Advances in dairy cattle breeding to improve resistance to claw disorders/lameness
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Foot and claw disorders are, along with reproductive and udder health problems, major reasons for involuntary culling in dairy cattle. Culling due to lameness accounts for 8-15% of all culls. This chapter describes the key factors needed to achieve genetic improvement of claw health and discusses the challenges. It covers the various steps in breeding from the definition of the breeding goal, performance recording (phenotyping) with standardization and measures to improve data quality, genetic evaluation with the genetic background of traits, trait definitions, data validation and models, including aspects of genomic evaluation, direct and indirect selection for claw health and the possible impact on genetic gain. The chapter provides examples of successful implementation into routine breeding programmes and offers recommendations and examples of best practice. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and makes suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Parmeshwar Lal Saran, ICAR – Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, India; and Ravish Choudhary, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, India
Advances in papaya cultivation
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Papaya (Carica papaya L.) is one of the most nutritious fruits. Due to the presence of the enzyme ‘papain’, which has a number of uses, there is now an increased industrial demand for the fruit. This chapter reviews plant and floral morphology of papaya as well as advances in genetics and breeding. It also discusses climate and cultivation requirements to produce high-quality papaya as well as suitable methods for successful propagation, germination and fertilization. The chapter also highlights the various pests and diseases that damage papaya as well as emphasising the best time to pick the fruit during its ripening stage. The chapter concludes by emphasising the importance of the crop and the constraints small- and medium-scale farmers face when trying to grow papaya.
Margaret Skinner, Cheryl Frank Sullivan and Bruce L. Parker, University of Vermont, USA
Integrated pest management (IPM) in greenhouse and other protected environments
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Production in greenhouses, high tunnels, and other protected environments is expanding worldwide to allow for more intensive and continual cultivation to mitigate the effects of climate change. Growers want to create conditions that are ideal for the plants to thrive, but these are often the same ones that favor insects and other arthropod pests, requiring the implementation of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in greenhouses. The practices and organisms used for IPM in greenhouses and high tunnels are unique and specific to the target pest, geographical location, and crop. This chapter describes the process of scouting for both pests and beneficials in the greenhouse environment, before discussing plant-mediated IPM systems (including a case study from the Northeastern USA). The chapter addresses the realities of IPM in the developing world as well as other novel IPM practices and future developments. Finally, the chapter provides guidance on further reading in this area.
Andrea Visioni, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Morocco
Advances in understanding of barley plant physiology: plant development and architecture
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This chapter summarizes recent advances in understanding the genetics of barley development and architecture. In particular it discusses developments in understanding: barley plant structure and morphology; molecular control of vegetative development; and molecular control of reproductive development. Finally, the chapter looks at the implications of these developments for breeding more resilient and productive varieties.
Joshua B. Gurtler, Xuetong Fan, Tony Jin and Brendan A. Niemira, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in postharvest sanitizing regimes for horticultural produce
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Fresh and fresh cut fruits and vegetables are occasionally contaminated with foodborne pathogens, which has led to numerous recalls and outbreaks of foodborne illness, affecting consumer confidence. Leafy greens are more difficult to decontaminate from foodborne pathogens than other types of fresh produce, and the internalization of these pathogens into the tissue of fresh produce also impedes the efficacy of sanitizers. This chapter describes the use of sodium hypochlorite, peracetic acid, chlorine dioxide, electrolytic oxidizing water, acidified sodium chlorite and ozone as sanitizers of leafy greens. The chapter describes their modes of action as well as their effectiveness and potential drawbacks in inactivating foodborne pathogens or native background microbiota.
Alison Kelly, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries and Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Australia; and Clayton Forknall, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Austra
Advanced designs for barley breeding experiments
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This chapter provides a review of key developments in experimental design in barley breeding. After a brief history to set the scene, the chapter covers the background of experimental design for field trials, highlighting the key principles that are still fundamental for modern comparative experiments, including model-based design. The following section explores the quantification of genetic relationships through either pedigree or molecular marker information. Finally, the chapter presents the principles of multi-phase experiments for testing material both in the field and in the laboratory. Three case studies are included to highlight non-standard experimental designs that should be in the toolkit of every agricultural scientist and which are essential for modern plant breeding programs.
Dr Dr Tanya Stathers
Challenges and initiatives in reducing postharvest food losses and food waste: sub-Saharan Africa
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This chapter reviews food losses and waste in sub-Saharan Africa. It gives a general introduction to the terms ‘food loss’ and ‘food waste’ and how they differ. It focuses on the postharvest food losses occurring in sub-Saharan Africa and compares ‘objective measurements’ with ‘perceptions’ of food losses occurring during and after harvest. It also provides an overview of what information is already available regarding food losses and waste in sub-Saharan Africa. The chapter goes on to discusses various challenges and initiatives in reducing food losses and waste and concludes by providing a general summary and several resources for further information.
Sunday O. S. Akinyemi, National Horticultural Research Institute, Nigeria
Advances in breeding of mangoes
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Mango (Mangifera indica L.) and closely related genera (Mangifera spp.) belong to the family Anacardiaceae that consists of dicotyledonous trees and shrubs. The mango is distributed widely in the world’s tropical and subtropical regions as well as in a wide range of areas with a marginal climate throughout the world. The cultivated mango is probably a natural hybrid between M. indica and M. sylvatica that occurred in south eastern Asia to India. On the basis of ancient accounts of travellers and written historical records, it was believed for many years that mango must have originated from India and spread outward from Southeast Asia.
Professor Professor Christian Maltecca
The use of genomic information to improve selection response while controlling inbreeding in dairy cattle breeding programs
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This chapter discusses the use of genomic information to improve selection response in dairy cattle breeding programs. It assesses population size and inbreeding, as well as discussing how genetic information can be used to reduce inbreeding. The chapter also provides an understanding of the genetics of inbreeding and how the construction of mating designs can be used to limit inbreeding. The authors also review how alleles can be maintained and discusses how optimum contribution selection (OCS) can be used to maximize selection response while controlling inbreeding. It concludes by providing a case study of using optimum contribution selection and an overview of how genetic information can provide a new way forward in understanding and controlling inbreeding.
Keith Tyrell, Pesticide Action Network UK (PAN UK), UK; Sheila Willis, Pesticide Action Network UK (PAN UK), UK and University of Cape Town, South Africa; Stephanie Williamson, Pesticide Action Network UK (PAN UK), UK; Davo Simplice Vodouhe, Organisation
Monitoring and minimizing health risks related to pesticides
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Pesticide poisoning is a cause of many human deaths, either via deliberate self-poisoning or via occupational exposure. This chapter looks at monitoring exposure to pesticides and how to minimize human health risks related to their use/exposure. Following an introduction, a section on data-collection approaches and limitations is presented. Then follows a section on policy responses to what is a now a global pesticide poisoning crisis. The case of the smallholder cotton farmers in the Republic of Benin is presented. The chapter concludes with a section on recent surveys in Benin conducted by the Pesticide Action Network UK and the Benin Organisation for the Promotion of Organic Farming (OBEPAB). The authors conclude that pesticide poisoning remains a significant problem in low- and middle-income countries causing substantial numbers of deaths and serious illnesses placing a heavy burden on both health systems and economies.
Ruth Mbabazi and Karim Maredia, Michigan State University, USA
Biotechnology applications for integrated pest management
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An exciting wave of discoveries in biotechnology is revolutionizing agriculture worldwide. Biotechnology tools and applications are offering great opportunities for integrated pest management (IPM) programs in agriculture. This chapter describes biotechnology applications for pest management including pest diagnostic and genetic characterization of pests, molecular breeding for insect and disease resistance, genetically engineered crops for insects, pathogens, and weeds management as well as applications of emerging genome-editing approaches for pest management. These applications provide additional options in IPM programs and in turn help reduce pest damage and crop losses, decrease the use of toxic chemical pesticides, and enhance agricultural productivity, economic growth and global food security as well as improve environmental quality. Successful deployment of biotechnology tools and applications enhance the overall effectiveness of IPM programs. The chapter also highlights policy issues including intellectual property rights, biosafety, regulatory, communication, and stewardship aspects surrounding the access, utilization, deployment and management of biotechnology tools in pest management programs.
Theodor Friedrich, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Italy
The role of no or minimum mechanical soil disturbance in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Minimum mechanical soil disturbance is one of the pillars of Conservation Agriculture (CA). It is the core concept, which distinguishes CA as a sustainable farming system from tillage-based systems. This chapter introduces concepts of tillage and soil disturbance and the issues and solutions related to this topic along the cropping cycle. The role of no or minimum soil disturbance in CA systems is fully explored, firstly by looking at the effects of soil tillage and tillage implements on the soil. The chapter goes on to discuss how soil disturbance can by minimised during farming activities such as land preparation, seeding, planting, pest, disease and weed management, and harvesting. The issue of soil compaction is also discussed. The author concludes that agriculture is possible without soil disturbance and that sustainable agriculture via CA may become a reality.
