Advances and future directions in poultry feeding: an overview

$32.50

The poultry industry has witnessed remarkable advancements in recent years. This chapter provides a discussion of the advances and future directions in the poultry feeding. Advancements include defining nutrient requirements, composition and ingredient quality, better feed formulation and the advent of additives. It also discusses the developments in feed processing and phase feeding. Future directions include sustainability, ingredient quality, antibiotic-free nutrition, crystalline and synthetic amino acids, feed enzymes, chick nutrition and growth models. Optimal feed processing and the related hygiene practices are discussed briefly. The chapter then discusses future trends in poultry feeding. The chapter concludes with a section dedicated to further information on these topics, in order for the readers to expand their knowledge.

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Developing drought- and heat-tolerant varieties of grain legumes

$32.50

Despite the complexity imposed by the polygenic nature of plant tolerance to drought and to heat, significant strides have been made in understanding the underlying response and adaptation of plants to these stresses. Together with advanced and accessible technologies such as next-generation sequencing and precision phenotyping, this has enabled the assembly of molecular and physiological tools in grain legumes that would support the development of tolerance through traditional and molecular breeding. This chapter provides an overview of physiological, biochemical and molecular responses and adaptation mechanisms to drought, and to heat, with specific examples from grain legumes. The chapter examines the challenge of developing tolerance to drought and to heat, examining traditional breeding and the utilization of natural genetic diversity, and efforts towards molecular breeding including the identification of genetic associations and quantitative trait loci. Finally, the chapter considers functional genomics studies on stress-relevant candidate genes or gene families and suggests further reading on the topic.

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Improving cultivation of lentil

$32.50

Lentil is an important food legume in the semi-arid regions of the world where it can be grown successfully on limited soil moisture and in relatively poor soils. This chapter describes agronomic practices used in lentil-producing countries, addressing methods of land preparation, sowing, harvesting, threshing and cleaning. Procedures used in developed countries where the crop is entirely mechanized are also included. The chapter suggests improvements to seed supply systems, seed varieties, planting methods, weed control, and harvesting methods.

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Advances in understanding apple tree growth: the manipulation of tree growth and development

$32.50

Recent research and development has investigated the factors influencing apple tree growth, with the ultimate aim of helping apple growers provide the market with fruit which is consistent in quality and which exhibits the features that consumers value, such as firmness, juiciness, colour and appropriate sugar–acid balance. This chapter offers a detailed review of how different interventions after planting allow the manipulation of apple tree growth and development. It then provides discussion of two case studies which show the importance of this factor, and illustrates how it can interact with choice of rootstock and planting system to optimize yield.

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Metabolomics as a powerful tool for coffee authentication

$32.50

Detecting fraudulent adulteration of coffee is essential for both the industry and legislative authorities. Both parties are accountable for establishing quality standards through labelling, composition regulations and routine evaluation protocols to circumvent unfair competition among manufacturers as well as to ensure the safety, quality and authenticity of the product for consumers. This chapter addresses current issues in the area of adulteration of coffee as well as describes recent progress on coffee quality evaluation and authentication using the metabolomics approach. The chapter includes a detailed case study on the application of metabolomics to authenticate Asian palm civet coffee and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.

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Preventing mycotoxin contamination in groundnut cultivation

$32.50

Aflatoxin contamination of crops and food poses a substantial threat to humans and livestock worldwide. Preventing various Aspergillus species from becoming established and growing on peanuts (groundnut, Arachis hypogaea L.) can reduce aflatoxin contamination. This chapter describes factors that affect the growth of A. flavus and A. parasiticus on peanut, as well as models predicting contamination, cultural and biological control measures designed to minimize contamination, challenges associated with research and quantification of aflatoxin. The chapter also features three case studies from current value chain projects in Ghana, Haiti, and Malawi. The chapter argues the need for a more focused and concerted effort to address the issue of aflatoxin contamination in peanut.

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Harmful compounds in coffee

$32.50

In recent years, public health issues in the food industry have led to regulations concerning contaminants in foodstuffs, including coffee. Four main types of compound are known to contaminate coffee. First, pesticides come from agricultural treatments, transport and storage. Ochratoxin A is the main mycotoxin found in coffee and is linked to environmental conditions and post-harvest processing. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contamination can be of exogenous (during drying) or endogenous (during roasting) origin. Finally, acrylamide appears during roasting. This chapter discusses each of these compounds, reviewing our current state of knowledge, regulations for avoiding or dealing with contamination and effective ways of limiting contamination.

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Nutrient sources and their application in cassava cultivation

$32.50

This chapter discusses various sources of nutrients to be applied to prevent soil nutrient depletion, as well as the optimum rates, times and methods of their application. It also describes how computer models can predict site-specific nutrient requirements and balanced fertilizer rates to maximize nutrient use efficiency, increase farmers’ profits and prevent waste and potential pollution of the environment. It ends by considering the variation among cassava genetic resources in nutrient use efficiency in order to breed new varieties with greater tolerance to low soil fertility.

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Beneficial compounds from coffee leaves

$32.50

Leaves are the leading source of carbon for plant growth and reproduction, and possess a wide range of protection systems against environmental stress. The leaves of the coffee plant, characterized by a high antioxidant potential, have a significant impact on fruit quality, and identifying markers in leaves for plant adaptability to environmental stress provides an indication of the quality of future fruits. This chapter provides an inventory of molecules identified to date in the leaves of cultivated coffee trees. It describes the beneficial effects of the molecules exclusively found in leaves on both plant physiology and human health, and suggests where future trends of research in this area may lead.

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Improving organic animal farming for the future

$32.50

This chapter reviews key issues and approaches in improving organic animal farming for the future. It emphasises the value of developing diverse solutions suited to local conditions as well as the importance of understanding and working in harmony with the natural resource base. The chapter highlights the need for a more holistic concept of health as resilience together with the importance of locally adapted and more resilient breeds. It discusses the role of skills and better communication between different partners and the importance of an ethical framework underpinning all aspects of organic farming operations.

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Cocoa diseases: witches' broom

$32.50

Witches' broom, caused by the hemibiotrophic basidiomycete Moniliophthora perniciosa, is one of the most important cocoa diseases. The pathogen co-evolved with cocoa in the Amazon River basin and is currently restricted to South and Central America. Other cocoa-producing regions of the world are at risk because the introduction of the pathogen would greatly impact cocoa production. In the last few years new technologies such as NGS, bioinformatics, transformation, and the establishment of a model host-plant interaction accelerated the gain of information and have enabled significant advances in our knowledge of witches’ broom. In this chapter, we review the information on witches' broom, including the latest information on disease physiology, genomics and transcriptomics, diversity, and management practices.

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The development of organic aquaculture

$32.50

This chapter offers a general overview of global aquaculture production, explaining some of the key drivers (such as environmental, health and welfare issues with intensive conventional aquaculture) which led to the development of organic aquaculture more than two decades ago. The chapter looks at negative environmental impacts of aquaculture, general rules and regulations governing aquaculture, and the concept of trophic levels. The chapter offers a brief history of organic aquaculture and examines culture and production systems. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this field and the prospects of sustainable organic aquaculture.

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Efficient and sustainable production of faba bean

$32.50

Faba bean is mainly grown under rain-fed conditions, although irrigated production is important in Egypt, parts of China and central Asia. China is the leading producer with a wide range of intensive rotation and inter-crop holistic cropping systems. The main focus of this chapter is faba bean cultivation under rain-fed growing conditions. We cover faba bean production in China and in West Asia, North and East Africa Regions, including discussion of the diseases, weeds and pests affecting this crop. We also review faba bean breeding, genetic resources and markers for breeding, water deficit management, tillage systems, biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) and mineral nutrient requirements.

