Nested association mapping in barley to identify extractable trait genes
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Wild germplasm contains a wealth of alleles, which are useful in modern agriculture. Nested association mapping (NAM) makes use of wild germplasm by developing multi-parental populations after crossing a single elite cultivar to a number of exotic donors. The resulting NAM lines are subsequently characterized through SNP genotyping and quantitative trait phenotyping. Both data sets are finally merged to conduct genome-wide association studies (GWAS) leading to the identification of quantitative trait loci (QTL), which are involved in controlling these traits. This chapter describes the principles of QTL mapping and NAM mapping, and outlines the sequencing the barley genome. The chapter includes a number of detailed barley NAM case studies from around the world. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
J. W. ‘Jerry’ Van Sambeek, formerly of USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station and University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry, USA
Agroforestry for hardwood timber production
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Managing hardwood trees for high-quality sawlogs within the agroforestry practices of alley cropping, silvopasture, forested riparian buffers and upland (windbreaks) buffers means intensively managing relatively wide-spaced trees and a ground cover as a companion crop on the same unit of land. This chapter synthesizes available information on managing such trees for production of veneer and high-quality sawlogs within the agroforestry practices aforementioned. Sections on the impact of ground cover on tree growth are provided, as are growing-space requirements for hardwoods. Pruning recommendations and practices are also covered as pruning is essential for production of high-quality logs of most species in any agroforestry practice. The chapter concludes with a section on log and wood quality and the general requirements of veneer logs (e.g. nearly cylindrical shape with a well-centred heart, a minimum of internal defects, uniform wood colour and texture and properly sawed to length without debris) discussed.
Dr Dr Paul Burgess
Modelling agroforestry systems
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An agroforestry system is an interconnecting network of woody vegetation with crops and/or animals that work together. This chapter sets out to discuss how to model such systems, which can be highly complex in nature. In the first section, the authors look at the current state of agroforestry modelling, going on to describe two European agroforestry projects that involved modelling, the Silvoarable Agroforestry For Europe (SAFE) project and the AGroFORestry that Will Advance Rural Development (AGFORWARD) project. Looking towards the future, the final section considers current agroforestry modelling needs and potential trends. The authors stress that it is important to note that agroforestry models have a role beyond just agroforestry. Other points for consideration must also include the accessibility of agroforestry models, the benefits of long-term support, the need to know when to stop model development, the availability of data and societal assessments.
Tom Passey and Xiangming Xu, NIAB EMR, UK
Epidemiology and management of apple scab
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Apple scab (Venturia inaequalis) is the most important apple disease worldwide. This fungus can infect both leaves and fruit under conducive conditions; tissues become increasingly resistant to V. inaequalis as they age. Although there are major resistance genes identified against V. inaequalis, nearly all commercial dessert cultivars are susceptible to V. inaequalis, thus requiring stringent control measures to minimise crop losses. This chapter introduces apple scab and explains the epidemiology of the disease, covering both host resistance and techniques of managing scab. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends on scab.
Larry Gut, Christopher Adams and James Miller, Michigan State University, USA; and Peter McGhee and Donald Thomson, Pacific Biocontrol Corporation, USA
Biological control in integrated management of deciduous fruit insect pests: the use of semiochemicals
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Over the past 25 years, semiochemical-based technologies have emerged as essential components of pest management programmes in deciduous fruit production systems. Pheromone-based mating disruption is by far the most widely adopted behavioural control, with nearly 800 000 ha of fruit crops treated worldwide. The chapter reviews both the progress that researchers and practitioners have made, along with the hurdles encountered as they conceptualized, developed and implemented behavioural controls. The chapter focusses on the uses of behaviour-modifying chemicals for direct control of insect pests of deciduous tree fruits and berry crops and also on the development and future prospects of mating disruption. Sections are included on pheromone-mediated mating disruption, mass deployment of attractant-baited traps and application of attract-and-kill formulations/devices. The chapter concludes with a detailed case study on codling moth (Cydia pomonella) mating disruption covering pheromone identification, early research and adoption, demonstration and area-wide programmes, companion insecticides and dispenser development.
Dr Dr Jochen Kumlehn
Site-directed genome modification
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The principle of customized endonuclease-triggered genome modification offers unprecedented opportunities for the elucidation of gene functions and the improvement of crop plant performance. The advantage of this technology lies in the possibility of defining the genomic site where a modification is to be made. This chapter provides an overview of the principles of targeted mutagenesis, the state-of-the-art, current limitations, applications of the technology as well as future perspectives on the use of customizable endonucleases in research and breeding devoted to wheat and barley.