Peter Sullivan, Canadian Dairy Network, Canada
International genomic evaluation methods for dairy cattle
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The primary systems of data recording and genetic evaluation of dairy cattle are managed at a national level, with separate programs being run by each country, or in some cases for a small group of countries. However, international genomic evaluation methods for dairy cattle are needed so that sire evaluations can account for and estimate suitable degrees of sire re-ranking from one country to the next. This chapter compares national versus international standards and genetic versus genomic evaluation methods. The chapter highlights key points of understanding for current and future applications of international genomic evaluation of dairy cattle. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading on the subject.
Stephane Boulakia, Florent Tivet and Olivier Husson, Centre de coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), France; and Lucien Séguy, AgroécoRiz, France
Nutrient management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Nutrient cycling is considered as a key agroecosystem service of Conservation Agriculture (CA). CA brings together major nutrients and organic matter fluxes within the soil-micro-organism-plant system. It also generates organic and inorganic nutrient pools accessible through new biological pathways. This chapter addresses nutrient management practices and benefits in CA systems. Current trends in CA systems design are discussed, as is integrated nutrient management. The concept of the “forest model” is introduced and discussed in detail. Sections on nutrient pools, bioavailability of elements, and mineral use efficiency in CA systems are also included. The chapter concludes with two case studies from contrasting agroecosystems: one from a Brazilian Fazenda transitioning from “generic” CA to CA based on multifunctional mix species cover, and one from a French dairy farm, illustrating how CA, associated with important and diversified organic matter inputs from cover crops and crop residues, impacts and modifies plant nutrition management.
Charles Vincent, Agriculture Agri-Food Canada Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Canada; Guy Hallman, Phytosanitation, Oceanside, USA; Phyllis Weintraub, Gilat Research Center, Israel; and Francis Fleurat-Lessard, Gradignan, France
Advances in physical control methods in IPM
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The evidence is mounting for pesticide failures on many fronts, including environmental contamination and pest resistance to chemical products. As an alternative, physical management methods are environmentally friendly, are not subject to the development of resistance, leave no residues and require no complicated registration procedures. In this chapter, recent advances in physical control methods are reviewed, and how they are applied to the pre-harvest situations, and to the post-harvest situations of stored products, notably fresh fruits, vegetables and flowers. Physical management techniques should be fully integrated into integrated pest management programmes. The chapter discusses how physical barriers are applied in the pre-harvest field as compared to the post-harvest situations and how sanitation measures differ between pre- and post-harvest. The chapter concludes with a section on the vision for the future of post-harvest phytosanitary measures, which includes the possibility of artificial intelligence, coupled with affordable sensors.
Dr Dr Tom Goddard
Institutional and policy support for Conservation Agriculture uptake
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Conservation Agriculture (CA) has been adopted by farmers in at least 78 countries around the world in response to land degradation from intensive tillage and monoculture production systems. Since pioneer farmers started the CA development journey five decades ago it has been refined into a sustainable production system with improved economics and multiple social and environmental co-benefits beyond stopping the immediate land degradation concerns. This chapter reviews experiences of CA in a wide range of countries (including Canada, Kazakhstan, China, Paraguay and Argentina) in order to allow the identification of commonalities and differences. The chapter examines the subsidization of agricultural activities as a barrier to change and evolution of processes and the initial reluctance and skepticism of academia with regard to CA. The chapter considers CA as a disruptive innovation and looks ahead to the future of CA policy on a global scale.
Raphael Mrode, Scotland’s Rural College, UK and International Livestock Research Institute, Kenya
Genetic and genomic dairy cattle evaluations in developing countries
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Genetic improvement programmes have delivered huge economic returns in developed countries. Supporting these successful genetic improvements are efficient genetic evaluation systems (GES) for the accurate evaluation of animals on which selection is based. Thus, GES is not only an integral and important component of any genetic improvement programme, but it has direct influence on the rate of genetic progress that is achievable. This chapter discusses genetic and genomic dairy cattle evaluations in developing countries. Following an introduction, a section entitled efficient data collection and storage is provided covering historical perspectives, and the current status of data and data collection in some developing countries (Kenya, Zimbabwe, India and Brazil). Then follows a section on analytical systems for the computation of the genetic merits of animals covering both conventional genetic evaluation systems and genomic selection. The chapter concludes with a discussion on systems for dispersal of better genetic merit.
George B. Frisvold, University of Arizona, USA
Economic assessment of integrated pest management (IPM) implementation
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Besides reducing health and the ecological risks of pest control, integrated pest management (IPM) seeks to increase farm income. Economic constraints also act as barriers to adoption of IPM practices. An understanding of how IPM affects the farm “bottom line” is crucial to efforts to encourage IPM. This chapter discusses methods for estimating the economic impacts of IPM, devoting special attention to advances in statistical methods to account for sample selection bias in program evaluation. The chapter also discusses methods for estimating economic values of reduced environmental risks. Finally, the chapter examines the effectiveness of Farmer Field Schools in promoting pest management knowledge, IPM adoption, and farm income and discusses ways to improve economic assessments of IPM programs.
Charles Staver, Bioversity International, France
Ecological intensification of banana production systems
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Bananas have a bright cropping future – a high diversity of cultivars in taste, aroma and texture, all with recognized health properties and cropping methods offering soil protection, minimal tillage and adaptation to a wide range of climates, even with climate change. However, growers face demands from consumers, markets and society on their production methods. After a short review of banana production system diversity and indicators of improvement of cropping system performance, this chapter focuses on immediately available options to growers to be more efficient, productive, and competitive, while maintaining and improving the environment. These include strategies for reducing bunch variability, timing production for periods of favorable prices, improving the efficiency of nutrient uptake and recycling, soil health and management for variable weather.
Christine Baes, University of Guelph, Canada and University of Bern, Switzerland; and Bayode Makanjuola and Larry Schaeffer, University of Guelph, Canada
Assessing inbreeding and genetic diversity in the Holstein breed using pedigree and genomic approaches
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Various breeding strategies to improve dairy cattle production, conformation, health and, more recently, efficiency, have been developed. However, as selection intensity within these finite populations has increased, so has the relatedness within individual populations. This chapter looks at inbreeding and genetic diversity in the Holstein breed. It discusses the forces affecting genetic diversity within the breed, including drift, selection, migration, and mutation. Assessing measures of relatedness using different sources of information available for Holsteins (additive genetic relationships, genomic relationships, and other measures of inbreeding) are described. Inbreeding and its effects on phenotypes, including positive effects of inbreeding, inherited defects, and inbreeding depression for quantitative traits, are then explored. Exploration of population measures of inbreeding, such as the effective population size and the rate of inbreeding leads into a discussion on how to manage genetic diversity in Holsteins. The chapter concludes with a case study on Holstein cattle in Canada.
Don Reicosky, Soil Scientist Emeritus USDA-ARS and University of Minnesota, USA
Conservation Agriculture Systems: soil health and landscape management
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At the core of Conservation Agriculture (CA) is the transformation towards soil health and systems management innovation with emphasis on regenerative carbon management. This chapter documents the role of CA systems in relation to soil health and soil function. The three principles of: 1) permanent organic crop residue soil cover; 2) diverse crop rotations and cover crop mixes; and 3) continuous minimum mechanical soil disturbance, of CA systems, along with complementary supporting practices, are fully discussed. Then follows a section on plant carbon and its impact on hydrology and water use efficiency. The author concludes that a strong partnership is needed among all social, economic, and political sectors to promote innovation, adoption and success of Conservation Agriculture systems in light of the need for global food security.
M. A. Foale, Quang Thien Nguyen and Steve W. Adkins, The University of Queensland, Australia
Advances in cultivation of coconut
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The coconut palm, source of staple human nourishment in the coastal tropics, produced the first vegetable oil traded in a significant volume between the tropical and temperate worlds, beginning in the mid 19th century. New processing methods have led to coconut oil and water becoming much more valuable in the early 21st century, ushering in demand for regeneration, expansion and improved management of primary production and the adding of value to products. The chapter explores the challenges of improving potential yield of the coconut, protecting the coconut from biohazards and the mass production of elite genotypes. The chapter examines the difficulties associated with achieving affordable somatic embryogenesis, and looks at the management of coconut from nursery to productive plantation, as well as the process of harvesting and the processing of end products. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
E. A. Heinrichs and John E. Foster, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
Advances in breeding crops resistant to insect pests: rice as a paradigm
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Over the last 60 years research involving the development and deployment of insect-resistant crop cultivars has led to significant crop improvements in the major food-producing areas of the world. This chapter discusses the history, status, latest methods, and challenges of breeding insect-resistant rice varieties. The chapter examines host plant resistance as an ecological approach to managing crop pests and considers the process of evaluating resistance on the basis of insect behavior. The chapter looks at breeding rice for resistance to insect pests and considers the constraints on the development and deployment of insect-resistant plant technology. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Robert Venette, USDA Forest Service, USA; and Amy Morey, University of Minnesota, USA
Advances in understanding the ecology of invasive crop insect pests and their impact on IPM
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Invasive species represent one of the greatest threats to agriculture and commercial forestry, worldwide. Examples of invasive pests continue to increase with increasing world trade and human transport, but all biological invasions progress through similar stages of arrival, establishment, spread and impact. This chapter reviews how management strategies change as invasions progress. As problems from invasive species increase, some scientists and decision-makers question if species-by-species research and farm-by-farm management are the optimum ways to address the problem. Here, the authors address two more fundamental questions: can the various approaches to invasive species management still be considered integrated pest management, and why does it matter if they can or cannot? Lastly, the authors describe invasive species as a ‘wicked problem’, for policy-makers, researchers and stakeholders. Great achievements can be made if the problem is tamed, but research and management efforts may be jeopardized if it is not.
