstrate that, most of the time, water consumption increased with ‘modernization’ of irrigation. We argue that restoring a balance between sustainable supply and consumption of water first requires physical control of water allocation and consumption.
Mladen Todorović, Centre International de Hautes Etudes Méditerranéennes (CIHEAM), Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Italy
Regional strategies in sustainable water management for irrigation: the eco-efficiency approach
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This chapter addresses a variety of challenges associated with regional water management, including the resolution of conflicts between sectors in order to resolve ‘demand versus availability’ equation and the symbiosis needed between agronomy and engineering in order to optimize the performance of irrigation networks. The chapter explores the adoption of the eco-efficiency approach as a modern management concept and indicator of sustainable water use, and presents a case study to demonstrate how the eco-efficiency approach has been applied over a large irrigation district located in Puglia region (Southern Italy). The chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Andy Butterworth, University of Bristol, UK
Welfare standards for laying hens
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Consumers regard animal welfare as an important attribute of the food they eat. Sellers have to pay due attention to animal welfare before selling food like eggs or poultry to people. There are many welfare standards for laying hens and this chapter looks into some of these standards like commercial welfare standards and global standards. The way in which these standards are implemented is important to ensure quality in production and this chapter looks into this important aspect.
Kathy Braithwaite, Sugar Research Australia, Australia
Progress in understanding viruses affecting sugarcane
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There are currently around ten diseases of sugarcane known to be caused by viruses. In recent years our understanding of these diseases has greatly benefited from access to low-cost sequencing technologies which have revolutionized virus discovery, improved our understanding of genetic variation in viral populations, improved diagnostic options, and helped us to understand gene functions and identify gene targets for control. This chapter will address the broad themes of virus discovery, genetic variation, diagnostic technologies and control. The chapter presents case studies describing the impact of two major viral diseases in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia.
R. Gebbers, Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy (ATB), Germany
Proximal soil surveying and monitoring techniques
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The understanding of soil fertility is fundamental to agricultural production. However, soils can show great variation both spatially and temporally. This chapter outlines the key challenges faced in monitoring such variation and the solutions that have been developed and further employed to aid in optimizing crop production. Sampling methods are described, with a focus on proximal soil sensing where a sensor is placed in the soil or at a very short distance from the soil surface. These types of sensors provide information which is particularly useful in developing high-resolution soil maps for use in precision agriculture. A wide array of sensors is presented followed by a section on how such sensors may be integrated into agricultural management. An overview of future trends in research and development in this field is also included.
Dr Victor Manuel Medina-Urrutia
Organic mango production: a review
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In recent years the demand for organic mango, along with the health concerns of consumers, has increased. Few technologies are currently available to support organic mango production systems in the main mango-growing regions. This chapter explains current technologies for field sustainable and organic mango production and postharvest processing. The chapter describes the importance of climate and soil selection, selection of cultivars and rootstocks and soil preparation and planting. The chapter addresses issues arising from the management of established mango orchards including weed control, irrigation and pest and disease management. Finally, the chapter compares organic and conventional systems of mango production.
Dr Dr James P. Legg
Viruses affecting African crops and their vectors
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Plant viruses are one of the major constraints to crop production in Africa. Consequently, research into understanding and managing viruses has been a major theme of IITA’s work over its 50-year history. This chapter reviews the progress made in characterizing the major viruses affecting bananas, cassava, maize, cowpeas, soybeans and yams, and in developing management options. The viruses covered include cassava mosaic and cassava brown streak diseases, maize streak disease, maize lethal necrosis and banana bunchy top disease. The chapter identifies virus vectors and discusses emerging techniques and future perspectives for plant virus management in Africa. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Adam S. Davis, USDA-ARS, USA
Weed ecology and population dynamics
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Agricultural trends, including a global rise in herbicide-resistant weed genotypes and a growing demand for food produced with minimal external synthetic inputs, are driving producer interest in reducing reliance on herbicides for weed management. An improved understanding of weed ecology can support the design of weed-suppressive agroecosystems. This chapter explores current scientific knowledge of ecological levels of organizations, including populations, communities and agroecosystems, relevant to the study and management of agricultural weeds. A population dynamics framework for targeting management tactics to specific weed life stages is presented, and its applicability to solving real-world weed management problems is demonstrated in a case study of mitigating the invasive potential of an exotic bioenergy crop species.
R. Stuart Rutherford, South African Sugarcane Research Institute (SASRI) and University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Progress in understanding fungal diseases affecting sugarcane: rusts
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Rust fungi (Uredinales or Pucciniales) are a globally distributed order of obligate parasitic fungi occurring on vascular plants. The typical symptom is a ‘rust-coloured’ (often orange or yellow) pustule on a plant leaf. Economically, rust fungi cause enormous crop losses, including in sugarcane. This chapter summarizes current knowledge of sugarcane rusts in terms of relevant background biology, pathogen dispersal, disease identification, environmental conditions favouring disease, crop loss, host-plant resistance and control measures. The chapter focuses on the history, identification and control of three varieties of rust: brown, orange and tawny.