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Organic poultry farming: opportunities and challenges

$32.50

Poultry constitute a fascinating and diverse group of animals with huge potentials to adapt to many local conditions and to be integrated into a wide variety of organic farming systems throughout the world. Poultry herds fit into many different farm settings throughout the world, including the diverse farming environments in Europe. However, at the other end of the range of organic poultry production, we see increasingly industrial farms based on a complete separation between organic egg and broiler breeds, some with the same welfare and disease problems as the non-organic systems. This chapter looks at organic poultry production through the lenses of the four organic IFOAM principles, and discusses current options and challenges such as genetic material and breeds, and possible future developments with a focus on animal welfare and health, beyond existing systems, for example agroforestry and mobile housing systems, and integration into peri-urban and urban system.

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Chemical composition of coffee beans: an overview

$32.50

This chapter provides an overview of the composition of green coffee beans and the changes associated with roasting and beverage production. The chapter focusses principally, but not exclusively, on more recent advances related to the major chemical components of coffee such as the chlorogenic acids, the alkaloids (caffeine and trigonelline), the diterpenes (cafestol and kahweol), volatile aromatics and the poorly characterized melanoidins.

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Developments in molecular breeding techniques in Robusta coffee

$32.50

As a perennial crop, faster breeding methods are needed for coffee to be able to cope with the challenges of climate change that lie ahead. This chapter focuses on the state of the art of developed molecular tools, characterized traits, quantitative trait loci and candidate genes already described for Coffea canephora (Robusta coffee), which accounts for a third of the worldwide coffee production. The chapter examines coffee’s molecular markers, genetic diversity and the current state of molecular breeding, as well as looks ahead to future developments in this area.

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Organic beef farming: key characteristics, opportunities, advantages, and challenges

$32.50

This chapter offers an overview of the current status of organic beef production systems and emphasizes the need for more data to better characterize this farm system. It also offers an overview of the course of farm conversion, together with the available resources and options to determine the conditions required for the farm to be competitive in the market. The chapter focuses on the challenges, advantages and opportunities of organic beef farming as an important provider of ecosystem services. It also examines the nature of consumer demand and current preferences and looks ahead to future trends in the area of organic beef farming.

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Smallholder integrated organic farming: how can it work in the tropics?

$32.50

Organic animal farming in the tropics varies considerably across countries and regions, and comprises many different types of systems with significant variation in the degree to which animals are integrated into the systems. The chapter focuses on the issues associated with keeping animals on organic farms in the tropical regions of the world where smallholder systems dominate and will draw specifically on experiences from smallholder dairy farms in East Africa to unfold some of the challenges and opportunities that these systems can face. After giving an overview of tropical animal production and organic and smallholder farming, the chapter describes organic standards for animal husbandry in the tropics and challenges faced by tropical organic animal farmers.

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Biosecurity and safety for humans and animals in organic animal farming

$32.50

‘Biosecurity’ describes methods of reducing the risk of disease spread. Two defining aspects of organic farming are the requirement to allow animals outside access and the aim to nurture animal health without reliance on veterinary medicines. These measures create differences in risks of disease and access to environmental pollutants compared to non-organic animals. This chapter summarises some of the biosecurity issues particular to organic farming and discusses their significance to human health. Particular focus is given to organic animal rearing and the unique challenges of this sector. A number of strategies for reducing risk of infectious disease are discussed, and two case studies are presented to show how biosecurity has been addressed in practice. It is concluded that applying bespoke biosecurity plans on farms can reduce animal disease risk, thereby increasing the health and welfare of farmed animals and contributing to high standards of food quality.

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Coffee tree growth and environmental acclimation

$32.50

In this chapter, some aspects of coffee growth and development as well as the recent advances in the environmental physiology of growth and production are reviewed. The information deals with both Coffea arabica and C. canephora, which together account for 99% of coffee bean production worldwide. This chapter is organized into sections dealing with vegetative growth, flowering and fruiting, competition between vegetative and reproductive growth, and physiological acclimation to environmental factors including light, water and temperature.

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Developing improved varieties of pigeonpea

$32.50

Pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.] is a high protein pulse crop which grows well under biotic and abiotic stress situations. It could play a significant role in meeting the challenges of food security in the tropics and sub-tropics, under the looming threat of drought, warm climate, and rising production costs. This chapter examines the role of pigeonpea in global nutritional security for humans and animals, and addresses the physical, environmental and genetic factors that may affect the sustainability of pigeonpea production. The chapter examines four ways of enhancing pigeonpea production: through crop modeling, an efficient seed system, plant breeding and hybridization. Finally, the chapter considers the latest trends in pigeonpea breeding and production.

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Analysis and design of the shade canopy of cocoa-based agroforestry systems

$32.50

Cocoa-based agroforestry (AF) systems are a conspicuous element of agricultural landscapes worldwide. Shade canopy analysis and design is a key component of crop husbandry, and requires a good understanding of the interactions, synergies and trade-offs between shade, yield and environmental services. In this chapter we provide a guide and some principles to analyse and design an optimal shade canopy that provides a diverse, resilient AF system. We first review the different cocoa system typologies described in the literature, placing special emphasis on cocoa–timber systems. We present a guide for the analysis of the shade canopy of shaded cocoa systems, and then investigate the optimal design for cocoa shade canopies, with emphasis on the analysis of trade-offs and synergies between carbon storage and cocoa yields. Finally, we consider critical issues in applying AF science/knowledge to cocoa cultivation programmes.

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Supporting smallholders in achieving more sustainable cocoa cultivation: the case of West Africa

$32.50

Sustainability initiatives, including associations, platforms and networks, voluntary sustainability standards, corporate and non-governmental and civil society initiatives, have all been developed as solutions to the multiple, long-running challenges facing cocoa growers and producers. Largely implemented by cocoa farmers and groups, these initiatives are often supported by traders, government agencies, certification organisations and other not-for-profit organisations. This chapter examines the different sustainability initiatives and their social, economic and environmental impacts on cocoa farmers, farms and ecosystems. The chapter provides detailed case studies of impacts in Ghana and Ivory Coast. The chapter also looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance for further reading on the topic.

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Bioactive compounds in coffee beans with beneficial health properties

$32.50

In recent years, the health benefits of coffee beverage consumption have received considerable interest. This chapter describes the latest research on the potential health benefits of coffee components including caffeine, phenolics, trigonelline, cafestol and kahweol. The chapter pays particular attention to the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties of these compounds, and evaluates the results of clinical studies on the effects of coffee beverage consumption on human health.

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Enhancing naturalness and human care in organic animal farming

$32.50

Organic farming aims to produce food in a way that respects the environment, the people and the animals involved. These aims are covered by the principles of Health, Ecology, Fairness and Care. Naturalness and human care are integral components of welfare for farm animals that are managed under organic systems. Naturalness includes allowing animals to interact with nature and so develop resilience to potential health threats. It also includes animals being able to perform natural behaviour patterns that allow them to fulfil wants and needs when motivated to do so. Physiological health and emotional well being are integral to the welfare of the animals as individuals and as a group. Human care ranges from the provision of appropriate environment and management practices, where stockpersons are a friendly ally to the animals, to more intimate care when health and welfare are compromised. Support networks including advisors and veterinarians are important.

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Improving cultivation of cowpea in West Africa

$32.50

Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] is a legume crop of vital importance to the livelihoods of millions of people in West and Central Africa, providing a nutritious grain and an inexpensive source of protein for both rural poor and urban consumers. This chapter examines what constitutes an optimal cowpea plant population and explains plant configuration in intercropping systems in West Africa. The chapter explores how planting dates can be manipulated to improve cowpea productivity, and how nutrient management can be used to increase cowpea yields. Finally, the chapter examines the application of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in cowpea production and looks ahead to future trends in this area.