Scott Day, Treelane Farms Ltd, Canada; Ademir Calegari, Agricultural Research Institute of Paraná State (IAPAR), Brazil; Alessandra Santos, Marcus Cremonesi, Lilianne Maia and Wilian Demetrio, Federal University of Paraná, Brazil; and Marie L. C. Bartz,
Biodiversity management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Biodiversity in agriculture is one of the most effective ways to achiebe sustainable crop production without damaging the environment. This chapter reviews biodiversity management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems. After looking at the importance of soil microorganisms, the chapter looks at how CA systems contribute to soil biological activity, particularly the way cover crops and rotations, with a no-till regime, can enrich soil and the multitude or organisms living in it. The chapter concludes with a case study discussing biodiversity management practices and benefits in CA systems in South-West Manitoba (Canada).
B. Basso and R. A. Martinez-Feria, Michigan State University, USA; and B. Dumont, University of Liege, Belgium
Modeling crop rotations: capturing short- and long-term feedbacks for sustainability and soil health
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Crop rotation is a critical management strategy available to farmers to sustain soil fertility, combat pests, and improve crop yields. Because of the complex feedbacks occurring in the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum, legacy effects and their interactions with climate are generally not well understood, and their ultimate influence on yields and environmental quality is difficult to predict. Crop simulation models offer a way of parsing through this complexity. This chapter illustrates how crop models account for the interactions between soil, genotypes, management, and climate, on crops grown in various rotations, and their effects on yield and environmental outcomes (e.g. nitrate leaching, soil organic carbon sequestration) under current and future climate scenarios by presenting two different case studies and modeling approaches. The authors conclude the chapter by summarizing the advantages and disadvantages of the modeling approaches and offer some recommendations for how to best capture legacy effects.
Thuy T. T. Nguyen, Agriculture Victoria, Australia
Advances in dairy cattle breeding to improve heat tolerance
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Elevated temperature can impact dairy cows in many aspects, leading to a decline in productivity and ultimately the profitability of the industry. There is a need to breed for heat tolerant dairy cattle to mitigate these impacts. This chapter outlines technologies to breed for more heat tolerant dairy cattle, exploiting either between or within breed genetic variation in the trait. Finally, the chapter discusses future perspectives on the use of different tools to achieve accelerated improvements of this important trait, and provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Kerry B. Walsh and Nicholas T. Anderson, Central Queensland University, Australia
Monitoring postharvest attributes: instrumental techniques for measuring harvest maturity/fruit quality
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Measurement precedes management. In this chapter, measurement technologies relevant to postharvest management are reviewed, both in context of technologies in current industry use and those with apparent promise for future use. A brief description of these techniques is made in relation to their theory of operation, their limitations, and potential alternative methodologies. The use of these measurements technologies is discussed in a wider context, with attention given to fruit and vegetable specifications, the point within the value chain at which the various measurements can be made, sampling and sorting statistics, communication options for remote logging, and labelling options. This information should be of practical use to those working in postharvest chains as well as to students and researchers involved in postharvest measurements.
Paul Robson, University of Aberystwyth, UK; Astley Hastings, University of Aberdeen, UK; John Clifton-Brown, University of Aberystwyth, UK; and Jon McCalmont, University of Exeter, UK
Sustainable use of Miscanthus for biofuel
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Biomass removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during growth and, if converted to biofuel, has the potential to be carbon negative, especially if combined with carbon capture and storage. To achieve ambitious targets for global reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, biomass crops should generate high yield from minimal input energy while minimising environmental impacts that could make crop production less sustainable. This chapter focuses on research demonstrating that Miscanthus embodies a range of attributes (e.g. C4 photosynthesis combined with cold tolerance, high energy output/input ratios, efficient nutrient recycling and high yield from minimal agronomic input) that make it an ideal sustainable biomass crop for biofuels. Sections on both nutrient use efficiency and water use/water use efficiency are included. The authors also discuss carbon flux and various life cycle assessments for different end uses. Traits for improved sustainability are also presented. The chapter concludes with a discussion on future research priorities.
Dr Dr Sean Moore
Advances in microbial control in IPM: entomopathogenic viruses
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Although there are several families of viruses known to include insect pathogens, only a handful are recognised to have species with any potential of being biopesticides. The majority of these are baculoviruses and are an ideal component of an integrated pest management (IPM) programme, as they are highly target pest-specific, have no detrimental side effects, are user-friendly, are often as effective as the chemical alternatives, are compatible with most pesticides and technologies, and they leave no detectable residues. However, there are certain challenges associated with their usage, such as slow speed of kill, a narrow host range, limited shelf life, high cost and the possibility of resistance development – the solutions to which are discussed in this chapter. Three baculovirus biopesticide case studies are provided elucidating the practical benefits and challenges of using baculoviruses in IPM systems. The chapter concludes that the usage of insect viruses in IPM is set to grow in the future.
Upendra Singh and Cheryl Porter, International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC) and University of Florida, USA
Improving modeling of nutrient cycles in crop cultivation
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This chapter describes nutrient cycle modelling for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) and is not meant to be a review of existing nutrient models. Most of these existing models were designed to predict the effects of N and P on crop growth response. Given the importance of N in global food production and its impact on the environment, the major emphasis of this chapter has been on N modelling.
A. Amiri and L. Gañán, Washington State University, USA
Powdery mildew: biology, epidemiology, and management of Podosphaera spp. of tree fruit
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Major economically important tree fruit, such as apple (Malus × domestica), pear (Pyrus spp.), and stone fruit (cherry, apricot, peach: Prunus spp.), are amongst the most susceptible crops to powdery mildews. The fungus mostly affects vegetative tissues but can also infect the reproductive organs (flowers and fruits) of the tree. In the absence of appropriate management, severe polycyclic infections may significantly reduce fruit set and yield. This chapter summarizes current knowledge on the biology, epidemiology, host resistance and control of powdery mildew species of apple (Podosphaera leucotricha) and cherry (Podosphaera clandestina). The chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance for further reading on the subject.
Prof Prof Samir Droby
Advances in the use of biological control agents in the disinfection of horticultural produce
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This chapter reviews advances in the use of biological control agents in the disinfection of horticultural produce. It discusses plant extracts and animal-based materials as postharvest treatments, the discovery of microbial antagonists and their mode of action. It also reviews the integration of biocontrol agents with non-chemical postharvest treatments as well as the development and commercial application of postharvest biological control products.
Noosheen Zahid and Mehdi Maqbool, University of Poonch, Pakistan; and Ajit Singh and Asgar Ali, University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Malaysia
Advances in guava cultivation
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Guava (Psidium guajava) belongs to the Myrtaceae family and is also commonly known as guyava, kuawa or guayba. It is one of the most common and major fruits globally and is considered the fifth most important fruit (in terms of production area and volume) after mango, citrus, banana and apple. Due to its versatility and widespread use, guava has been appropriately called ‘the apple of the tropics’. There is a need to enhance more traditional, small-scale methods of production to make guava more competitive in world markets. One modern technique is a shift to high-density planting (HDP) which is widely used for crops such as apple in Europe and North America. Given the popularity of high-density technology and its likely benefits, it is now the right time to encourage the adoption of this technology by guava growers. This chapter explores the ways guava cultivation can be sustainably modernized in this way.
Reiner Jedermann, Institute for Microsensors, Actuators and Systems (IMSAS), Germany; Ulrike Praeger and Martin Geyer, Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy (ATB), Germany; and Walter Lang, Institute for Microsensors, Actuators and
Temperature deviations during transport as a cause for food losses
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Deviating temperature conditions during distribution processes reduce the quality of food and significantly contribute to global food losses. The effect of careless handling and inadequate processing only become visible much later in the cool chain, making it difficult to quantify the contribution of individual processes. This chapter highlights the importance of transport losses of produce and draws attention to the omnipresence of temperature deviations. The chapter examines methods of shelf-life prediction, as well as the identification, quantification and mitigation of temperature abuse, along with remote monitoring. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Clyde W. Fraisse, University of Florida-Gainesville, USA; Norman E. Breuer, Catholic University Nuestra Señora de la Asunción, Paraguay; and Victor Cabrera, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
Developing climate-based decision support systems from agricultural systems models
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Decision Support Systems (DSSs) in production agriculture are computer software programs that make use of models and other information to make site-specific recommendations for farm management-related activities. Major advances have been made in developing DSS for agriculture, particularly with respect to incorporating climate forecasts into farmers’ decision-making process. This chapter describes DSSs in agriculture, focussing on the importance of a participatory approach in DSS development. The chapter offers examples of climate-based DSS for crop and land management, pest and disease management, and livestock (dairy) management. The chapter reflects on lessons learned in the process of developing climate-based DSS. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr J. R. Olatunji
Advances in cooling technologies to preserve horticultural produce
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Fruit and vegetables are living organisms that continue to respire after harvest, deteriorating over time, in a process known as senescence. Although it is impossible to halt senescence, removing the field-heat, and reducing the temperature of the product at the time of harvest, has substantial effects on maintaining product integrity. Cooling is the first ‘cool’ stage of the horticultural cool-chain, and is designed to rapidly and efficiently reduce the product temperature from the field temperature (often 20-30°C, depending on local conditions) to storage temperature (usually between 0-15°C, depending on the specific product. This chapter provides a review of the state of the art of produce cooling with emphasis on the recent developments in this field.