W. E. Pomroy, Massey University, New Zealand
Sustainable control of gastrointestinal nematode parasites affecting sheep
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The threat of anthelmintic resistance has loomed over recommendations to control gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in sheep for several decades, and in some regions GIN is threatening the sustainability of sheep farming. This chapter describes the current state of options to achieve sustainable control of GIN in sheep, covering general principles of worm control and methods specific to controlling GIN, including nematophagous fungi, condensed tannins, copper oxide wire particles and vaccines.
D. K. Revell, Revell Science and The University of Western Australia, Australia
Sustainably meeting the nutrient requirements of grazing sheep
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In order to be sustainable, sheep rearing systems must be sufficiently flexible to respond to variable conditions and feed availability. This chapter argues that sustainable sheep management works with the resources available at a given place or time and learns from the sheep themselves. The chapter further describes how sheep cope with a variable supply of nutrients, and examines in detail (including via a case study) the importance of understanding the potential variety and usefulness of forages. The chapter also addresses how animals learn about forages, and concludes that sheep production can be made sustainable by providing diverse forages suited to the local environment and by managing the experiences of animals so they learn to combine appropriate mixtures of plants as sources of nutrition.
Anita Dille, Kansas State University, USA
Surveillance and monitoring of weed populations
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To implement integrated weed management more effectively, the temporal and spatial distribution of weed populations in a field need to be determined. Weed species tend to be patchy and this influences the ability to calculate average weed densities when conducting a survey. This chapter reviews current and evolving practices for the scouting and mapping of weed populations both during and across growing seasons. It considers the use of scouts on the ground; UAVs with cameras flying over the fields; and advanced software and computer-based tools to detect, identify and record weed species. The use of regional and global scales to understand changes in the occurrence of herbicide-resistant or invasive weed populations is also discussed.
Xiping Yang and Ramkrishna Kandel, University of Florida (Gainesville), USA; Jian Song, University of Florida (Gainesville), USA and Dezhou University, China; Qian You, University of Florida (Gainesville), USA and Fujian Agriculture and Forestry Universit
Sugarcane genome sequencing and genetic mapping
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Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is one of the most important crops for producing sugar and bioethanol, and breeding for superior sugarcane cultivars would benefit significantly from available genetic and genomic resources. This chapter explains the difficulties of sequencing and mapping the genome of sugarcane and strategies to overcome these difficulties. The chapter outlines progress on sugarcane sequencing, genetic mapping of simply inherited and complex traits. The chapter then focuses on the mapping of a gene controlling sugarcane brown rust resistance, Bru1, which exemplifies the concepts of marker-assisted selection. Finally, the chapter discusses prospects for future research in sugarcane genome sequencing and genetic mapping.
Dr N. J. Beausoleil
Validating indicators of sheep welfare
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Until recently, assessment of sheep welfare has received little attention, perhaps because sheep have traditionally been managed extensively and their relative behavioural freedom has led to perceptions of fewer or lower risks to their welfare. However, extensively managed sheep are still vulnerable to welfare challenges, and intensive systems and their attendant welfare impacts are becoming increasingly common. Regardless of the production system, practical and validated indicators of both negative and positive experiences that influence sheep welfare are required to facilitate the identification, prevention and mitigation of negative welfare impacts and to enhance welfare wherever possible. In this chapter, a process is outlined for identifying welfare indicators that are valid and practical for use on-farm, during transport or before slaughter. The chapter includes a case study on the validity of body condition score as an indicator of hunger and points to the need for research to validate indicators of specific states identified as posing risks to sheep welfare.
Robert Moore, RMIT University, Australia
Probiotics, prebiotics and other feed additives to improve gut function and immunity in poultry
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Poultry producers have been cautious in the application of probiotics, due to mixed experiences of their effectiveness and lack of knowledge regarding the scientific basis for their modes of action. Prebiotics have been more readily accepted because they can be added without any significant change to traditional practices. Recent research has increased our knowledge of the effects of both types of treatment, their possible modes of action, and the strengths and limitations of their use. We are beginning to understand why some products may give variable outcomes and what may be done to further validate the performance of existing products and develop a new generation of more reliable and effective probiotics and prebiotics.