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Developing varieties of Arabica coffee

$32.50

About 60% of the annual world coffee production is harvested from Arabica (Coffea arabica) coffee, with the remainder harvested from Robusta (C. canephora) coffee. The former is superior in beverage quality, but more expensive to cultivate. The demand for quality coffees is steadily increasing, but anticipated climate change may jeopardize the sustainability of Arabica coffee production. This chapter reviews the achievements of several coffee research centres in conserving and evaluating genetic resources and variety development in Arabica coffee. It then discusses the main preconditions for successful next-generation variety development. These are related to genetic variation, disease and pest resistances, tolerance to abiotic stress factors, beverage quality and cost-effective mass propagation of hybrid cultivars. Breeders will have to combine classic selection methods with advanced genetic and genomic technologies in order to meet the challenge of developing resilient (hybrid) cultivars for sustainable, climate-change-tolerant Arabica coffee production.

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Advances in pest- and disease-resistant cocoa varieties

$32.50

Plant-parasitic nematodes cause cocoa yield losses, a sudden death of trees and retardation of seedling growth in nurseries. This chapter explains the hidden nature and the masking effects of these nematodes and how these have led to erroneous control measures. The chapter describes the nematode pests associated with cocoa and the symptoms of damage. It also addresses several available control options and outlines how nematode management is essential in order to reduce crop losses and to ensure self-sufficiency for food and industrial raw materials. The chapter finally looks ahead to future research in this area and provides additional reading for those interested in researching further.

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Genetic modification of grain legumes

$32.50

Grain legumes constitute a number of important oilseeds and food crops of the world. Most of these grow predominantly in the low-input production systems in the developing countries of Asia and Africa and are subject to several production constraints. This chapter addresses progress in and prospects for transgenic interventions in the improvement of grain legumes, concentrating on chickpea, pigeonpea, cowpea, lentils, peas, peanuts and other grain legumes. The chapter shows how these technological interventions provide opportunities for enhancing efficiency and effectiveness of breeding programmes for complex traits, as well as increasing the rate of genetic gains in these nutritious grain legumes. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.

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The principles of organic livestock farming

$32.50

Organic animal farming is guided by considerations of naturalness, systems thinking and sustainability, and the four IFOAM principles of health, ecology, fairness and care. The principle of health emphasises the connectedness of different parts of the system and seeks high animal health status through system design. The principle of ecology relates to the integration of livestock with cropping for feeding and nutrient recycling within the farm or region. The principle of fairness encourages respect for animal rights, whilst the principle of care places a responsibility for humane treatment of animals on those working with them. This chapter presents a range of current issues relating to these principles, and illustrates how achieving high animal health and welfare requires active engagement from the whole sector, including farmers, consumers, regulators, advisers and researchers.

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Improving cultivation of groundnuts

$32.50

Genetic and management options are available to realize an optimal pod yield and quality of groundnut production that meets the needs of the processors and consumers, as well as ensuring food safety standards. This chapter discusses various options for groundnut cultivation, from the choice of the variety to methods of storage available or are in use to achieve improved pod yield and quality. It discusses advanced groundnut farming practices such as conservation tillage in the USA, polythene mulch technology in China, and precision farming in developed countries. The chapter addresses the limitations of current agronomic recommendations for groundnut, assesses the available varieties and cultivars, and examines methods of field preparation and soil resources management. The chapter explores groundnut seed preparation, planting and weed and water management, as well as plant protection practices and harvesting, drying, curing, and storage methods. Finally, the chapter focuses on precision cultivation and groundnut seed systems.

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Grain legumes in integrated crop management systems

$32.50

This chapter focuses on integrated crop management strategies to increase grain legume production in rainfed, resource-poor farming systems. Generally, grain legumes fail to reach even half of their potential yields in these systems. For rainfed grain legumes the major contributor to the yield gap is sub-optimal soil moisture, along with a suite of nutrient, pest and disease constraints. The challenge is to identify remedial action within the means of resource-poor farmers. This requires greater emphasis on farmer-participatory research to identify local constraints, and engaging farmers in trialling locally feasible solutions. Examples of this approach are documented. Particular areas in need of intensive on-farm research include adapting grain legume farming to conservation agriculture and exploring means to increase cropping intensity of grain legumes in cereal-dominated cropping systems. It is suggested that a concerted shift in international and national efforts to support farmer-participatory approaches is needed.

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Analysing sensory and processing quality of cocoa

$32.50

Flavour is a critical facet of cocoa quality, impacting to a large extent the value and end use of traded cocoa beans. This chapter provides a road map towards bridging the knowledge gap that currently exists between industry and cocoa producers by defining approaches for analysing sensory and processing quality of cocoa. The chapter describes the quality criteria for cocoa being developed and communicated to cocoa farmers around the world with varying levels of depth, clarity and consistency into one harmonised and pragmatic approach. It links quality with the genetic expression of flavour potential and is informed by existing recognised international standards, experiences and recent research output. The chapter also highlights the evolution of sensory evaluation as a science and the use of physical and sensory evaluation as a tool to drive improvements in the cocoa value chain.

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Improving cultivation practices for soybeans in sub-Saharan Africa

$32.50

Soybean production in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has significantly increased due to the surge in demand arising from increasing populations and improved incomes. Analysis across SSA revealed an increase in soybean consumption of 7.4% between 1990 and 2011 with more than 50% of the production gap filled by importation. There is therefore an urgent need to improve the production of this important legume in SSA. In this chapter, we present the best practices for soybean cultivation together with evidence for their effectiveness in improving soybean yields. These best practices include the use of improved varieties; correct plant population; and nutrient, disease and pest management. We discuss the importance of supporting these practices with good input delivery and financing systems, agricultural advisory services and functioning output markets.

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Developing improved varieties of lentil

$32.50

Lentil is a popular pulse consumed primarily in Asia. It has a protein content of approx. 28% and also contains high amounts of macro- and micro-nutrients. Lentils are cropped under rainfed conditions and on residual/conserved soil moisture, and their inclusion in rotation benefits succeeding crops as a result of biological nitrogen fixation. This chapter reviews the reviews global production of lentils, and shows how the breeding and use of new varieties with higher yield potential and improved disease resistance has led to increased productivity in many countries. It discusses successful attempts to broaden the genetic base of lentil in South Asia and to cross domestic varieties with wild relatives to access new disease resistance genes. Finally, it considers the scope for breeding new climate-smart varieties of lentil in response to emerging climate changes and variability.

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Developing improved varieties of common bean

$32.50

The genetic improvement of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) has been a century old endeavor at institutions in North America and Mexico. This chapter describes Improvement programs focussing on a wide range of biotic and abiotic production constraints, traits for local adaptation, and consumer quality, with yield being the overriding challenge for most bean breeding programs. The chapter assesses the wide range of breeding procedures used to improve bean yields, from ideotype breeding to Quantitative Trait Analysis (QTL) of yield traits. The chapter discusses the impact of these procedures on yield gains and the future role of genomic research on yield improvement of the common bean.

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Insect pests and integrated pest management techniques in grain legume cultivation

$32.50

Cowpea is a major staple legume food crop grown and consumed in the dry savanna regions of sub-Saharan West Africa. Cowpea provides much-needed income to both farmers and traders; cowpea grain is also a major source of protein for the growing human populations, particularly, women, infants and children in West Africa. This chapter describes the pests that attack cowpea at every stage of its development, including aphids, thrips, pod-sucking bugs and lepidopteran pod borers. The chapter explains current control measures and their limitations, and advocates development of an integrated pest management strategy by exploiting knowledge of pest biology, host plant resistance (including Bt cowpea) and biocontrol, as well as incorporating research utilizing recent advances in ’omics’ research technologies. The chapter also emphasizes the importance of disseminating new information to farmers via Scientific Animations Without Borders, which uses cell phones to distribute freely downloadable video media.