W. Keith Moser, USDA Forest Service, USA; Adam P. Coble, Oregon Department of Forestry, USA; Lea Hallik, University of Tartu, Estonia; Andrew D. Richardson, Northern Arizona University, USA; Jan Pisek and Kairi Adamson, University of Tartu, Estonia; Russe
Advances in understanding canopy development in forest trees
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This chapter introduces the reader to physiological processes at the leaf, crown, and canopy level. It details the importance of light and water to these processes, then outlines the patterns that foliage at the three levels assume in order to maximize carbon uptake and tree performance. Summaries of research in leaf orientation, leaf clumping, and traits acclimation along a canopy light gradient are presented. At the canopy level, the continuous recording of canopy phenology and the eddy covariance method of recording biosphere-atmosphere fluxes are also discussed. These methods are suitable for whole-season measurements at the cross-landscape or regional level. Managers will find this knowledge useful as they assemble information to aid in their managerial decisions.
Alan L. Knight, USDA-ARS, USA; Gary J. R. Judd, Agriculture and Agri-food Canada, Canada; Todd Gilligan, USDA-APHIS-PPQ, USA; Eduardo Fuentes-Contreras, Universidad de Talca, Chile; and William B. Walker III, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S
Integrated management of tortricid pests of tree fruit
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A group of relatively small moths in the family Tortricidae is commonly the most destructive insect pests of deciduous tree fruits throughout the world. This chapter summarizes the recent literature associated with several applied aspects of tortricid management. After an introduction to tortricid systematics and general biology, the chapter examines key species, distribution and dispersal mechanisms of tortricids. The chapter describes insecticide use in organic tree fruit production, as well as techniques of physical crop protection and biological control, including mating disruption and precision pest management. Finally, the chapter examines area-wide integrated pest management (IPM), post-harvest management and molecular tools, as well as looking ahead to future research trends in this area.
Patrick Ollitrault, CIRAD, France
Mapping and exploiting the citrus genome
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The citrus gene pool displays a huge diversity for useful traits such as fruit quality, resistance to diseases and abiotic stress adaptation. Efficient exploitation of this germplasm by conventional citrus breeding requires the developments of early selection methods, particularly the one based on marker-traits association. This chapter reviews the recent developments in genetics and genomics to decipher the citrus genome and optimize its exploitation. The chapter identifies some of the specificities of the citrus gene pool and their implications in addressing the link between phenotype and molecular diversity. After a review of citrus molecular markers, the chapter describes recent important genetic and genomic developments and particularly the release of reference genetic maps and genome sequences and phylogenomic studies based on whole genome resequencing and GBS data. The chapter then discusses efforts to link phenotypic and molecular variability and concrete applications of marker assisted selection presented. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this field.
Claudio Ioriatti and Gino Angeli, Fondazione Edmund Mach, Italy; Greg Krawczyk, The Pennsylvania State University, USA; and Carlo Duso, University of Padova, Italy
Optimizing insecticide use in integrated management of fruit insect pests
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The integrated pest management approach was conceived to reduce grower reliance on pesticides by combining and optimizing pesticide use with biological, physical and agronomical control tools. Natural enemies are an essential component of the agroecosystem and play a valuable role in controlling insect pests in fruit orchards. Growers need to understand how to protect them from harmful agronomic practices and how these natural allies could be integrated with other control tools. This chapter describes old and new monitoring tools, robust monitoring protocols available for estimating abundance of pest and beneficial insects, use of available phenology models to predict crucial future events important for pest management (e.g. the use of precise timing for surveillance) and pest control. The chapter includes three detailed case studies of common fruit pests as examples of how optimization of insecticide applications could be implemented within a framework of an integrated management of fruit insect pests. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Soo-Hyung Kim
Advances and improvements in modeling plant processes
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This chapter provides an overview of the advances made historically and today in modeling key plant processes with a focus on the processes associated with carbon acquisition and allocation (photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, respiration, and assimilate partitioning), and the timing of plant developmental events (phenology). Areas for further improvement are also addressed.
Peter Amer, AbacusBio Ltd, New Zealand; and Tim Byrne, AbacusBio International Ltd, UK
Recent developments in multi-trait selection in dairy cattle breeding
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Selection indexes, and their underlying breeding objectives, are widely used in dairy cattle breeding, and indexes tend to play an important role in selection decisions made by commercial farmers in many of the more advanced dairy industries within well developed economies. This chapter describes the key role of multi-trait indexes in dairy cattle breeding, how this role is evolving, and consequently, the methods used to establish the weightings in the indexes. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides guidance on further reading on the subject.
Giuseppe E. Massimino Cocuzza, Università di Catania, Italy
Insect pests of fruit: aphids
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Aphids (Homoptera, Sternorrhyncha, Aphididae) currently include 5575 valid species. They are characterized by some peculiar morphological and biological characteristics that make these insects unique organisms. Although often under-reported, it is estimated that aphids cause very high economic losses each year worldwide. This chapter introduces citrus aphids, apple and pear aphids and stone fruit aphids. In addition, the chapter describes techniques for the control of aphid pests and looks ahead to future trends in this area.
John Golding and John Archer, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries and University of Newcastle, Australia
Advances in postharvest handling of citrus fruit
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Consumers are the driving major trends in both fresh citrus production, and postharvest handling, storage and distribution. Both consumers and retailers are driving changes in different citrus types (such as increases in ‘soft’ citrus types) and postharvest management (such as reduced postharvest chemical use, organics, sustainability etc.). This chapter outlines the challenges of storing and handling citrus fruit postharvest, dealing with issues such as degreening, physiological storage disorders and chilling injuries. The chapter examines postharvest management techniques to reduce chilling injury symptoms, as well as considering food safety and market access. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Joel Ira Weller, The Volcani Center, Israel
Genetic evaluation: use of genomic data in large-scale genetic evaluations in dairy cattle breeding
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Genomic evaluation has been successfully implemented in nearly all advanced dairy producing countries. Methods to compute genomic genetic evaluations for dairy cattle can be divided into single-step methods and multi-step methods. This chapter introduces the use of mixed model equations and the numerator relationship matrix, outlining the two basic methods used to compute genomic evaluations. The chapter explains the process of validating methods of computing genomic estimated breeding values. Finally, the chapter examines how genomic selection has changed the dairy cattle industry and looks ahead to future research trends in this area, as well as providing detailed guidance on further reading on the subject.
Mengjun Hu, University of Maryland, USA
Improving fungicide use in integrated fruit disease management
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With the rapid emergence of resistance to the limited number of fungicide classes in many pathogenic fungi, improving stewardship of extant fungicides is a priority. Resistance management strategies, species identification, application timing and delivery of FRAC guidelines to stakeholders can all affect the manner of using fungicides. This chapter describes the evolution of fungicide resistance and examines ways of monitoring the development of resistance to fungicides. The chapter emphasizes the importance of species identification in disease management, and examines the adoption of decision-support tools to improve fungicide efficacy. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Philip J. Burton, University of Northern British Columbia, Canada
The scope and challenge of sustainable forestry
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Forests have managed to sustain themselves for millennia, recovering, reorganizing or migrating in response to innumerable disruptions. Humans have always reaped the benefits of this natural ability of treed ecosystems to renew themselves. Overharvesting of wood for fuel and building materials, however, eventually led to restrictions at different times and places around the world, and was eventually resolved through the development of sustained yield forestry. This introductory chapter focusses on current research in sustainable forestry. Beginning by discussing the concept of sustainable forestry, the chapter goes on to explore the natural resilience of forests. Further sections address the ways in which sustainability is interpreted and the challenges encountered in its implementation. In later sections, each of the subsequent chapters is referred to, in turn, providing an overview of the book. The chapter concludes with a reflection on what sustainable forestry is and how it may be attained.
L. Perera, Coconut Research Institute, Sri Lanka; R. Manimekalai, Sugarcane Breeding Institute, India; and S. Sudarsono, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia
Advances in breeding of coconut
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The coconut, Cocos nucifera L. was once the most important palm crop in the humid tropics. After an introduction to the current extent of coconut cultivation and uses, this chapter discusses the origins and botany of coconut. It then reviews available genetic resources. The chapter goes on to review conventional breeding techniques such as mass selection and hybridization before discussing developments in molecular breeding techniques for coconut.
Trudee Fair and Pat Lonergan, University of College Dublin, Ireland
Developments in the use of embryo technologies in dairy cows
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Reproductive technologies offer the opportunity to produce far greater numbers of offspring from genetically valuable dams, than they would normally have in their lifetime. Technologies such as ovum-pickup when applied to harvest oocytes from prepubertal animals provide the means to dramatically reduce the genetic interval, whereas the large number of embryos recovered from multiple ovulation embryo transfer gives greater scope for selection for genetic improvement. When animal breeding programmes couple these technologies with genomic selection based on genome wide assisted selection, the accuracy of selection can be increased further. The current range of interventions that can be applied to breeding programmes provides great scope to increase the efficiency, sustainability and welfare of the dairy industry. This chapter provides an update on current developments in reproductive technologies that are available for routine use and those that are still in the research stage but have the potential to provide solutions for the dairy industry in the future.