Llewellyn L. Manske, North Dakota State University, USA
Restoring degraded grasslands
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Grazed grasslands are complex ecosystems, and careful and responsible management is essential for their growth and maintenance. This chapter examines the inter-relationship of species, microbial activity, nutrients and environmental factors in restoring and maintaining their health, sustainability and productivity. The chapter outlines the key factors in restoration of degraded grasslands, such as promoting both the ecosystem’s biogeochemical processes and internal grass mechanisms that gradually alter grassland species composition. The chapter also looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Roland Gerhards, University of Hohenheim, Germany
Precision weed management systems
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Weed populations in arable fields are often spatially and temporally heterogeneous, and high-density weed patches require intensive weed management. In areas with no or few weeds, input for weed control can be reduced. This chapter describes manual and geographic information system–based weed mapping approaches and sensor-based weed identification technologies and their application to create weed maps. It also describes the adoption of patch sprayers based on application maps and real-time sensor information. This chapter shows that site-specific weed control in cereals, oilseed rape, sugar beet and maize using Global Navigation Satellite System-controlled patch sprayers can reduce herbicide input by 20–60%. It looks ahead to the development of precision farming technologies for mechanical weeding, including automatic steering systems for intra-row hoeing and robotic inter-row weeding.
Paul Miller, Silsoe Spray Applications Unit Ltd, UK
Spray technologies in precision agriculture
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The application of plant protection products plays a key role in the production of most crops. This chapter examines equipment designed to operate with field crops; however, many of the principles discussed will relate to other application systems. The chapter describes features of field crop sprayers for precision agriculture, including control of delivered dose, spatial resolution, matching physical characteristics of sprays to target requirements and minimising drift and exposure of systems outside the treatment area. The chapter includes two detailed case studies focussed on designing and developing a system for spot treatment of volunteer potatoes in vegetable crops and implementing a patch spraying system for applying herbicides to field crops. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
T. F. Döring, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany
Organic production of wheat and spelt
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Wheat plays a major role in organic agriculture around the globe. This chapter reviews the current state of organic cultivation of wheat and of its close relative, spelt, with a focus on crop diversification, through rotational design, use of species mixtures containing wheat, and diversification at the genetic level, e.g. through variety mixtures. The chapter shows that there are constraints associated with diversification in organic wheat cultivation systems. Diversifying rotations may dilute wheat production within the rotation; intercrops containing wheat are often characterised by unpredictability and technical difficulties; and diversification of wheat through evolving crop populations may be hampered by seed-borne diseases. The chapter concludes that optimisation of organic wheat cultivation systems across the world through diversification depends on a continuous and reliable, systematic and comprehensive collection of agronomic data under conditions of increased crop diversity.
E. C. Oerke, University of Bonn, Germany
Precision crop protection systems
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The spatial distribution of plant pests within crops is often heterogeneous, at least during some growth periods. Within-field heterogeneity implies that plants at some sites may need pest control while plants at other sites do not. Automated detection, identification and quantification of diseases and invertebrate pests on a small scale are the prerequisites for a site-specific pest management strategy. This chapter reviews how sensor technologies in combination with informatics and modern application technologies may enable pest control where and when it is actually needed. We summarize and discuss the potential of aerial and proximal remote sensing using various types of sensors for applications ranging from quarantine, to the production of speciality crops, to crop loss assessment.
E. Weltzien and H. F. W. Rattunde, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA, formerly International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Mali; T. A. van Mourik, International Potato Center, Ghana; and H. A. Ajeigbe, International Crop
Sorghum cultivation and improvement in West and Central Africa
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The diversity of sorghum cultivated in Africa attests to the African origin of this crop. Farmers in West and Central Africa (WCA) have developed strategies of using varietal diversity to minimize risk and maximize productivity in the context of complex and diverse adaptive challenges. This chapter provides insights and entry points to understanding sorghum in the WCA region. It also describes the major sorghum production systems, options for intensification and sustainable production, genetic diversity and opportunities to breed for enhancing sorghum crop value, as well as opportunities for progress in strengthening seed systems.
Jan Dahl, Danish Agriculture and Food Council (DAFC), Denmark
Salmonella control in pig production
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Salmonella infections of zoonotic origin are one of the most frequent causes of zoonotic infections worldwide, and there are clear indications that, at least in some countries, pork is an important source of human salmonellosis. This chapter describes the epidemiology of salmonella and possible interventions in the pig and pork production chain. The chapter addresses animal surveillance and monitoring, control of feed and environment, and the importance of replacement animals and finisher herds. The chapter also considers vaccination as a reduction strategy and measures that can be adopted at the slaughterhouse stage. Including a detailed case study on salmonella reduction in Danish pig and pork production, the chapter offers detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Z. Gao, China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, China
Use of brackish and marginal water for irrigation in water-scarce areas
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The lack of freshwater in arid and semi-arid regions makes brackish/marginal water a valuable alternative source of water for irrigation. The use of brackish water in irrigation could ensure high-yield, good quality, efficient and sustainable agricultural development if appropriate management strategies are adopted where natural conditions are favourable. This chapter discusses the following aspects: use of brackish water in irrigation and related issues, challenges and management strategies when irrigating with brackish water to achieve productivity and sustainability, research and results from using brackish water in irrigation, case studies from selected countries, future trends in research for the use of brackish water in irrigation and sources for further related information.