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Insect pests affecting cacao

$32.50

Pests have a major impact on cacao production: estimates of losses due to pest and disease range from 30% to 40%. The use of chemical inputs, for example, pesticides and fertilizers, for pest and disease control and production enhancement, respectively, can have numerous negative impacts on the environment and human health. An integrated and holistic approach is therefore required to enhance and sustain crop production. This chapter presents the main insect pests attacking cacao in each of the three principal production regions: the Americas, Africa and Asia, and provides general information on control measures adopted for each of the main insect pests. The chapter also presents case studies that showcase how research can help to develop more sustainable and environmentally friendly control measures. Finally, the chapter discusses some of the non-traditional areas in which research should focus to overcome the challenges posed by insect pests.

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Grain legume storage in developing nations

$32.50

Grain legume grain stored after harvest is subject to catastrophic qualitative and quantitative loss. The major cause of loss is storage insects and mycotoxin-producing organisms, which reduce the monetary value of the grain as well as its food value. This chapter describes the various insect control approaches and technologies, both ancient and modern, that have the potential to help low-resource farmers. The chapter specifies the features such technologies must have if they are to be sustainably adopted by low-resource farmers.

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Drying, handling, storing and quality monitoring of pulses

$32.50

Pulses are an affordable, vegetarian source of protein. They are low in fat, high in carbohydrates and a rich source of micronutrients, amino acids and vitamins. This chapter discusses on how drying, storing and handling of pulses can adversely affect their quality. It reviews how pulse quality is assessed and discusses strategies for drying, handling and storing pulses in order to maintain quality. A technology for grain monitoring and automated aeration control system, as well as non-destructive techniques for quality assessment of pulses, is described.

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The nutritional potential of grain legumes: an economic perspective

$32.50

Present-day food systems leave a substantial share of the world’s population malnourished. Though rates of undernutrition have been falling, many people continue to suffer from micronutrient malnutrition and rates of overnutrition are rapidly increasing. This chapter argues that the increased role of pulses in the diet could help alleviate the latter two forms of malnutrition. First, it discusses the evidence in the nutrition literature on the role pulses can potentially play in increasing dietary iron, particularly among vulnerable groups. It then discusses economic reasons behind inadequate pulse production, and constraints, which act as barriers to increased production, faced by smallholders. Finally, the chapter discusses the types of consumer interventions that could also lead to increased pulse demand and an increased role in the diet.

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Advanced breeding techniques for grain legumes in the genomics era

$32.50

The challenge of grain legume production is to continue increasing productivity while reducing the significant seed yield gap between developed and developing countries/regions. Advanced breeding techniques play an important role in the era of genomics. This chapter describes the main grain legume breeding programmes, including breeding targets such as stressors and phenotypes. The chapter examines grain legume reference-genome sequences, legume common lineages and synteny and describes the use of whole-genome and reduced representation resequencing and SNP chips.

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Diseases affecting grain legumes and their management

$32.50

Legume plants are peculiarly susceptible to diseases due to their association with Rhizobium bacteria, their large seeds and stress intolerance. Specific and generalist disease species are well documented, but pathogen virulence evolves rapidly making management a continual challenge. This challenge can no longer rely on pesticide applications as many chemicals become unavailable through regulatory changes. Instead, integrated disease management (IDM) is now promoted as a more suitable and sustainable approach. Integration of disease control has many elements, a number of which are traditional and well developed such as field and crop management. In addition, advanced monitoring methods, modelling and molecular methods of detection are becoming essential features to assist precision in prediction and control. Rapid responses to new disease varieties require development of ever more sophisticated techniques which can, ideally, be applied on site. Local management is likely to incorporate all these elements and be increasingly integrated to global coordination.

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Developing pest- and disease-resistant cultivars of grain legumes

$32.50

Average yields of most grain legumes are still relatively low due to limited adaptability of available cultivars to a broad range of environmental conditions, and susceptibility to pests and diseases. This chapter explores current knowledge of pest- and disease-resistant cultivars of a variety of grain legume crops, including faba beans, peas, lentils, chickpeas, grass peas and common beans. The chapter considers cultivars less susceptible to foliar diseases incited either by biotrophic or necrotrophic pathogens, soil-borne diseases, as well as nematodes, bacteria, insect pests and parasitic weeds. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides extensive further reading on the subject.

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Flavour as the common thread for coffee quality along the value chain

$32.50

Quality, in the case of coffee, ultimately means flavour, as this is the aspect of coffee perceived by consumers as valuable. The assessment of coffee flavour quality is therefore the key tool for quality assurance in coffee, and is essential in strategies for achieving higher-value coffee. In this chapter, we discuss the definition of ‘quality’ as applied to commercial and speciality coffee, and then argue that despite many interesting advancements in the prediction of coffee flavour using instrumental, analytical methods, nevertheless the only practical way to analyse coffee flavour is still through sensory assessment. This usually means cupping, the process of grading coffee quality based on tasting performed by an expert using a specific protocol. We review how cupping has evolved, the protocols involved and how it can be used as a tool to reach consensus about quality. Finally, we consider other meaningful quality parameters related to coffee processing.

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Good agronomic practices in cocoa cultivation: rehabilitating cocoa farms

$32.50

Cocoa cultivation covers a total area of about 5.9 million ha worldwide with around 73% of this area found in the four large cocoa-producing countries in West Africa namely Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria. Adoption of good agronomic practices is crucial for the sustainability of cocoa cultivation and this chapter describes good practices at both the pre- and post-planting stages. The chapter focuses on the challenge of rehabilitating cocoa farms, and includes a detailed case study on rehabilitation of farms in Ghana. The chapter looks forward to future developments in this area and provides further reading on the subject.

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Climate change and cocoa cultivation

$32.50

Climate change has been projected to impact cocoa production unless cultivation practices are adapted. Guiding effective adaptation is a challenging task because of the high model uncertainty for precipitation which is a vital consideration for cocoa producers. We focus on identifying preconditions for forward-looking, proactive adaptation, describing global climatic changes at current cocoa production locations and demonstrating that impacts are spatially differentiated with the example of Ivory Coast. Temperatures were found to rise beyond historically experienced levels with high certainty. In Ivory Coast, at the frontier along the Savanna, dry season conditions may become too severe for cocoa growing. In order to effectively guide adaptation strategies, cocoa research will need to close important knowledge gaps regarding the interaction of cocoa genotypes, high growing season temperatures and reductions in bean quality, the effect of combined heat and drought events for plant survival, and likely changes of pest and disease threats.

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Biofortification of grain legumes

$32.50

Micronutrient malnutrition (MNM) is one of the world’s major health threats. Fe and Zn deficiencies affect more than a third of the world’s population, most severely women and children. Biofortified legume crops are being developed with higher levels of bioavailable Fe and Zn to alleviate MNM and improve the nutritional status of affected populations. In this chapter, we review the genetic variability of Fe and Zn content in many legume crops, and show how this is being used to guide breeding efforts through both transgenic approaches and agronomic management. We also consider the importance of factors that influence the bioavailability of microminerals. We review current breeding activities and releases, and so demonstrate an active research field, with progress in all stages of development.

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Life cycle analysis and the carbon footprint of coffee value chains

$32.50

This chapter presents concepts and tools around the life cycle assessment (LCA) and carbon footprint (CFP) with their applications to the coffee value chain. Coffee is characterised by a particularly complex value chain with multiple actors involved along every step, from production to consumers. This chapter explains the concepts of life cycle analysis and the coffee value chain, and describes in detail how carbon footprint performances can be used to upgrade coffee value chains. The chapter includes a case study on use of the EX-ACT value chain tool in Haiti.

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Developments in cacao breeding programmes in Africa and the Americas

$32.50

This chapter explores the main developments in cacao breeding programmes in Trinidad, Brazil, Ecuador and Costa Rica in the Americas; and Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria and Cameroon in Africa. The different types of commercial cacao cultivars and breeding programme objectives are described. Heterosis and heterotic groups in cacao, and the contrast between ‘traditional’ and new cacao breeding methods are explored. Finally, the issue of breeding cacao for organoleptic quality is examined and future developments in this area are discussed.