Matthew J. Grieshop, Michigan State University, USA
Cultural control of arthropod pests in temperate tree fruit
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Perennial systems, such as temperate tree fruit, present interesting challenges and opportunities for the practice of cultural pest management tactics. This chapter outlines key cultural tactics for managing arthropod pests in temperate tree fruit, including modification of trees, tree architecture, orchard floor management, cultivation practices, mowing and the cultivation of orchard cover crops. The chapter includes a detailed case study on integrating rotational hog grazing and apple production. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Baohua Li, Qingdao Agricultural University, China
Fungal diseases of fruit: apple canker in Asia
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Apple valsa canker (Valsa mali) is mainly distributed in China, Japan, South Korea, and North Korea. It occurs in all apple production areas in China, particularly in the northern cold areas. Apple valsa canker mainly damages the cortex of apple branches, causing the cortex to rot. This chapter describes the distribution and hazards associated with apple valsa canker before going on to consider the pathogen that causes the disease, including its biology, epidemiology, infection process, and pathogenesis. The chapter considers both resistance to valsa canker and control strategies.
John Daigle, University of Maine, USA
Developing forestry recreation services
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A high percentage of individuals participate in outdoor recreation, and as regions around the world continue to experience population growth there correspondingly will be increased demand for recreation services. Quality in such recreation can be defined as the degree to which recreation opportunities provide the experiences for which they are designed and managed. Therefore, key to protecting the recreation experiences in certain areas is an understanding of the different aspects of the visitor experience and recognizing which of these are important to visitors. This chapter is focused on developing forestry recreation services. Following a general introduction on recreation, a section is then included on visitor experience. The chapter then discusses the concept of the recreation opportunity spectrum. Recreation site planning and management are discussed, as are visitor use management, and monitoring and assessment. The chapter includes a case study on development of recreation services on privately owned forestlands in the United States.
Katrien Descheemaeker, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands; and Lindsay Bell, CSIRO Agriculture Flagship, Australia
Integrating livestock production into whole-farm system models of mixed crop–livestock systems
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Crop-livestock farming systems integrate various biophysical components with farm decision-making. Whole-farm system models help to understand the complexity arising from this integration and are useful tools to explore effects of interventions and to design improved systems. After describing the generic characteristics of crop-livestock systems, this chapter gives an account of the separate component models, from which whole-farm models are usually assembled. Most attention goes to the wide diversity in pasture, livestock and manure models, while approaches to represent farm management in models are also discussed. The interactions between farm components strongly determine model functioning and performance, and often present modelling challenges to capture them. With a focus on grazing, manure dynamics and animal mobility, the authors assess the key processes governing these interactions and review how models represent them. Further, the representation of feed quality in crop model outputs and the management of time scales and carry-over effects is dealt with. Finally, the authors provide two examples of common whole-farm model applications from contrasting environments.
John Cole, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in dairy cattle breeding to improve resistance to mastitis
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Mastitis, an inflammatory response associated with bacterial infections, is generally regarded as the most-costly disease of dairy cattle because of its high incidence and effects on milk production and composition. Genetic selection for highly productive dairy cows has been very successful; however, udder health has declined in many dairy breeds because of its unfavourable correlations with milk production. Poor udder health increases veterinary and farm labour costs, increases rates of involuntary culling, decreases farm revenue, and adversely impacts animal welfare. However, genetic selection can be used to improve udder health just as it has been used to increase production. This chapter reviews advances in dairy cattle breeding to improve resistance to mastitis. It includes sections on both conventional and new phenotypes for improving resistance to clinical mastitis, and also on both national and international genetic improvement programmes for resistance to clinical mastitis. It concludes with a section on increasing rates of genetic gain through genomic selection.
Dr Dr Vincent G. M. Bus
Breeding fruit cultivars with durable disease resistance
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Resistance breeding can make a lasting contribution to pest and disease control in an integrated management strategy provided that the resistance is durable. This chapter discusses strategies for achieving durable resistance based on genes that target pathogen fitness, gene pyramiding and nonhost resistance. The chapter examines the application of breeding tools. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in resistance breeding and provides guidance on further reading in this area.
Karel Petrzik, Biology Centre CAS, Czech Republic
Apple mosaic virus: biology, epidemiology and detection
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Apple mosaic virus (ApMV) has been detected in apple and also in a number of other plant taxa including other members of the Rosaceae, hazelnut, hop, birch and a number of perennial weed species. This chapter comprehensively details how the virus is spread and describes the symptoms displayed by affected host plants. It goes on to discuss the geographical distribution of the virus, its epidemiology and the economic impact of infection on the fruit and nut industry. Ways to obtain virus-free material are reviewed with meristem culture in combination with thermo- or cryotherapy used to eradicate ApMV from propagation material. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the most reliable molecular detection methods for ApMV and a look towards future trends in ApMV research.
K. J. Boote, University of Florida, USA
The future of crop modeling for sustainable agriculture
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Crop growth simulation models have become increasingly important as accepted tools with uses in education, research, crop management, industry, and government policy decisions related to improving and sustaining agricultural production of food, feed, fiber, and ecosystem services. This chapter begins with a brief review of history of crop modeling that has led to excellent collaborations among the world’s crop modeling community. It discusses present and future potential uses of crop models in education, academic research, plant breeding, strategic crop management, in-season advisory tools, famine risk tools, climate change impact assessment, ecosystem services, sustaining long-term soil fertility, and integration with livestock and economic models. It concludes with a look to the future with a review of what is new in crop models, the processes that need improvement, along with suggestions of new features needed.
Toyoki Kozai, Japan Plant Factory Association, Japan; Yumiko Amagai, Chiba University, Japan; and Eri Hayashi, Japan Plant Factory Association, Japan
Towards sustainable plant factories with artificial lighting (PFALs): from greenhouses to vertical farms
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Plant factories with artificial lighting (PFALs) have hitherto proved too costly to be economically viable, consuming too much electricity to be considered truly sustainable. However, recent advances are changing this, and the potential advantages of PFALs are making them an attractive option. This chapter discusses the requirements of sustainable plant production systems, exploring the potential and actual benefits of PFALs. The chapter considers the resource consumption, production cost and cost performance associated with current PFALs, as well as methods for reducing resource consumption and production costs. Finally, the chapter examines future challenges of environmentally and economically sustainable plant production for smart PFALs.
Moez El Shohdi, Egyptian Food Bank/Food Banking Regional Network, Egypt; and Rasha El Shafei, Universities of Canada in Egypt, Egypt
The role of food banks in food security and food loss and waste (FLW) prevention
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The current deficit of food supply in which more than 820 million people do not have enough to eat puts a real threat on the upcoming generations to satisfy their most basic need of food sufficiency. This chapter describes the development of food banks over the years, explains the difference between the traditional and contemporary food banking models and presents a case study on one of the most successful food banks in the Middle East region that diverts more than 17,000,000 meals monthly from the landfill.
Oliver Körner, Leibniz Institute of Vegetable and Ornamental Crops (IGZ), Germany
Models, sensors and decision support systems in greenhouse cultivation
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Model-based decision support and automation in horticulture is accompanied today by the development of Industry 4.0, that is, today’s greenhouses are advanced production systems with the possibility of controlling the indoor climate (and with that, the crop) very accurately with intelligent algorithms based on models and/or data. This chapter discusses the potential of sensors and models within the growing mechanisation in greenhouses. The chapter examines differences in development and application of deterministic explanatory and data-based models for real-time control and decision support systems (DSS) using soft sensors and the application of planning tools. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Frits K. van Evert, Wageningen University & Research, Agrosystems Research, The Netherlands
Data for developing, testing, and applying crop and farm models
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This chapter focuses on the data needed for developing, testing, and applying crop and farm models. The chapter reviews the kinds of data available to crop and farm modellers. The chapter describes practices concerning storage, exchanging, and combining data from various sources, examining the socio-economic and ethical implications. The chapter looks at the role of companies in data flows and generating recommendations to farmers. The chapter presents examples of successful use of agricultural data, both for science and for agricultural practice. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Yamina Micaela Rosas
Trade-offs between management and conservation for the provision of ecosystem services in the southern Patagonian forests
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Forests provide critical ecosystem services for human well-being; however, some ecosystem services are more valued (e.g. provisioning services) than others (e.g. regulating or supporting services). Temperate regions contain several forests affected by humans, mainly with regard to ecosystem services and biodiversity. This chapter focuses on Nothofagus forests in southern Patagonia. It analyzes potential trade-offs between ecosystem services and biodiversity, and how new silvicultural approaches (such as silvopastoral and variable retention harvesting) allow multi-objective management at the landscape level. The authors first discuss forest ecosystem service characterization. Further sections are included on the provision of forest ecosystem services in southern Patagonia and developing strategies of sustainable forest management. The chapter closes with an overview of forest ecosystem services in a changing world. The authors conclude that future proposals (such as land-sharing) will require fewer trade-offs and promote positive synergies within the provision of ecosystem services, generating more resilient alternatives that can mitigate potential climate change effects.