Sophie Bertrand, French Dairy Board (CNIEL), France
Setting environmental targets for dairy farming
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Environmental targets for dairy farming are necessary to help ensure that milk is produced in a sustainable way. However, setting such targets is not an easy task due to the variety of both dairy farming systems and methods for assessing environmental impacts. The IDF and FAO have undertaken important work, attempting to harmonize the methods for environmental assessments of the dairy sector and reduce confusion in published results. This chapter reviews the main, internationally accepted methods available to evaluate the environmental impact of dairy farming, identify levers of action and set environmental targets. It also highlights what further work is needed on water footprints and dairy ecosystem services in order to ensure a holistic approach to the environmental performance of dairy farms.
Amir Hagverdi, University of California-Riverside, USA; and Brian G. Leib, University of Tennessee-Knoxville, USA
Site-specific irrigation systems
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Conventional irrigation management is based on uniform application of water across a field, which may result in both over- and under-irrigation. This chapter focuses on site-specific variable rate irrigation using center pivot and lateral move irrigation systems, which are mainly used for row-crop irrigation. Via detailed case studies, it examines site-specific data acquisition and mining approaches, soil mapping, zone delineation, site-specific yield estimation and irrigation scheduling.
Scott Staggenborg and Hui Shen, Chromatin Inc., USA
Sorghum as a forage and energy crop
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Sorghum is an important source of grain and fodder, forage and biomass throughout the world. In the United States, grain sorghum is the prominent crop; however, non-grain sorghum plays an important role as a feedstock globally. This chapter reviews the different types of sorghum and their uses. We begin by considering the types of sorghum used for forage and biomass, and then offer a detailed discussion of the use of forage sorghum as feed for ruminant animals. We review the advantages of using sorghum as a dedicated energy crop, and finally consider the composition and uses of sweet sorghum cultivars.
B. Tran and R. Hodges, Natural Resources Institute – University of Greenwich, UK
Post-harvest management of sorghum
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Sorghum is an important cereal, especially in the developing world where it is a major food source in regions where other cereal crops would not withstand the harsh conditions. After summarising sorghum’s nutritional status and world production figures, this chapter presents post-harvest operations: harvesting, transport, threshing, drying, cleaning, packaging and storage, then dehulling and milling. Means of storage and their management, major pests and their control as well as toxins produced by fungi are discussed. The chapter then lists the major transformations of sorghum and their end products. It then concludes with quality requirements.
Baruch Rubin, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel; and Abraham Gamliel, The Volcani Center, Israel
Soil solarization: a sustainable method
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Solar heating of soils, better known as soil solarization, involves heating moist and mulched soil (with a transparent polyethylene film) for several weeks. Its advantages include its non-chemical nature and its effective use in a wide range of agricultural areas worldwide. This chapter reviews the use of solarization in sustainable weed management. We cover its mode of action, its effects on weeds, soil nutrients and pesticides, and the benefits and limitations of this strategy. The plastic mulching technology required for solarization is also discussed.
Gretchen R. Miller, Texas A&M University, USA
Understanding and measuring plant water use
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Plant water use is inextricably linked to both agricultural productivity and sustainable water resource management. Unlike plants in natural ecosystems, crops and horticultural species benefit from the active management of their growing environments. Tremendous advancements have been made towards more efficient irrigation systems and higher yielding cultivars; however, technological solutions are limited by the physical and biological processes governing plant water use. This chapter discusses the fundamentals of water movement through the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum and the mechanisms by which vegetation can control water loss to the atmosphere, i.e. evapotranspiration (ET). It also examines what drives ET, and the equations used to model and predict it. The chapter then reviews standard and advanced techniques for measuring plant water use across a range of scales, from leaf to landscape. Finally, it describes the emerging green water/blue water paradigm and how water embedded in agricultural products makes water management for sustainable agricultural a truly global issue.
Rami A. Dalloul, Virginia Tech, USA
Understanding and boosting poultry immune systems
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In the perpetual battle against common poultry pathogens and other environmental antigens, the role of the immune system is an important and ongoing topic of research. This chapter reviews the various elements of the host defence system in poultry, and then provides specific examples of how certain supplements can modulate the immune system and its responses to specific challenges that are common in commercial production. The chapter focuses particularly on the challenge of coccidiosis and the role of probiotics, and looks ahead to future developments in this area.