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Advances in understanding grain legume physiology: stomatal behaviour and response to abiotic stress

$32.50

Grain legumes can fulﬁll several roles: they can be an immediate seed crop for consumption or marketing, a means to increase soil fertility as a result of their nutrient-rich residues and a key component of livestock feed. They are therefore likely to have an increasing role in agriculture in both less developed and developed regions of the world. However, a potential constraint on their use is their response to drought in the more arid conditions predicted in some parts of the world due to climate change. This chapter will review the responses of various grain legumes to water-deficit conditions, and then will discuss how grain legumes can be bred for the stomatal characteristics most appropriate for water-scarce environments.

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Developing varieties of Robusta coffee

$32.50

Coffee is one of the important agricultural commodities, contributing substantially to the national exchequers of growing countries. Coffee is generally obtained from two types of coffee plants, namely Arabica and Robusta; the two species differ from each other in their centre of origin, breeding behaviour, growth habit, adaptability, production potential and quality attributes, but together produce unique blends for the consumer. This chapter offers a comprehensive review of various topics related to the development of Robusta coffee varieties, including the growth habits and agronomical characteristics of Robusta coffee, its breeding behaviour and genetic resources. The chapter describes the genetic structure of Robusta base populations and their phenotypic variability and initial efforts in the development of improved varieties. The chapter finally addresses the factors limiting sustained breeding initiatives and looks ahead to pragmatic strategies for the future.

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The role of gene banks in preserving the genetic diversity of cacao

$32.50

Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important tree crop for millions of farmers and for the multi-billion dollar chocolate industry but is derived from a limited genetic diversity. The centre of diversity of cacao is being deforested, thereby increasing genetic erosion, but fortunately a wealth of genetic diversity exists in global cacao collections. This chapter discusses the role and types of gene banks to capture genetic diversity. The chapter deals with the distinction between cacao gene banks and other gene banks and examines how this affects the management and estimation of genetic diversity. The chapter advocates an SNP panel for fingerprinting and addresses molecular marker-assisted management with the objective of comparing global collections and formulating a core collection.

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Nutritional and health effects of coffee

$32.50

An increasing number of studies have shown that, in spite of its nutritional limitations, coffee is a complex mixture of bioactive substances that may act together to help prevent diseases when consumed in a proper way. This chapter reviews the literature on the nutritional and health-related aspects of regular coffee consumption, then examines the potential side effects, and looks ahead to future research in this area.

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Diversity and genome evolution in coffee

$32.50

While the worldwide production of coffee relies on a small number of cultivars with reduced diversity, wild coffee trees represent huge reserves of genetic diversity that could help to mitigate the effects of unstable climate and plant diseases, as well as modify the wealth of health-related chemicals present in the coffee seeds. This chapter describes the results of studies of coffee tree species distribution and characterization, phylogenetic relationships among coffee species and the molecular bases of coffee species diversification, as well as looking ahead to future developments in this area.

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Organic banana cultivation and sustainability

$32.50

The cultivation of conventional bananas of the commercial Cavendish variety for export markets in the wet tropics requires a substantial amount of synthetic agrochemical input. Over the last 25 years, organic banana production has soared in Latin America. This chapter describes organic banana production, identifying the key requirements for success: growing location, soil quality and the use of rotation. The chapter examines the importance of soil fertility and fertilization, disease management and managing nematode and insect pests. The chapter also focuses on weed management, and offers suggestions for further reading in this subject area.

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Environmental and genetic effects on coffee seed biochemical composition and quality

$32.50

Reserve compounds that accumulate in coffee seeds contribute to a large extent– directly or through roasting-induced chemical reactions – to the broad spectrum of aromas and flavours of the coffee cup. Coffee seed reserves are mainly composed of cell wall polysaccharides, lipids, proteins, sucrose and secondary metabolites including chlorogenic acids, caffeine and trigonelline. Understanding coffee quality requires a detailed characterization of the metabolic pathways dedicated to the synthesis of these aroma/flavour precursors. This chapter describes the current state of knowledge on the relationships between coffee quality, seed chemical composition, and genetic and environmental effects, with a special focus on environmental regulations of coffee seed metabolic pathways. It includes a case study on coffee production on La Réunion Island and provides suggestions for further reading as well as looking ahead to future developments in coffee seed chemical composition research.

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Breeding caffeine-free coffee beans

$32.50

Regular Arabica coffee contains about 1.2% caffeine. ‘Decaffeinated’ (less than 0.1%) and ‘low caffeine’ (0.2–0.8%) coffee can be obtained by removing the caffeine. However, this can compromise the flavour, and may lead to consumers viewing the product as less ‘natural’. Over the past 25 yrs, efforts have been made to develop naturally non- or low-caffeinated varieties, and some coffee beans with reduced caffeine content are now commercially available. In this chapter, we first review the process of caffeine biosynthesis and the economic significance of naturally decaffeinated and low-caffeine coffee. We consider the varying levels of caffeine in different coffee species, the production and characteristics of non- and low-caffeine coffee and the challenges of moving to large-scale cultivation for new varieties.

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Life cycle assessment and carbon footprint of banana cultivation

$32.50

This chapter presents concepts and tools around the life cycle assessment (LCA) and carbon footprint (CFP) of the banana value chain. Bananas are the world’s most exported fresh fruit in volume and value and a key crop for millions of households in developing countries providing food, nutrition and income. As one of the most traded fruit, including transoceanic transportation, more attention is being paid to the social and environmental impact along the whole value-chain of bananas. LCA and CFP give farmers, individuals and multinationals the opportunity to identify GHG hotspots along the banana value chain and adopt practices reducing or offsetting the CFP. The FAO tailored the EX-Ante Carbon-balance Tool for value chain tool (EX-ACT VC) to the banana value chain (EX-ACT BVC) allowing analysis of its CFP, resilience and socio-economic factors. The present chapter gives an example of an Ecuadorian and Peruvian banana value chain analysis with EX-ACT BVC.

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Advances in research on coffee flavour compounds

$32.50

Coffee’s global appeal is related to its unique flavour, taste and mouthfeel. Coffee is the second-most traded global commodity after petroleum, and a thorough understanding of the chemical dynamics associated with its aroma is essential for the enhancement and permanence of its popularity. This chapter covers the chemical composition of green coffee beans, the process of roasting, the profile of volatile and non-volatile compounds generated by roasting and the chemical reactions responsible for their formation. We use research from the 1990s to the present to discuss the presence of incidental compounds in roasted coffee, the influence of coffee processing on aroma profile and the central issue of key volatiles in the determination of coffee aroma. Finally, we provide insights regarding future directions in the elucidation of coffee flavour.

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Disseminating improved coffee varieties for sustainable production

$32.50

Although coffee is one of the most valuable agricultural commodities of the world, it is an orphan crop in relation to investment in plant breeding. An efficient system to develop, introduce and propagate improved coffee varieties is required to place productive, attractive and affordable plants at farmers’ disposal. The chapter describes the rationale of developing and propagating new coffee varieties, presenting a strategy to increase efficiency of coffee production without compromising the quality of results. The chapter considers the physiological constraints of coffee variety development, the legal aspects of plant or seed shipments and the protection of the breeder’s rights within national or international systems. The chapter also includes case studies on statistical methods applied to multi-location trials. The chapter presents some trends for the future and recent initiatives that may be able to accelerate the development and deployment of genetic innovation at farmer level.

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Nutrition and soil management in banana cultivation

$32.50

There is significant variation in banana production systems across the world, particularly at the level of soil management. However, research on plant nutrition and soil management in relation to bananas has been limited for a number of reasons: bananas are unusual in their physiology and management, and the characteristics of the crop make it difficult to carry out standard fertilizer response experiments. Given the considerable investment in soil management, the scarcity of fertilization studies in bananas is surprising. This chapter provides an overview of general aspects of crop nutrition in the broader context of soil management. Focusing mostly on intensively managed systems where fertilizer use is the highest, the chapter discusses a number of strategies for soil nutrition as well as advantages and disadvantages of each approach.