Andrew Lister, USDA Forest Service, USA
Advances in monitoring forest growth and health
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Information derived from monitoring the status of and trends in forest resources is a critical tool for policymakers, managers, and other environmental decision makers. Advances in forest monitoring technology, particularly in the use of remote sensing, have helped deliver higher quality information in a timelier manner than in the past. This chapter gives background information on the practical and statistical principles behind both ground-based and remote sensing-based forest measurement and monitoring, provides historical context for each, identifies information gaps and practical challenges, and proposes solutions for harmonizing the two sources of information. This is done through the use of a hypothetical forest management case study aimed at providing a conceptual framework for forest managers seeking to design forest monitoring systems. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and suggests further reading.
Dr Dr S. Shyamalamma
Crop improvement in jackfruit
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This chapter focuses on advances in breeding of jackfruit. It reviews the origin, distribution and varieties of the fruit. It then looks at uses and nutritional composition, before discussing breeding and providing examples of improved varieties of jackfruit.
E. J. van Henten, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands
Automation and robotics in greenhouses
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This chapter provides an overview of the state of the art of automation technology in protected cultivation and looks ahead to future directions for achieving further progress in this field. The chapter provides a generic description of the greenhouse crop production process and then uses it as a reference for reviewing the state of the art in automation and robotics. The chapter explains those tasks in protected cultivation that have already been automated and identifies those tasks that are predominantly still the domain of human labour. The chapter outlines the requirements for the technology capable of doing these tasks. The chapter describes the ongoing research in automation and robotics in protected cultivation and concludes with a description of the challenges facing high-tech systems in protected cultivation.
Guillermo Tellez and Juan D. Latorre, University of Arkansas, USA; Margarita A. Arreguin-Nava, Eco-Bio LLC, USA; and Billy M. Hargis, University of Arkansas, USA
The role of probiotics in optimizing gut function in poultry
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The spread of antibiotic resistance genes has created public concerns leading to new laws that restrict the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in domestic and meat-producing animals in several countries around the world. In this chapter, the safety and efficacy of individual monocultures for prophylactic and/or therapeutic efficacy against Salmonella infections in poultry under both laboratory and field conditions are summarized. In addition, the development of novel, cost-effective, feed-stable, direct-fed microbials with potential for widespread utilization and improved production, delivery and clinical efficacy for animal use are presented. Following an introduction, a section on the use of probiotics in poultry is presented; a discussion on probiotics and inflammation is also provided. The risks on the overuse of antibiotics are discussed, and the chapter concludes with an introduction to the use of direct-fed microbials in commercial poultry diets.
Josef Tanny, Agricultural Research Organization – Volcani Center, Israel
Advances in screenhouse design and practice for protected cultivation
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The increasing world population, along with water and land shortages and climate change, lead growers worldwide to protected cultivation systems. The screenhouse, built with a skeleton of basic construction elements enveloped by a porous screen, is one example of such systems. Another protected cultivation system is a screen cover without sidewalls, usually used for shading only. This chapter describes common types of structures and materials used by growers and discusses studies where microclimate and evapotranspiration were measured and modelled under the screens. The chapter considers the question of whether it is possible to increase water-use efficiency in screenhouses. The chapter reviews studies in which product quality under screens was examined. Finally, the chapter draws attention to knowledge gaps and suggests future research directions.
Sunil Kumar Sharma, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, India
Advances in breeding of papaya
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This chapter discusses the origins and distribution of papaya. It reviews the origins and distribution of the fruit as well as breeding methods such as back crossing, mutation breeding and marker-assisted selection. It also reviews how breeding programmes can be used for particular traits and resistance to certain diseases. Case studies on breeding programmes in India and Malaysia are also discussed. The chapter concludes by discussing various developments in papaya and reviews possible future trends in research. It also provides readers with various sources for further information on papaya breeding.
Juan I. Montero, formerly Institut de Recerca i Tecnología Agroalimentaries, Spain; and Yi Zhang, Qichang Yang and Xinglin Ke, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, China
Advances in greenhouse design
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Greenhouses are effective structures for producing high-value crops since they use natural resources as well as production inputs very efficiently. Consequently, greenhouses occupy large areas of the world. This chapter examines recent developments in greenhouse designs on three relevant production systems, namely low-tech greenhouses, high-tech greenhouses and the Chinese solar greenhouse (CSG). The chapter reviews advances in natural ventilation, light transmission and passive improvement of night-time conditions. The chapter discusses new greenhouse roofing for glasshouses as well as the concept of the semi-closed greenhouse, a type of high-tech greenhouse. The chapter describes types of CSGs and relevant technical features of CSGs in northeast, northwest and northern China.
Marcos David Ferreira, Embrapa Instrumentação, Brazil
Harvesting citrus: challenges and perspectives in an automated world
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Harvesting oranges has been a challenge for all countries that grow and export juice or fresh fruit. Despite the many advances in agriculture and technology, the majority of harvesting is still performed manually. This crop is formed on trees of high canopy, subjecting pickers to risks and physical effort. Furthermore, growers face labour seasonality and shortage, along with an annual increase in harvesting costs; hence, alternatives are needed in order to increase the feasibility of harvesting. Currently, harvesting can be achieved mechanically, with the aid of unit equipment and robotics, being the last one more in an experimental level. One point to be considered is tree modification, as a short canopy could facilitate harvesting, and possibilities for improvement exist. All the technology, current research and economic pressure, might enable the feasible mechanical, commercial automation of harvesting; however, planning will be fundamental in order to prepare orchards, growers and also work possibilities for pickers that will have jobs excluded.
Prof. Prof. Donald Grebner
Key challenges in forest management
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Forest managers face many challenges, both now and in the future, driven by society’s need as well as by the impacts dictated by the climate change threat. Growing populations will also strain the forest’s ability to provide traditional products sustainably while catering to the growing demands for ecosystem services not previously and explicitly managed for across forested landscapes. The objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of current and pending threats and challenges for forest managers around the world as well as current research focussed on these topics. The chapter starts with reviewing current and future concerns in forest management, which include climate change impacts, changing land-use and ecosystem services. Key research areas such as climate change impacts (e.g. species shifts, growth rates, extreme weather events, water, forest pests and invasive species), urbanization/forest fragmentation (e.g. wildland–urban interface) and ecosystem services (e.g. valuation) are discussed. A case study on forest management in North America is included.
Steven C. Ricke, University of Arkansas, USA
Short chain organic acids: microbial ecology and antimicrobial activity in the poultry gastrointestinal tract
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Interest continues for the development and implementation of alternative feed additives that limit foodborne pathogens in the poultry gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and benefit the host. Short chain organic acids have been employed as feed additives for a number of years. They have been primarily used for their antimicrobial properties in the feed as well as in the GIT after being consumed by the bird. Short chain organic acids are also produced by indigenous gastrointestinal bacteria during fermentation. These are primarily generated in the cecum which is the site where most of GIT microbial fermentation occurs. Short chain organic acids are also used as feed additives for poultry. When added to feeds, they can limit foodborne pathogens such as Salmonella in the feed and potentially in the GIT. This review will cover current findings and future prospects on poultry GIT responses to short chain organic acids generated by GIT fermentative microorganisms and antimicrobial efficacy when birds are fed treated feeds.
Dr Dr Matthew J. McGrath
Advances in understanding the role of forests in the carbon cycle
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The recognition that increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide are warming the global climate has led to forests being viewed as potential natural ways to reduce carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. Forests’ complex interactions with local and global climates, however, make predicting the impacts of changes in forest cover and composition challenging. This chapter examines the importance of forest carbon content and methods of monitoring it. The chapter describes the mechanisms driving forest carbon storage and explores whether forests should be considered sources or sinks of carbon. The chapter distinguishes between carbon management and climate management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and offers suggestions for further reading.
Martine Dorais, Université Laval, Canada
Advances in organic greenhouse cultivation
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Organic greenhouse horticulture has expanded considerably during the last decades to meet consumer demand. Organic greenhouse cultivation constitutes a sustainable alternative to mitigate producer challenges related to new pest infestation, weed infestation, extreme temperature events, drought, frequent episodes of hail as well as strong rain and wind, and soil erosion. This chapter highlights the current regulation and situation of organic greenhouse cultivation in the world, presents yield gap and profitability compared with conventional farming and describes recent advances related to robust plant material, soil and soilless growing systems, soil health, biostimulants, fertilisation and water management, plant protection and quality value of organic products. Finally, the chapter considers the environmental impact of organic greenhouse cultivation and future trends in this area, providing detailed guidance on further reading.
Todd Wehner, North Carolina State University, USA; and Rachel Naegele, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in breeding of cucumber and watermelon
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The breeding of cucumber (Cucumis sativus) has changed over the last few hundred years, from open-pollinated populations, to inbred lines, to gynoecious hybrids. Speed breeding, marker-assisted selection and more efficient field testing have also led to advances with this crop. Production of inbred lines using doubled haploids has further decreased the time required to develop cultivars. Breeding of watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) has likewise become more complex. Early cultivars were open-pollinated populations selected for useful traits. Later, cultivars were developed by self-pollination of selections from populations. The chapter looks at advances in the breeding of both cucumber and watermelon. It first considers cucumber and technologies such as speed breeding. The latter section on watermelon provides an overview of the increasing complexity of breeding this crop. Traditional transformation, tissue regeneration and CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) systems are discussed for both crops. Parthenocarpy in both cucurbits is also covered.