Gregory A. Lang, Michigan State University, USA
Sustainable sweet cherry cultivation: a case study for designing optimized orchard production systems
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Sweet cherries are an inherently challenging crop to produce sustainably, subject to crop loss from climatic events, birds, insects, and diseases, and requiring extensive manual labor due to large tree canopies and small delicate fruits. Nevertheless, cherry production has increased dramatically worldwide for the past two decades, driven by strong consumer demand and innovations in (a) plant materials (self-compatible cultivars and precocious, vigor-limiting rootstocks); (b) efficient orchard training systems; (c) orchard microclimate modification technologies, and (d) physiological knowledge for successful adoption of these tools. This chapter examines sustainable sweet cherry cultivation, starting with opportunities and challenges in this field of research, then follows coverage of cherry morphology, growth, and fruiting. Cultivars and rootstocks for sustainable production are discussed, as are tools for optimizing orchard tree development. The author then explores rationales and innovations for designing optimized orchard production systems. The evolution of very narrow, planar (two-dimensional) canopy architectures that utilize multiple leaders per tree (in proportion to the composite vigor of the rootstock, cultivar, climate, and soil) is proposed as being increasingly important for labor-efficient, partially-mechanized, crop load-optimized production of sweet cherries, as well as that of other tree fruits as well. The chapter concludes with a section on mitigating abiotic and biotic risks to sustainable production.
Ola Lindroos and Omar Mendoza-Trejo, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Sweden; Pedro La Hera, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) and The Cluster of Forest Technology, Sweden; and Daniel Ortiz Morales, Cranab, Sweden
Advances in using robots in forestry operations
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Forestry operations have a role to play in the supply of fossil-free raw material to present and future bio-economies. Advances in automation will enable forestry operations to be conducted in a more sustainable way, with better consideration of economic, ecological and ergonomic requirements. This chapter examines the challenges associated with using robots in forestry operations, focusing on the importance of knowing the state of the machine, where the machine is located, the location of surrounding objects and how to plan the work. The chapter looks at the challenges of moving around in the forest, reaching and handling the trees, converting trees into products and extracting logs or trees to roadside landings. The chapter also considers remote-controlled operations. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and makes detailed suggestions on further reading.
Hélène Delisle, University of Montreal, Canada
The nutritional value of red palm oil
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There is a great deal of confusion regarding the nutritional value and health effects of palm oil. The controversy and conflicting views still continue on whether or not palm oil is atherogenic. Based on current evidence, it would appear that palm oil has both favourable and unfavourable effects. The primary focus of the present chapter is on the nutritional value of crude (red) palm oil, specifically as a source of vitamin A. The chapter includes a detailed case study on the use of red palm oil in Burkino Faso and looks ahead to future trends for research in this area.
Dr Dr Tomoya Esumi
Advances in understanding reproductive development in fruit-bearing plants
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In recent years, a physiological understanding of the reproductive development process in fruit trees has accumulated through numerous molecular and genetic studies. Although the physiological traits of perennial or woody fruit trees often hinder studies of the mechanisms driving their reproductive physiology, such studies can provide important new findings in plant science, and beneficial information and new ideas for fruit production. This chapter reviews recent research on the physiology and genetics of reproductive development in fruit trees. Beginning with an introductory overview, the chapter goes on to include sections on the physiology and genetic analysis of reproductive meristem development, bud dormancy and flowering, sexual determination and development of flower structures. The physiology of pollination, fertilization and gametogenesis is also discussed. The chapter concludes with sections on the physiology and genetics of fruit development and phytohormones, and lastly, fruit maturation and ripening.
Ettore Barone and Francesco Sottile, Università di Palermo, Italy
Advances in cultivation of almonds: effects of genotypes, environment and cultural techniques
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The chapter is an overview of the recent research advances in almond scion and rootstock genotypes, orchard management, including irrigation and fertilization, emphasizing an integrated approach including the environment. The chapter looks ahead to areas for further research in almond tree eco-physiology and cultivation, with a special emphasis on key factors determining almond tree yield potential. The discussion highlights the need to adopt the concept of ‘sustainable intensification’ to reduce the environmental impact of modern almond production systems based on high-input, high-return models. Finally, the chapter provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Dr Dr S. Hemming
Sustainable use of energy in greenhouses
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Greenhouse crops are continuously under pressure of infestations by a wide range of pests and diseases. This chapter describes the myriad practices that can contribute to managing pests and diseases, and how to integrate these practices in an ecologically based integrated pest management (IPM) approach. The chapter offers a historical perspective on the development of IPM, together with an explanation of its underlying rationale and main challenges. The chapter discusses the different components of IPM, including sanitation, cultural control, preventative and curative biological control. The chapter examines food web complexities, which inevitably result from integrating multiple biological control agents in a single crop, and offers a detailed case study on IPM implementation in tomato. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Jean-Marc Roda, CIRAD and Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Use of palm oil for biofuel
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The use of fossil fuels depletes the world’s limited supply of coal, oil and gas and releases stocked CO2 into the atmosphere. Biofuels, derived from biomass, are renewable and carbon neutral, because consumption merely releases CO2 that was taken from the atmosphere by the growing biomass a few years before. However, increasing the use of biofuels could also increase the pressure on ecosystems which must support the production of additional biomass. In this chapter, we review the sustainability of biofuels, discuss their production and economics and consider levels of government support for production and related geopolitical issues.