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Organic cocoa cultivation

$32.50

The last two decades have witnessed a dramatically increased demand for organically produced goods. As a crop, cocoa can be grown successfully using organic methods, and demand for organic chocolate has risen in line with the overall growth in the organic market. This chapter offers a summary of current issues in the production of organic cocoa. I discuss production trends, acknowledging some of the challenges in accurately monitoring such trends, before considering some of the issues surrounding different cultivation methods, and the certification and pricing of organic cocoa. Finally, the chapter considers different techniques for controlling pests and diseases without the use of chemical inputs. A number of conclusions are presented, such as the importance of farmer acceptance of methods, the need for integrated pest management strategies and the challenges of highly variable markets.

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Nematode pests of cocoa

$32.50

Plant-parasitic nematodes cause cocoa yield losses, a sudden death of trees and retardation of seedling growth in nurseries. This chapter explains the hidden nature and the masking effects of these nematodes and how these have led to erroneous control measures. The chapter describes the nematode pests associated with cocoa and the symptoms of damage. It also addresses several available control options and outlines how nematode management is essential in order to reduce crop losses and to ensure self-sufficiency for food and industrial raw materials. The chapter finally looks ahead to future research in this area and provides additional reading for those interested in researching further.

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Good agricultural practices: an end point or a starting point for more sustainable banana production?

$32.50

Bananas, a longstanding export crop, have not been immune from consumer concerns about food safety and the environmental and human health impacts of production. About half of export banana production is certified under four labels – GlobalGap, Organic, FairTrade and Rainforest – based on Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs). GAP certification is a short-term guarantee to marketers and consumers, but GAPs have also been proposed as indicators of sustainability. Our review of the effectiveness of GAP suggests that they could become more useful by incorporating more ecological intensification indicators with economic implications. The present chapter illustrates the application of this approach in smallholder organic export banana to address not only the yield gap, but also improved synchronization between ecological processes, production routines and cost efficiency. While GAPs are an imperfect tool, they are also dynamic and open to new knowledge and practices, to make the extensive tracking and monitoring required of banana growers more effective, enabling as well better understanding of sustainable banana production.

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A functional approach to bunch formation in banana

$32.50

Sustainable management of bananas requires knowledge of development, especially the pivotal processes of bunch formation. This chapter presents a functional analysis of the formation of the inflorescence up to flowering (bunch emergence), emphasising interaction of the plant with the environment. We discuss the role of cool temperature in shortening the juvenile phase and long photoperiod in shortening the mid-vegetative phase of development. We examine differentiation of functionally female flowers that form fruit and subsequently male flowers that do not form fruit. We conclude that hand formation and fruit number per hand are independent but coordinated processes. Genotype and environment determine the relationship between the number of hands per bunch and flowers per hand along the female peduncle. Further research is needed to quantify relationships that underpin new genotypes and management practices for sustainable banana production.

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Improving best practice with regard to pesticide use in cocoa

$32.50

Consumer concerns about food safety have been translated into policy in consuming countries, including pesticide residues in cocoa. Such policy changes have an impact on cocoa producers and other supply chain stakeholders, as they have to comply with legislation or risk losing lucrative markets. Consequently, development and implementation of best practice for pesticide use is critical, but major challenges exist in-country. The chapter provides an overview of pesticide use in cocoa-producing countries and the challenge of improving pesticide regulation, before moving on to consider the development of best practice for pesticide use. The chapter provides detailed case studies on establishing baselines, promoting awareness and developing a holistic approach. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and provides guidance for further reading in this area.

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Improving soil and nutrient management for cacao cultivation

$32.50

The results of early fertiliser trials on cacao showed that phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) always had positive effects, along with variable effects from calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg). The variability of yield responses to nutrients pointed to the need to link the nutrients with each other or with other factors, in particular with soil, climate, and topography. This chapter outlines an approach to nutrition management based on correcting the soil so that the cacao can find the nutrients it needs in optimal quantities and balances. Through two detailed case studies, the chapter discusses the determination of fertiliser formula by physical-chemical analyses of a sample of soil taken from each plot to be corrected. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.

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Ensuring the genetic diversity of coffee

$32.50

Developing adaptation strategies will be critical in sustaining the coffee economy and livelihoods in many countries, owing to continued rises in production costs, as well as problems related to negative impacts of climate change and higher incidence of pests and diseases. Utilizing the varied genetic resources of coffee to develop varieties with drought stress tolerances, pest and disease resistances, high cup quality and increased production will ensure the future sustainability of the crop. This chapter examines the genetic resources of coffee in both ex situ collections and in situ situations and provides a detailed case study of the conservation of wild coffee species in Madagascar. In the context of the development of a Global Conservation Strategy for Coffee Genetic Resources, the chapter looks ahead to future developments in this area.

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Sustainable banana cultivation: from standards to multiple solutions

$32.50

There is no single recipe for sustainable banana cultivation. Pest and disease management has been central to sustainability efforts, particularly in the export industry. The global and local spread of pathogens make the capacity to manage such threats a shared concern for leading banana exporters and smallholders. This chapter addresses the gap between implementation of global sustainability standards in the export industry based on a single banana variety, Cavendish, and the overwhelming diversity of varieties, uses and production environments related to local food security and rural livelihoods. This gap between ecologically and socially diverse production systems and management strategies relying on standardisation of a package of practices complicates coordinated action working towards multiple solutions. The chapter includes a case study of a major banana-producing region in the Philippines, representing variety in banana production systems, which shows the importance of working towards a territorial approach that has the capacity to accommodate and connect multiple solutions for making banana cultivation sustainable.

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Banana cultivation in Africa

$32.50

Banana is important as a food, cash and climate-resilient crop in Africa. However, its productivity has declined tremendously to less than 10 t/ha compared with a potential 60–100 t/ha and plantation longevity has also severely reduced. This chapter examines the composition and distribution of banana cultivars, assesses banana production systems and focuses particularly on banana production in Uganda. The chapter addresses the challenges of banana production, including nutrient deficiencies, moisture stress and pests and diseases that affect them. It examines the ways in which banana varieties might be improved for management of pests and diseases and shows how marketing acts as a constraint to banana production in Uganda. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.

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Frosty pod rot, caused by Moniliophthora roreri

$32.50

Frosty pod rot (FPR) of cacao (Theobroma cacao) is caused by Moniliophthora roreri. FPR commonly can reduce yields by over 80% and is extremely difficult to manage. This chapter reviews the origins, spread and impact of Moniliophthora roreri. It also discusses methods for managing FPR, from strategies for prevention, early detection and rapid response (EDRR), to impact mitigation using integrated approaches. These include cultural control, supplemented by chemical, biological and genetic approaches.

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Cocoa sustainability initiatives: the impacts of cocoa sustainability initiatives in West Africa

$32.50

Sustainability initiatives, including associations, platforms and networks, voluntary sustainability standards, corporate and non-governmental and civil society initiatives, have all been developed as solutions to the multiple, long-running challenges facing cocoa growers and producers. Largely implemented by cocoa farmers and groups, these initiatives are often supported by traders, government agencies, certification organisations and other not-for-profit organisations. This chapter examines the different sustainability initiatives and their social, economic and environmental impacts on cocoa farmers, farms and ecosystems. The chapter provides detailed case studies of impacts in Ghana and Ivory Coast. The chapter also looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance for further reading on the topic.

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Development of rice varieties with improved iron content in grain

$32.50

Iron deficiency constitutes one of the most prevalent forms of micronutrient deficiencies affecting human health. Biofortification of food crops is suggested as a suitable approach to address iron deficiency in a sustainable and cost-effective manner. Rice, a staple food for over half of the world’s population, is an important target crop for iron enrichment. Due to limited germplasm variability for endosperm iron content, conventional breeding has not met much success in developing high-iron rice lines. Genetic engineering approaches have demonstrated varied degrees of success in enriching rice endosperm with iron. This chapter reviews the studies focused on iron enhancement in the rice endosperm.