Lukasz Stelinski, University of Florida, USA
Advances in integrated pest management (IPM) in citrus cultivation
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Effective cultivation of commercial citrus in the event of a Huanglongbing (HLB) outbreak depend on the development and implementation of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), Diaphorina citri Kuwayama and HLB grounded in understanding of conditions fostering biological control, reducing tree inoculation, and placed within the context optimizing resistance management practices. This chapter offers a historical perspective on IPM in Florida citrus, and outlines the response to Huanglongbing as well as current and future approaches to this challenge. The chapter looks ahead to future research trends.
Michael D. Cressman, The Ohio State University, USA; Jannigje G. Kers, Utrecht University, The Netherlands; and Lingling Wang and Zhongtang Yu, The Ohio State University, USA
Genetics and other factors affecting intestinal microbiota and function in poultry
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The diverse intestinal microbiota of poultry plays critical roles in determining feed utilization, health, and diseases. A comprehensive understanding of how various factors shape the intestinal microbiota in poultry can help develop new dietary and managerial interventions to enhance bird growth, maximize feed utilization efficiency, and lower enteric diseases caused by pathogens. This chapter reviews the current understanding of how different factors (except diet and growth promoters that are covered in other chapters of this book) can affect the intestinal microbiota. These factors include genetics and breeds, hatchery conditions and environment, bedding and litter, climate and geographic regions, gender and diseases. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future perspectives in research on intestinal microbiota in poultry and provides comprehensive guidance on finding further information on this area.
Mary Ruth McDonald and Zachariah Telfer, University of Guelph, Canada
Sustainable carrot production
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This chapter reviews developments in carrot cultivation including optimizing root shape, using strip-till systems, improving fertilizer use (including the use of mycorrhizal fungi), and irrigation and harvesting techniques. The chapter also discusses advances in crop protection, including management of weeds and insect pests such as the carrot root fly, carrot weevil, and aster leafhopper. The chapter surveys advances in dealing with foliar diseases such as leaf blight and root diseases such as Sclerotinia white rot. The authors conclude by reviewing developments in organic carrot cultivation.
Dr Dr Alison M. Laing
Whole-farm system models in practice: diverse applications
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The challenges of contemporary agriculture are causing farmers to seek models of whole-farm goals, which requires mathematically-based modeling grounded in the latest scientific understanding of animal growth and reproduction, crop physiology, soil and environmental sciences, as well as economics and human relations. Such models are often invaluable tools in the process of undertaking nuanced, multifaceted management decisions at the farm system level. This chapter explores model selection and, through a series of case studies, whole farm modelling in both smallholder systems and single enterprise farm businesses. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Prof Prof Hendrika Fourie
Integrated pest management (IPM) of nematodes
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Limited and fragmented information is available about long-term research efforts that demonstrate the value and impact of integrated pest management to combat nematodes. This particularly applies to major cereal (maize, wheat and rice) and leguminous (peanut, soybean and sunflower) crops on which this chapter focusses, and the economically most important nematode pests (root-knot, cyst and root-lesion nematodes) damaging such crops. A summary on the basic biology and morphology of nematodes is given, followed by integral and popular strategies (cultural, biological and chemical control and host plant resistance) used worldwide. A case study demonstrates the integration of multiple nematode control strategies, followed by the novel use of transgenic crops with nematode resistance, challenges faced in terms of nematode management under changing environmental conditions and practices (focussing on minimal disturbance of soil and conservation of soil-fauna communities) and the challenge posed by weeds as hosts of major nematode pests is also discussed.
Claudio O. Stöckle, Washington State University, USA; and Francisco Meza, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile
Improving modelling of water cycles in crop cultivation
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Adequate representation of the water cycle in cropping systems remains as one of the major concerns for crop model developers as it is involved in many critical processes such as the determination of the energy balance and crop temperature, the determination of crop productivity, and the movement of nutrients in the soil and their uptake. Even though the water budget equation is rather simple, the scarcity of measurements and data to specify the parameters and evaluate the component processes, as well as the myriad of empirical and mechanistic approaches available, makes it difficult for crop modelers to decide on suitable approaches to incorporate in their models. This chapter presents a summary of the most common approaches that are included in crop simulation models, the parameterization of the equations involved, and the main limitations currently observed.
Robert Moore, RMIT University, Australia
Understanding gut microbiota in poultry
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Research has shown that gut microbiota; the bacteria, archaea, protozoa, fungi and viruses that reside within the gastrointestinal tract, has a profound effect on the health and productivity of poultry. This chapter outlines what is known about the establishment and development of the gut microbiota, some of the mechanisms by which the microbiota can affect poultry and the ways that the microbiota can be manipulated to enhance poultry health and productivity. Firstly, an overview of the microbiota of chickens is presented. This is followed by a discussion on the functional interaction of such microbiota with the host, in this case, the chicken. A section on the manipulation of microbiota for health and productivity of chickens is provided, covering the use of microbes to manipulate gut microbiota and also the use of feed additives and antibiotics. The chapter concludes with an overview of future trends in research.
Dr Dr Tod Ramsfield
Advances in understanding and managing fungal and other diseases of forest trees
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Forest diseases are caused by pathogens and they affect all parts of the tree, including roots, stems, and leaves. Forest diseases result in volume losses and decreases in wood quality, which are considered detrimental in stands managed for timber products; however, in the context of a biodiversity reserve, diseases are important for nutrient cycling and habitat creation as agents of succession. This chapter uses a case study approach to describe how various forest pathogens affect trees and introduces strategies to reduce damage caused by forest pathogens in managed stands. The chapter introduces parasitic flowering plants, rust pathogens, diseases caused by Phytophthora spp., as well as abiotic disease. The chapter discusses the importance of exotic forest pathogens and the damage several of these pathogens have caused to ecosystems following their introduction, establishment, and spread. The chapter also addresses how climate change might change host–pathogen interactions, leading to differences in disease expression. Finally, the chapter provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Dr Dr Xiaofan Wang
Advances in sequence technologies for generating poultry gut microbiome data
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The important role of the microbiome in the immune system, nutrient digestion, and disease diagnosis and prevention has been well documented in both humans and animals. In poultry, the microbiome community changes between different organs, and the perturbation of gut microbiota can lead to intestinal infections and respiratory diseases, which result in enormous economic losses. The advances in several high-throughput sequencing techniques have generated big sequencing data for microbiome analysis. In this review, we go over the traditional molecular tools used to analyze gut microbiome in poultry, such as T-RFLP, DGGE, and TGGE, clone library sequencing using the Sanger method, the development of next-generation sequencing techniques such as Roche 454, Illumina, and Ion Torrent. We also discuss third-generation sequencing techniques including Pacbio SMRT sequencing and Oxford Nanopore, both of which were developed to generate length reads. Finally, we discuss other omics such as metagenomics, metatranscriptomics, and metaproteomics, which are necessary for studying microbiome functions.
Joshua Freeman, University of Florida, USA
Integrated pest management (IPM) in vegetables: examples of successful deployment
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Vegetable producers around the world are confronted with the daunting task of managing ever-evolving pests and pathogens with a limited number of effective chemical management tools. This chapter examines examples of successful deployment of integrated pest management (IPM) in vegetable cultivation, such as treatment of tomato spotted wilt and the use of methyl bromide. The chapter includes a detailed case study of IPM in fresh-market tomatoes.
S. Alan Walters, Southern Illinois University, USA
Alternative tillage production systems for cucurbit vegetables
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Cultural production practices for some cucurbit crops have slightly changed over the last half-century to become more sustainable with less detrimental impacts on the soil and surrounding environment. Conservation tillage is one of these practices that is gaining acceptance since it conserves soil and water by reducing their loss relative to conventional tillage practices, and provides at least 30% crop residues on the soil surface. This chapter describes conservation tillage practices for cucurbits and cover crop use in cucurbits. The chapter goes on to consider the use of cover crop residues as mulches in conservation tillage systems and fertility management in cucurbit conservation tillage systems. The chapter then moves on to examine cucurbit disease reduction in conservation tillage and cucurbit crops for conservation tillage production systems.