A. K. Barooah, Tocklai Tea Research Institute, India
Pesticide residues in tea: challenges in detection and control
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Tea growers require pesticides to prevent crop loss due to pest attacks, which are aggravated by climate change. As pesticides invariably leave residues, it is of utmost importance that samples of traded tea are monitored to ensure compliance to food safety standards. This chapter reviews research into the extent of pesticide residues in tea, conventional methods for determining trace levels of multiple residues in tea and the problems with these methods and advanced, rapid methods which are more suitable for ensuring food safety. We also consider food safety standards in the EU and Japan, methods of assessing the risk posed by pesticide residues and strategies for reducing the residues in tea.
Stephanie Clark, Iowa State University, USA
Sensory evaluation of cow’s milk
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Despite advances in dairy technology, milk is still a highly perishable product with a limited shelf life. Mistakes in milk handling between cow and consumer can lead to milk quality defects and shorter shelf life. Understanding where such mistakes can occur, how to recognize off-flavors, and how to remedy quality deviations can mean the difference between retaining and losing customers. This chapter discusses the sensory evaluation of milk. We review the processes involved in the sensory evaluation of milk products, discuss the different categories and causes of off-flavours in milk, and show how sensory evaluations can be used to determine the shelf life of milk products. We also review how staff can be trained to perform sensory evaluations, and methods for preventing the flavour defects discussed.
K. Schwean-Lardner and T. G. Crowe, University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Transportation and the welfare of poultry
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A variety of factors before and during transport of poultry affect their welfare, with impacts ranging from slight discomfort to death. This chapter begins by considering the pre-loading factors which can eventually affect the birds’ welfare during transportation, and then reviews the physiological, behavioural and psychological responses, which birds may have during transport. We then review a wide range of factors, many which act interactively, which may affect welfare during transport, including the design of containers and trailers, journey duration, noise, vibrations and stocking density. Brief consideration is then given to the effects of lairage, and the transport of hens other than adult broilers
Kapil Chousalker, University of Adelaide, Australia and Kylie Hewson, Australian Chicken Meat Federation, Australia
Pathogens affecting table eggs
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The rise in consumption of infertile hen eggs, together with the simultaneous rise in egg-related foodborne pathogen outbreaks, indicates the importance of understanding the microflora on the eggshell and within the egg contents. Pathogenic microorganisms in a number of ways can contaminate eggs, and a range of microorganisms have the ability to penetrate the eggshell and survive in egg contents until consumption. This chapter begins with an overview of pathogen contamination of table eggs. The next section focuses on Salmonella spp., since these are considered the greatest safety threat in the consumption of eggs. Subsequent sections then discuss Campylobacter spp., other bacteria, yeasts and moulds.
M. A. Wijeratne, Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka
Planting and cultivation of tea
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Originating in natural forests characterized by warm and humid environmental conditions and nutrient-rich soils, tea’s growth and yield largely depend on climatic and soil factors of the land. Frequent removal of photosynthetically active tea shoots (harvesting) and periodic removal of leaf-bearing branches (pruning) exert physiological stresses on the tea bush, and it is crucial for sustainable productivity and profitability that tea be provided with optimum growing conditions. This chapter examines in detail the process of planting and harvesting tea, including tea’s climatic requirements, planting methods, bush management practices and both manual and mechanical harvesting techniques. The chapter looks ahead to future trends, challenges and potential developments in this area.
R. D. Warner and F. R. Dunshea, University of Melbourne, Australia; and H. A. Channon, University of Melbourne and Australian Pork Limited, Australia
Producing consistent quality meat from the modern pig
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Pork producers have focussed, over many years, on producing pork efficiently and sustainably, in order to satisfy consumer demand for lean pork and remain competitive. Increases in efficiency and leanness have been achieved through genetics, targeted nutrition and the use of entire males and metabolic modifiers. This chapter describes the various influencing factors that need to be considered in order to consistently produce high-quality pork in the modern pig industry. The chapter outlines the significance of visual appearance, sensory quality and protein functionality for processed pork products. The chapter presents influencing factors throughout the pig industry supply chain for the production of quality pork, as well as interventions for quality improvement, and looks ahead to future trends of research in this area.
Silvana Pietrosemoli and James T. Green, North Carolina State University, USA
Pasture systems for pigs
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The inclusion of pastures in outdoor pig systems contributes significantly to improving the sustainability of these farming systems. This chapter examines the characteristics of pasture pig systems, including forages and pasture management as well the effects of pasture on meat quality. The chapter also provides a detailed case study of the pasture pig system developed at the Center for Environmental Farming Systems (CEFS) in the United States. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research in the field of sustainable pasture pig systems and provides guidance on further reading in this area.