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Mycotoxins in cocoa: causes, detection and control

$32.50

Mycotoxins are produced as secondary metabolites by various species of filamentous fungi, and may affect many agricultural crops and products. The potential health risks associated with these chemical compounds mean that significant attention has been given to their detection and control. However, most study has so far been dedicated to mycotoxin contamination of agricultural crops such as cereals, with less attention given to cocoa. This chapter presents an overview of the current understanding of mycotoxin contamination of cocoa. The main groups of mycotoxins are discussed, followed by a summary of three methods of detection. There follows an explanation of various methods of controlling mycotoxins in cocoa, including recommendations at the stages of production, processing and fermentation and discussion of attempts to decontaminate infected crops. It is concluded that there is a need for more research into the different mycotoxins affecting cocoa and methods of reducing their presence and impact.

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Safe handling and movement of cocoa germplasm for breeding

$32.50

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) originated in South America, but is now cultivated in various parts of the tropics. Movement of cocoa germplasm is often required in breeding programmes to increase the genetic diversity pool or to test clones/progeny in the field. However, such movement brings with it the risks of spread of pests and diseases, many of which are confined to particular geographical locations. Thus, it is critical that movement of germplasm is conducted within a quarantine framework. This chapter reviews the risks associated with the movement of cocoa germplasm. It considers international governance of plant movement and discusses the International Cocoa Quarantine Centre at the University of Reading (ICQC,R) as a hub for safe handling and movement of cocoa germplasm.

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Conserving and exploiting cocoa genetic resources: the key challenges

$32.50

The future of the world cocoa economy depends on the availability of genetic diversity and the sustainable use of this broad genetic base to breed improved varieties. Decreasing cacao genetic diversity (in situ, on-farm and conserved in collections) is a serious problem, and all its many causes need to be urgently addressed: the destruction of the Amazonian rainforests, changing patterns of land use, the spread of pests and diseases, sudden changes in climate and threats from natural disasters and extreme weather. These factors are resulting in an irreversible loss of the cacao genetic diversity so essential for farmers, breeders and consumers. A Global Strategy was published in 2012 to optimize the conservation and maximize the use of cacao genetic resources as the foundation of a sustainable cocoa economy. The chapter describes the key challenges, how they are being addressed and the priorities for further research and actions.

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The potential of somatic embryogenesis for commercial-scale propagation of elite cacao varieties

$32.50

Plant tissue culture can be used to speed up the development and deployment of genetically improved genotypes. Research conducted by multiple groups for over 25 years has led to the development of protocols for efficient somatic embryogenesis (SE) of cacao. This chapter provides a synthesis of publically available information and literature describing the research and development activities on cacao tissue culture and of field-test evaluations of SE-derived plants. The chapter also reviews current activities in cacao-producing countries involving adoption and scale-up for large-scale propagation of important genotypes, providing a number of field studies from Africa, Asia and the Americas.

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Yield gap analysis towards meeting future rice demand

$32.50

Rice provides 20% of the world’s food energy, and increased rice production owing to growing demand needs to be derived mainly from existing agricultural land. This requires reducing the ‘yield gap’, which is defined as the difference between potential yield and average on-farm yield obtained by farmers.
In this chapter, we provide case studies of yield gap analyses using different benchmarks (potential yield, experimental yield and best farmers’ yield) for estimating yield gaps. We start with studies focusing on the quantification of yield gaps and then describe studies with a focus on identification of the causes of yield gaps. We conclude with a discussion of the challenges to achieving better quantification of yield gaps and their causes, and the implications of yield gap studies for sustainable agricultural development to meet future rice demand.

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Agronomic and environmental factors affecting rice grain quality

$32.50

Recent research has shown the importance of both cultivation practices and environmental factors in determining the yield and quality of rice crops. These aspects of rice production are increasingly important given the need to develop sustainable production techniques which will provide food security despite a changing climate. This chapter begins by considering the effects of cultivation practices such as sowing, transplantation and harvesting dates, irrigation and fertilizer application on rice production. It then discusses the effects of elevated temperatures, elevated atmospheric levels of CO2 and O3, and water availability. Changes in yield, milling performance and appearance, nutritional quality and cooking properties are all reviewed. Organic rice cultivation is then considered as an effective, sustainable technique for producing high-quality rice..

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Cocoa plant propagation techniques to supply farmers with improved planting materials

$32.50

The availability of high-performance planting materials to cocoa farmers is an important part of a package of measures to improve the productivity of cocoa farms and thus the sustainability of the cocoa economy. This chapter reviews the methods, advantages and challenges of techniques of mass propagation, with a focus on seed and conventional vegetative propagation (since tissue culture techniques are covered in a separate chapter). The chapter discusses cross-cutting issues to be taken into account when developing a strategy to supply farmers with planting materials. These include availability of source materials, requirements for human resources and facilities, phytosanitary considerations, costs and demand. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to potential future research trends in this area.

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Cacao diseases: vascular-streak dieback

$32.50

‘Vascular-streak dieback’ (VSD) was the name given to a devastating disease of cacao, first described in Papua New Guinea in the 1960s and later found to be caused by a previously undescribed tullasneloid basidiomycete, Oncobasidium theobromae (now Ceratobasidium theobromae). This chapter describes the symptoms of VSD and the biology of the pathogen, the disease’s epidemiology and methods of management, as well as including a detailed case study showing the importance of field studies of the disease. The chapter anticipates future trends for research into this disease and suggests further reading on the subject.

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Assessing the sustainability impacts of rice cultivation

$32.50

In an increasingly crowded, volatile and fragile world, rice represents a crucial driver of global food security. This chapter explores the environmental and broader sustainability challenges posed by rice production. After considering trends in rice production and consumption and its strategic importance as a crop, we consider key environmental and sustainability challenges posed by rice, including resource-use efficiency, how rice production contributes to climate change and how it will be affected by a changing climate. We then address the challenge of quantifying these environmental impacts of rice production, and introduce the approach of the Sustainable Rice Platform, which offers a framework for assessing sustainability and encouraging the adoption of best practices.

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Plant protection products in rice cultivation: critical issues in risk assessment and management to promote sustainable use

$32.50

The use of plant protection products (PPPs) is a key issue in ensuring the sustainability of rice cultivation. It is essential to evaluate the risks these products pose to human health and the environment, and to determine what measures are required to keep the risks within acceptable limits. This chapter first reviews how the risks posed by PPPs are currently evaluated, and considers where current risk assessment practices require improvement. Methods of managing the risks associated with PPPs and encouraging more sustainable rice cultivation are then discussed, with an emphasis on how integrated pest management (IPM) strategies can be successfully implemented.

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Developments in the system of rice intensification (SRI)

$32.50

The system of rice intensification (SRI) is a combination of management practices developed in Madagascar some 30 years ago to make the cultivation of irrigated rice more productive. This chapter reviews how the SRI has evolved over the past 15 years as its efficacy has been demonstrated in over 50 countries. It reviews the ways in which SRI thinking and practice have developed as a result of farmer experience and scientific research, offering higher factor productivity, increased food security and poverty reduction, with more sustainability and climate-resilience in rice production. This review shows how SRI ideas and practices continue to evolve and even have effects beyond irrigated rice production to improve productivity for rain-fed rice and other crops.

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Challenges in cultivation of bananas in the subtropics

$32.50

Although it is commonly thought that a tropical climate is more suited to banana production than a subtropical climate, banana yields obtained in the subtropics are excellent and under good cultural practices can even be considered among the highest of the world. The relatively cool climate of the subtropics causes undesirable physiological phenomena and a long cropping cycle, but it has advantages as well. This chapter describes appropriate cultural practices designed to solve or minimize the climatic constraints on cultivation of bananas in the subtropics, including cultivation under greenhouse conditions.