Divek V. T. Nair, Grace Dewi and Anup Kollanoor-Johny, University of Minnesota, USA
The role of essential oils and other botanicals in optimizing gut function in poultry
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The poultry industry has long trusted antibiotics for their benefits in chicken production such as improved feed conversion, growth promotion and disease control. However, the emergence of bacterial antimicrobial resistance has resulted in the U.S. federal guidelines prompting the animal industries to voluntarily phase out antibiotic growth promotion in food animals through changes in labelling and soliciting veterinary oversight on their therapeutic use. This situation has resulted in the search for alternatives that would fill the gap antibiotics once occupied. This chapter discusses the role of essential oils and botanicals in improving gut function in poultry, focussing on four major functions of phytobiotics that could potentially contribute to gut health: digestive conditioning, antimicrobial property, immunomodulation and gut microbiota modulation. The chapter discusses the impact of these functions on performance as well as carcass and egg quality. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Xin Zhao, University of Florida, USA; Francesco Di Gioia, Pennsylvania State University, USA; Kathleen Delate, Iowa State University, USA; Erin Rosskopf, USDA-ARS, USA; and Wenjing Guan, Purdue University, USA
Advances in organic cultivation of vegetables
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Organic farming is considered an agroecological system focused on promoting biological cycles, soil biological activity, and biodiversity toward enhancing resource conservation and environmental quality. The global growth of the organic market and production drives the research to improve organic cropping systems. This chapter discusses practices and challenges in organic vegetable production with a focus on nutrient and soilborne pest management. Organic amendments (manure and compost), cover crops, crop rotation, soil solarization, biosolarization, organic fertilizers, and plant biostimulants are among the major topics included. Specific sections are provided on soilborne pest management and application of anaerobic soil disinfestation, and the use of grafted plants in organic vegetable production. The chapter concludes with a section on no-tillage vegetable production. An interdisciplinary, holistic approach is stressed by the authors in developing and advancing organic systems to enhance nutrient availability and use efficiency as well as plant and soil health in vegetable production.
Prof. Prof. Linton Winder
Robot-enhanced insect pest control: reality or fantasy?
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This chapter focusses on the incorporation of robotics and automation to detect insect pests within integrated pest management (IPM) programmes. The chapter reviews current technology that could be utilized for this purpose, and identifies significant barriers to implementing such an approach, including locating and identifying small and difficult-to-observe pests. The chapter provides examples of how technology is already being used or developed to solve real-world IPM problems, including uses of robotic technology to control insects, mites, nematodes and weeds. Finally, the chapter makes some predictions about how such technology may affect IPM in the next decade or two.
Kenneth Sorensen, North Carolina State University, USA
Advances in understanding insect pests of vegetables: a case study of sweetpotato weevil
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Sweetpotato is one of the world’s most important vegetables, and has added value as an organic, health food and as a biofuel alternative source of energy. The sweetpotato weevil (SPW), Cylas formicarius (Coleoptera: Brentidae, Gyladinae), originated in South Asia and spread by humans has resulted in its cosmopolitan distribution in tropical and subtropical areas where sweetpotatoes are grown, where it is the major pest and the most difficult to control. This chapter presents a case study of integrated pest management (IPM) tactics and strategies The chapter outlines the biology of SPW as well as tactics for monitoring, controlling and managing this pest. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Gerrit Hoogenboom, Cheryl H. Porter, Kenneth J. Boote and Vakhtang Shelia, University of Florida, USA; Paul W. Wilkens and Upendra Singh, International Fertilizer Development Center, USA; Jeffrey W. White, USDA-ARS, USA; Senthold Asseng, University of Flo
The DSSAT crop modeling ecosystem
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This chapter describes the DSSAT Crop Modeling ecosystem, its history, creation of multiple crop models, and tools for data preparation, analysis and applications. The chapter provides an overview of the structure and science of the crop simulation models that are included in DSSAT, as well as the tools and utilities for weather, soil, experimental and observational data entry, and crop model calibration and evaluation. It also reviews the range of applications.
Emmanuel Geoffriau, Agrocampus Ouest, IRHS, France
Advances in carrot breeding
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The carrot (Daucus carota L.) is an important temperate root crop that has undergone many years of breeding. This chapter first provides a background to the origin of this species, going on to describe the main types of cultivars. The large number of wild relatives of carrot are also discussed. Sections are included on breeding of carrots for both crop performance (covering factors such as yield, resistance to pests and disease and organic production) and for product quality and diversification (variety in colour, nutritional and sensory traits), the latter becoming of growing importance. The main methods and techniques for carrot breeding are discussed, as are the development of new technologies such as sequencing the genome and transcriptome, genome editing and high-throughput phenotyping. A case study on the impact of hybrid carrots is also included, and the chapter concludes with a look to future trends in research.
Dr Dr Jana Seifert
Omics technologies for connecting host responses with poultry gut function
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Optimal gut function is of importance to the whole metabolism of a chicken and thus also central to efficient feed conversion and optimal meat and egg production. State-of-the-art Omics technologies are currently available to gain a deeper insight into animal physiology. This chapter summarizes the latest studies using different omics technologies (e.g. genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics) to identify the response of chicken intestinal cells to various effectors. First, the functions, physiology and microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract in chicken are discussed. Then follows a section on Omics technologies, how they can be used and what they can tell researchers. The authors then present a section on the application of omics to the study of the chicken intestine. The chapter concludes with a case study on the proteomic analysis of the mucosal layer of the chicken gut, and a look to future trends in research.
Germán Sandoya, University of Florida, USA
Advances in lettuce breeding and genetics
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Lettuce is a vegetable planted in temperate areas worldwide. As a crop, lettuce faces many challenges from biotic stressors, which constitute a top priority for the breeding industry. Diseases and insects can diminish yield due to cosmetic damage to the foliage, which is the consumable part of the plant. Abiotic stressors, such as low calcium in the soil, also significantly affect the crop. This chapter explores advances in lettuce breeding and genetic studies; the latter of which has provided information on several important traits related to both biotic and abiotic stressors, with data available to breeders worldwide. Sections are included on breeding priorities for biotic stressors in lettuce (foliar, soil-borne and other diseases), and also on important insect pests in lettuce. The abiotic stressors such as heat, drought, salinity and tipburn in lettuce are also covered. The chapter concludes with sections on other important traits for the improvement of lettuce and lettuce breeding.
Graham Matthews, Imperial College London, UK
Chemical control in IPM systems: advances in selective pesticides and application systems
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The European Union has adopted integrated pest management (IPM) as a policy as part of the Sustainable Use of Pesticides Directive, in which chemical pesticides are used as a last resort. Bringing IPM into the policy for crop protection has focussed attention on using more selective pesticides and especially biopesticides, but to implement IPM well-trained practitioners are required to provide farmers with the support they need to achieve informed pest management. This chapter examines selective pesticides, the importance of dose selection, timing of chemical pesticide treatments and changes in pesticide application technology. The chapter offers an overview of biopesticides, baculoviruses and their application, and the application of bacterial biopesticides. The chapter also looks at the application of entomopathogenic nematodes, release of predators and parasitoids as a form of pest management and the use of pheromones.
Stephan Pfister, ETH Zurich, Switzerland; and Sandra Payen, CIRAD, France and AgResearch, New Zealand
Modelling impacts of agriculture on freshwater
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Agriculture greatly impacts water resources due to the high volumes of irrigation water consumed in crop production. Additionally, agricultural activities affect hydrological cycles through land-use changes and soil modifications, which may lead to pollution of water bodies. On a local level, these impacts and specific improvement options can be assessed by risk assessment and integrated water resource management. Modelling the impacts of agriculture on freshwater comprehensively is a difficult task as freshwater can be impacted by water consumption and also by water pollution. These are influenced by direct agricultural activities (e.g. irrigation) as well as by indirect activities for the production of agricultural inputs (e.g. fertilizers, agrochemicals). This chapter looks at modelling the impacts of agriculture on freshwater. Following an introduction, the authors go on to look at modelling in relation to water consumption, water quality and salinization. The chapter also covers soil quality, land use and both geographical and temporal variation. Case studies are also included.
Dr Dr Jerke de Vries
The environmental impact of valorising agricultural by-products
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Agricultural by-products, that is primary residue, industrial by-products and animal manure, are an important source of nutrients and carbon for maintaining soil quality and crop production but can also be valorised through treatment pathways such as fermentation, incineration or a combination of these called bio-refinery. Here, we provide an overview of opportunity to reduce environmental impact of valorising agricultural by-products. We estimate the available by-products in Northwestern Europe as a case study and the maximum and realistic greenhouse gas reduction potentials. Availability, collectability, the original use and environmental impact including land use changes, soil carbon sequestration and pollution swapping are discussed as critical factors when valorising agricultural by-products.
Dr Dr Osman Yasir Koyun
Controlling pathogens in the poultry gut
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Food-borne pathogenic bacteria are all too often found as commensal or transient organisms in the gastrointestinal tract of poultry. Many of these organisms do not reveal themselves through illness in the bird, although some do. Therefore, it is important to find ways to apply treatment to all members of a flock, rather than simply treating ‘sick’ birds. This chapter describes the gastrointestinal microbiota of poultry before going on to consider alternatives to the use of antibiotics. The chapter considers the use of organic acids, bacteriophages, sodium chlorate and pro- and prebiotic approaches.
Casey Hoy, Ohio State University, USA
Advances in understanding agroecosystems ecology and its applications in integrated pest management
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Achieving the theoretical goal of integrated pest management (IPM), maintaining pest populations at levels below an economic threshold through a combination of tactics, has so far proved difficult to attain. Production systems, particularly specialized commodity production based on economies of scale, place constraints on IPM, but managing agroecosystem health is an alternative that incorporates IPM into its multiple goals and benefits. This chapter describes the shift in focus required for agroecosystem health from particular commodities to diversified landscapes and agroecosystems, from pest suppression to ecosystem services, from technological inputs to ecological knowledge and experience, and from management by individuals to management by human populations and organizations. The chapter presents some detailed case studies of IPM via agroecosystem management and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