Dr Indu Sharma
Recent molecular technologies for tackling wheat diseases
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There is a growing need to improve the management of wheat diseases if wheat production is to keep pace with a growing population. This chapter reviews the array of technologies and new methods available to improve resistance to wheat diseases. These techniques include SAR, ISR, the application of Effectors, Transcription factors, PR protein, RNAi, VIGS, Plantibodies, Genome editing, Genome wide selection, MAS, Tilling population, Gene cassettes and epigenetics.
Dr Pina M. Fratamico
Methods for detecting pathogens in the beef food chain: an overview
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The main food-borne pathogens of concern in the beef chain are Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and Salmonella; other pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes and Campylobacter spp. may also be present. Furthermore, the occurrence and development of antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) pathogens in the beef chain is a public health issue. Traditional culture-based methods are laborious and time consuming. Rapid methods, including nucleic acid-, immunologic- and biosensor-based techniques can be very sensitive and specific and provide more timely information regarding the presence of pathogens in the beef chain. This chapter reviews these methods, as well as recent advances in next-generation sequencing technologies.
U. S. National Poultry Center – USDA-ARS, USA
Preventing spoilage of poultry meat
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The shelf-life of fresh poultry meat is determined by the level of contamination of processed meat by spoilage microorganisms, storage temperature and storage atmosphere. This chapter looks at the various ways by which to extend the shelf-life of poultry meat: vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging; bacteriocins, herbs and spices; high hydrostatic pressure and electrolyzed water. The chapter also says that low-dose irradiation, non-thermal dielectric barrier discharge plasma systems and oxygen absorbers are some of the techniques used to reduce microbial contamination and improve the shelf-life of poultry systems.
J. W. S. Yancey, University of Arkansas, USA
Packaging systems for beef retailers and their effects on visual quality and palatability
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Packaging is one of the most vital processes in beef production, but is often overlooked by beef researchers. In addition to protecting the product, packaging is largely responsible for maintaining myoglobin in the bright red, oxygenated state in the retail case as expected by American consumers. However, retail beef packaged in the traditional, aerobic overwrap has issues with discolouration and short shelf life; thus, more protective options, such as vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging, have been implemented by some retailers. The future of beef packaging will not only protect beef but also actively inhibit oxidation and microbial growth and perhaps communicate with the processor and consumer about the quality of the packaged beef.
Claudia B. Monteiro Vitorello, Patricia Dayane Carvalho Schaker, Juliana Benevenuto, Natália de Sousa Teixeira e Silva and Sintia Silva de Almeida , University of São Paulo, Brazil
Progress in understanding fungal diseases affecting sugarcane: smut
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Amongst the relevant issues impacting sugarcane agricultural practices are fungal diseases, such as sugarcane smut, that constitute a worldwide threat to the cultivation. Smut is caused by the biotrophic fungus Sporisorium scitamineum. After providing a historical perspective on the disease, this chapter will present an overview of data gathered over the past few years using ‘omics’ techniques (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics) in combination with functional studies performed to identify candidate genes involved in the interaction. The chapter will discuss different aspects of the knowledge generated for each pathosystem and will consider data from various studies aiming at deciphering the molecular cross-talking between host and pathogen along with new trends and recurring issues in the study of smut disease.
Dieter Prinz, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany
Rainwater and floodwater harvesting for crop irrigation
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Rainwater and floodwater harvesting are environmentally-friendly ways to utilize rainwater and surface runoff for irrigation, water storage and groundwater recharge. Water harvesting (WH) can also reduce flooding and soil erosion risk and can diminish impacts of climate change. This chapter discusses the role of rainwater harvesting, methods for rainwater harvesting and their application, as well as the water storage and floodwater harvesting systems.
Dr James M. Mwendwa
The use of allelopathy and competitive crop cultivars for weed suppression in cereal crops
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Due to the rise of herbicide resistance, diverse weed management tools are required to ensure sustainable weed control. This chapter focuses on competitive cereal crops and cultural strategies for weed management, including the use of weed-suppressive cultivars, post-harvest crop residues, and cover crops for management of the weed seedbank and eventual weed suppression. It also addresses factors influencing the effect of allelopathy on weeds, including soil and environmental conditions which limit or intensify the efficacy of allelochemicals. The response of some weeds to secondary metabolites released by living cereal crops and/or crop residues (selectivity) is also reviewed. Finally, recommendations are given for future research, aiming to address the knowledge gap regarding the fate of these compounds in the environment and their role in important physiological processes in both plants and microbes in the soil rhizosphere.