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Advances in understanding the role of rice in nutrition

$32.50

Malnutrition includes both under- and over-nutrition. The development of rice varieties to improve dietary quality can play a role in addressing both forms of malnutrition. This chapter begins by considering under-nutrition, with an emphasis on the problem of micronutrient deficiency. It reviews how a staple crop such as rice can be biofortified to deliver key nutrients such as iron, zinc and vitamin A. Over-nutrition and its negative health consequences are then discussed, and we explore the possibility of biofortifying rice to carry nutritional properties of benefit to those at risk of or suffering from chronic disease.

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Taxonomy and classification of cacao

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Theobroma cacao is one of the most important cash crops in the world and is native to the tropical, humid forests of South America. This chapter discusses its origin and the taxonomy and classification of the varieties of Theobroma. It then reviews the characteristics of the three general groups of Theobroma: criollo, forastero and trinitario.

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Control of rodent pests in rice cultivation

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Rodents cause significant damage to rice crops at all stages. The intensity of rice cropping and the level of asynchrony of cropping affects the level of rodent losses. It is important to understand the biology of rodent species causing damage in order to develop appropriate management strategies. This chapter examines the impact of rodents on rice and comprehensively surveys physical, chemical, biocontrol-based and other methods of rodent management. Case studies of ecologically based rodent management in Vietnam, Laos and Tanzania form the background to the chapter’s assessment of the future for control of rodents and other vertebrate pests affecting rice production.

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Challenges and opportunities for smallholders in banana value chains

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Bananas and plantains play a major role in terms of global food security and household incomes in banana-producing countries. Banana production and yields are affected by a variety of factors, including availability of labour, soil degradation, access to clean planting material, management of pests and diseases, post-harvest losses, value addition and market access. This chapter reviews the literature on challenges in relation to pre-production, production, post-harvest management and marketing in domestic value chains of cooking bananas and plantains from the perspective of smallholders. The chapter takes stock of existing knowledge on these challenges, identifies opportunities for smallholders and other value chain actors for addressing these issues, and concludes with recommendations for future research.

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Harvesting and packaging of bananas

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Bananas are one of the most widely traded crops globally, and with appropriate management, can be produced on a continuous basis. However, the journey from field to retail destination is a delicate, finely tuned process, which must be closely managed at every stage to ensure the safety and quality of the product. This chapter describes each stage of this journey, evaluating different strategies and challenges. Various criteria are presented for determining when to harvest a bunch, followed by a description of different harvesting and transport techniques to avoid damage to the crop. Postharvest losses can be reduced through effective techniques of dehanding, washing, sorting and packaging. The chapter concludes with a discussion of future trends in banana cultivation, balancing the need to minimize production costs with the increasing consumer concern for the environmental and human impact of this trade.

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Dry-seeded and aerobic cultivation of rice

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Finding an efficient irrigation strategy that would minimize water consumption in rice cultivation is a key objective in dealing with the potential future competition for and scarcity of water as a resource. Several water-saving techniques have been developed, including dry-seeded rice and aerobic rice cultivation. This chapter explores these techniques and good agricultural practices (GAP) for optimizing use of both these techniques, describing the entire process in detail from field preparation to harvesting and suggesting best practice in each case. The chapter evaluates the differences between dry direct seeded and aerobic rice cultivation.

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Ripening systems for bananas

$32.50

The correct ripening of bananas is essential for optimum taste, appearance, shelf life and consumer satisfaction. This chapter reviews the skills and technologies needed for successful ripening, together with innovations and recent developments. Advice on procedures and best practice throughout the supply chain is presented from the author’s own experience.

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Banana plant propagation methods

$32.50

The ease of banana propagation by taking a sucker and simply planting it has allowed farmers to multiply their banana selections and share them. The banana sucker is a resilient form of planting material as the growing point is protected within the sucker, which contains a corm with a starchy store that allows the plant to readily re-establish. This chapter briefly describes the basic anatomy of the banana plant required to understand the part of the plant used for propagation. The chapter then describes the various practical aspects of banana propagation using either conventional planting material or tissue culture plants and the benefits and disadvantages of each method. The chapter looks ahead to future research trends in the area of banana tissue culture.

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Quality parameters and testing methods in rice cultivation

$32.50

Quality parameters and the ability to test when these have been satisfied are essential for delivering a consistent, high-quality product to consumers, and important for the development of new rice varieties with desired characteristics. This chapter begins by focusing on technology for assessing rice quality. It reviews some of the core quality parameters, which such technology must measure, considers practical requirements in research and commercial settings and notes areas for further development. Consumer health needs are then considered, but the quality parameters for this area are still being clarified. Section 4 then shows how data linking genotype, growing environment and grain quality can be obtained, and how this can then provide an overview of the natural variation to be expected in rice crops. This information can be used to develop new resilient varieties of rice, or to choose the most suitable variety for a given location.

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Improving photosynthesis in rice: from small steps to giant leaps

$32.50

Current strategies for boosting rice productivity encounter diminishing returns as rice crops approach yield ceilings. This chapter describes how improvement of photosynthetic efficiency is needed to boost yield ceilings. This can be in the context of C3 photosynthesis, overcoming single limitations and maintaining optimal distribution of resources within the photosynthetic apparatus. The chapter shows that chloroplast-specific photorespiratory bypasses can lead to improvements in overcoming photorespiration-related limitations. The most significant enhancement would be engineering the C4 photosynthetic pathway into rice. The chapter argues that a major priority in the early phase of C4 engineering is targeting genes responsible for C4 structure and function.

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The origin, domestication and dispersal of bananas

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The search for the origins of the edible bananas probably started soon after European explorers brought home stories about the wonderful fruit they had come across in Africa. Currently about 40 seeded species in the genus Musa have been recognised. This chapter describes the morphological and molecular evidence for the origins of bananas and the role of Musa balbisiana in the domestication and early cultivation of bananas. The chapter reviews the archaeological evidence for early banana cultivation before considering the dispersal of bananas into Oceania, Africa, South and Southeast Asia.

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Conserving banana germplasm through field genebanks

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The availability of true-to-type, pest- and disease-free planting material is fundamental to successful banana cultivation. It ensures that crops will not succumb to pathogens introduced at planting. This chapter examines the key issues in the selection, establishment and management of a field germplasm collection, with a focus on how best to provide a reliable source of quality banana planting stock. The chapter discusses characterisation strategies for variety selection and includes a case study of banana cultivation in Queensland, Australia. The chapter addresses the sourcing of material for the germplasm collection and strategies to ensure freedom from pests and disease. Finally, the chapter suggests future trends in research and offers guidance on where to look for further information on the subject.

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Integrated weed management in maize cultivation: an overview

$32.50

Maize (Zea mays L.) is among the most important cereals of the world. Weeds are one of the major constraints that reduce maize productivity. In this chapter, we discuss the impact of weeds on maize cultivation and the possible ways to control weeds in maize. In addition to herbicides, integrated weed management (IWM) practices are used to control weeds. IWM combinations include techniques such as land preparation, planting and cultivation or cultivars, rotations, intercropping and cover crops as well as mechanical control. The development of herbicide-tolerant maize cultivars and image-based site-specific herbicide applications are expected to contribute significantly in improving weed management in maize.

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Mechanisms of drought tolerance in rice

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Rice is especially sensitive to drought stress during reproductive growth. Drought mitigation, through development of drought- resistant varieties with higher yields, will be the key factor to improve stable rice production. This chapter reviews the following topics: mechanisms of drought resistance, assessing drought tolerance
performance, identifying genes promoting drought tolerance using quantitative trait loci (QLT) analysis, genetic engineering for drought tolerance, drought-protective genes and plant hormones affecting drought tolerance.