Richard Kipling, Aberystwyth University, UK
Research challenges in adapting grasslands to climate change
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Climate change poses many challenges to European grasslands, from droughts, heat waves and changing precipitation patterns in the south, to warmer winters and wetter summers in the north and increasing frequency of extreme weather events. This chapter reviews the probable impacts of climate change and associated challenges, considering the external context and the adaptiveness of European grassland systems. The chapter includes a number of detailed case studies of climate change impacts and adaptation options from Finland, Italy and Austria. Finally, the chapter considers the challenges and limitations for climate change mitigation in grasslands and priorities for research, providing detailed guidance on further reading on the topic.
Prof. Prof. Lidia Sas Paszt
Organic fertilizers and biofertilizers
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In recent years, both in the European Union and in the world, there has been intense development of organic agriculture, whose aim is to produce high-quality crops and healthy food while maintaining the biological balance of agroecosystems. An alternative to chemical fertilizers are products of natural origin, organic fertilizers, biofertilizers or natural growth bio-stimulants, which increase plant growth, yielding and resistance to pathogens and pests, and improve soil fertility, productivity and biodiversity. The chapter examines the role of biofertilizers and consortia of microorganisms to improve the effectiveness of organic fertilization, before moving on to consider the use of animal excrement, including manures, slurry and guano. The chapter considers the use of products or by-products of both animal and plant origin as fertilizers, before addressing the contributions of composts and biochar.
Dr Francois-Regis Goebel
Progress in understanding and managing insect pests affecting sugarcane
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This chapter describes major achievements in pest management in sugarcane agroecosystems based on applied research conducted in different countries. The focus of the chapter is on two major groups of pests: stalk borers (Lepidoptera) and white grubs (Coleoptera). Chapter sections address determination of crop losses, biological control using parasitoids and entomopathogens, push-pull strategies with the use of companion (or service) plants, agricultural practices and their influence on pest population dynamics, insecticide use and biosecurity. The chapter also discusses new tools for pest detection and management such as modeling, remote sensing and use of geographical information systems (GIS). The chapter looks ahead to future developments such as an integrated pest management system for pests of sugarcane.
J. Isselstein, University of Göttingen, Germany
Protecting biodiversity in grasslands
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Grasslands in Europe are critically important to the biodiversity of agricultural landscapes. This chapter summarizes the conditions that facilitate biodiversity in permanent and semi-natural (i.e. managed) grasslands in temperate climate, with a particular focus on phytodiversity. The chapter exemplifies and explains losses in the biodiversity of managed grasslands in recent decades. It describes some of the main factors influencing biodiversity, leading to discussion of appropriate management measures and how these might be integrated into livestock production systems. Finally, the role of agri-environment schemes in preserving grassland biodiversity is considered. It is observed that the development of livestock systems is at risk of being decoupled from the grassland resources, and it is concluded that a more holistic approach to grassland management is necessary.
Anne E. Dorrance, The Ohio State University, USA
Oomycete and fungal pathogens of soybean
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Soybean production faces numerous biotic challenges, leading to significant yield losses each year. This chapter addresses oomycete and fungal pathogens of soybean. Case studies on the oomycete pathogens Phytophthora sojae and Pythium species as well as the true fungi Cercospora sojina, Phakopsora pachyrhizi and Macrophomina phaseolina, and the Fusarium species are presented. Through these case studies, the diversity in the pathogens which affect soybean, including their genetic diversity, different modes of infection and different host ranges is emphasized. The diverse range of management options and the future trends in research which should improve our ability to manage soybean diseases are also considered.
Victoria Ndolo
The nutritional and nutraceutical value of wheat
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Wheat is a source of nutrients and phytochemicals with nutraceutical value. These components are unevenly distributed in the different parts of the wheat kernel, and their content in wheat varies widely depending on variety of wheat (V), genotype (G), growing environments (E), year/season (Y) and interaction effect (GxE or VxY). Knowledge of the nutritional and nutraceutical value of wheat and its determining factors may be used to select wheat for inclusion in the diet, for food product development and for selecting characteristics during breeding. This chapter describes the nutrients and phytochemicals found in wheat and reviews the factors that influence variations in their concentrations. The chapter concludes by considering the effects of wheat processing on nutrient and phytochemical content in wheat.
Roberto Ugás, Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Peru
Organic agriculture and agroecology in Latin America
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This chapter provides an account of the development and current status of agroecology and organic agriculture in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). It highlights the main contributions made by LAC farmers, practitioners, researchers and value chain actors to the worldwide growth of agroecology and organic agriculture. It provides an overview of certified and non-certified organic agriculture in the region, the guarantee systems in place and the markets for such products. National standards and regulations for organic agriculture are included, as well as programmes for organic agriculture and agroecology which have been developed over the last 20 years. Numerous factors including favourable policies, capacity building, provision of good quality public services and infrastructure development are discussed and found to be key to promoting the transition of smallholders into more sustainable farming systems. The chapter concludes with a review of the performance of organic systems in the LAC region.
Elizabeth A. Cooper and Stephen Kresovich, Clemson University, USA
The comparative and evolutionary genomics of sorghum
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Sorghum has a relatively small diploid genome, and retains much of the chromosomal structure and organization of its common ancestor. It also has multiple origins of domestication in different regions of Africa, resulting in a highly diverse germplasm well adapted to drought and other challenging environmental conditions. This makes sorghum ideal for dissecting the architectures of complex yet desirable traits. This chapter discusses what we know about the evolution and structure of the sorghum genome, the impact of domestication and the genetic architecture of key traits such as C4 photosynthesis and drought tolerance.
Fábio R. Marin, University of São Paulo (USP) - Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture (ESALQ), Brazil; Daniel S. P. Nassif, Federal University of São Carlos, Brazil; and Leandro G. Costa, Murilo S. Vianna, Kassio Carvalho and Pedro R. Pereira, Univers
Predicting the effect of climate change on sugarcane cultivation
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Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) can be used to produce ethanol and biomass for energy generation, as part of a climate change mitigation policy. It is also an important crop from a food security perspective, with almost 75% of the world's sugar coming from sugarcane plantations. In this chapter we review the potential impacts of climate change on sugarcane crops, focusing on the likely effects of changes in air temperature and CO₂ concentration. The effects of changes in rainfall patterns and water stress are also discussed. Experimental and process-based dynamic crop growth models (PBCM) simulation results are used to show the potential climate change impacts on the crop for the main sugarcane-producing countries.
Ludovic Brossard, Jean-Yves Dourmad, Florence Garcia-Launay and Jaap van Milgen, PEGASE, INRA – Agrocampus Ouest, France
Modelling nutrient requirements for pigs to optimize feed efficiency
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Improvement of feed efficiency is crucial if pig production is to meet the challenge of sustainability in terms of production costs and environmental impact. This implies to precisely know the nutrient requirements of sows and growing pigs to develop adapted feeding strategies and thus optimize performance. This chapter describes existing modelling approaches developed to predict the nutrient requirement of a single individual animal (growing pig or sow) in terms of protein/amino acids, energy and minerals, and depending on characteristics of the pig and the feed, and environmental conditions. The chapter proposes and explains the integration of individual variability among animals into models for pig feeding, its application in precision feeding, and illustrates via a case study the relevance of the application of these models for improving feed efficiency.
A. Schouten, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Natural antifungal compounds for the control of diseases in wheat and other cereals
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Secondary metabolites are essential when considering the ecological context in which an organism operates. They have an array of functions, related to signalling and dealing with biotic and abiotic stress situations. For defence against pathogenic fungi, plants can synthesize various metabolites. Wheat, like several other cereals, produces various benzoxazinoids, which are also associated with herbicide detoxification and the defence against herbivores and microorganisms. Apart from these benzoxazinoids, wheat seems to produce only a limited number of other metabolites with known antifungal activity when compared to other cereals. Nevertheless, wheat is still capable of successfully defending itself against pathogenic fungi by outsourcing its defences, that is, through the mobilization of the microbial community. This chapter provides an overview of the way in which these natural antimicrobial compounds contribute to the defence of wheat against fungal pathogens, as well as considering the counter defensive actions undertaken by some of those fungal pathogens.
Suzanne Hendrich, Iowa State University, USA
Nutritional, nutraceutical and functional properties of soybeans
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Soybeans have desirable nutritional properties, since they contain about twice the protein of other legumes per serving. Some soybean protein ingredients have protein digestibility corrected amino acid scores commensurate with proteins thought to be optimal to meet human protein needs. This chapter examines recent human clinical studies related to the efficacy and safety of soybean foods and food or dietary supplement ingredients including soybean oils, proteins, isoflavones and selected other compounds for which soybeans are a significant source.
S. R. Bean, B. P. Ioerger, J. D. Wilson, M. Tilley, D. Rhodes and T. J. Herald, USDA-ARS, USA
Structure and chemistry of sorghum grain
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Sorghum is grown around the world under diverse environmental conditions. Combined with the high degree of genetic diversity present in sorghum, this can result in substantial variability in grain composition and grain quality. While similar to other cereal grains such as maize and millets in some aspects, sorghum has many unique compositional traits which impact grain quality and utilization. This chapter reviews the composition of sorghum grain, including its physical structure, composition of bio-macromolecules and micronutrients. This chapter also includes a summary of research showing how various factors can impact sorghum grain composition.