Ramón Molina-Bravo, Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, Costa Rica; Margaret Leigh Worthington, University of Arkansas, USA; and Gina E. Fernandez, North Carolina State University, USA
Advances and challenges in raspberry and blackberry breeding
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Raspberries and blackberries (Rubus spp.) are important fruit crops that have gained substantial economic interest. Since 1996, berry production has been increasing. With the advent of economic and environmental constraints, sustainability is also becoming increasingly important. This chapter focuses on the upcoming challenges, the available breeder tools and the future of breeding for sustainability of raspberry and blackberry crops. The chapter examines desirable traits for sustainability, molecular tools and resources, and looks ahead to future trends in the breeding of raspberries and blackberries.
Susanne Dreisigacker, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Mexico
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in wheat
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Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have become a very popular method for dissecting the genetic basis of complex traits in plants, including wheat. The benefits of GWAS are a relatively detailed mapping resolution and that no population development is required. The surge of interest in GWAS has been fueled by recent developments in genomics that allow for rapid identification of genetic markers. This chapter describes the features of GWAS, including high-density genotyping, phenotyping and GWAS design. The chapter explains the use of GWAS for controlling population structure and familial relatedness, considering the estimation of linkage disequilibrium (LD) and considering issues of research replication and validation. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in research in this field and includes a detailed case study on genomic regions conferring increased grain weight.
Nazim Gruda, University of Bonn, Germany
Assessing the impact of environmental factors on the quality of greenhouse produce
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In recent years, product quality has become more and more important, due to consumer concerns paired with well-being and a healthy lifestyle. Product quality is a complex, multidimensional and multi-factorial issue that relates to different factors. In this chapter, the objective, measurable and intrinsic aspects of quality related to the reaction of greenhouse plants to several environmental and pre-harvest factors is outlined. With reference to studies carried out from the beginning of this century, the effects of such factors on visual, organoleptic and nutritional product quality properties are presented. The main factors influencing the quality of produce are covered, these include assessing the impact of light, temperature, air humidity, carbon dioxide enrichment, root environment and growing techniques and cultural practices. The degree of produce maturity and ripeness at harvest is also discussed. The chapter concludes with a look towards future trends in research.
Stefano Savi, Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil, Malaysia
The palm oil market: growth and trends
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For many years, palm oil has proved to be the most productive, highest yielding oil crops, with a yield 4 to 10 times higher than any other vegetable oil, a factor that has helped palm oil become the most consumed vegetable oil in the world. This chapter provides an overview of oil palm cultivation and palm oil production throughout the world, with a particular focus on Indonesia and Malaysia, and describes the growth of the palm oil industry and the nature of the global market for palm oil. The chapter also addresses the diverse ecological and social impacts of palm oil and suggests the directions that palm oil production might take in the future.
Yuen May Choo, formerly The International Society for Fat Research (ISF), USA; and YewAi Tan, formerly Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Malaysia
Research trends in oil palm cultivation
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Since its establishment as a commercial crop in Malaysia in 1917, palm oil has become the most important vegetable oil traded in the world. Its standing in the world market is attributed to the oil’s versatile applications, stable supply and affordability. With the estimated global world population reaching nine billion by 2050, the supply of palm oil must grow to help meet the demand for vegetable oils. This chapter summarises the trends in research which have been driven by key challenges faced by the industry. It covers the establishment of oil palm as an economic crop, the improvement of yield by selective breeding, the use of genomics to expedite research and a holistic approach to remodelling cultivation systems for eco-efficiency.
Timm Bernhard, Wolfgang Friedt and Benjamin Wittkop, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany
Challenges and developments in hybrid breeding of barley
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Over a long period of more than a century, breeding and improvements in cropping systems have led to a constant increase in grain yield in barley. Due to its autogamous propagation, commercial barley varieties are normally true inbred lines or doubled haploid lines normally having completely homozygous genomes. Hybrid breeding in autogamous cereals such as barley, however, is still in its infancy. This chapter describes the principles of heterosis in barley and its potential for yield enhancement. The chapter explains the potential of hybrid breeding in winter barley and examines the challenges associated with broadening the genetic basis for heterosis in winter barley. The chapter describes the cytoplasmic male sterility system for hybrid seed production in barley and looks at the environmental and genetic effects of hybrid breeding on the stability of cytoplasmic male sterility.
Neil S. Mattson, Cornell University, USA; and Christopher J. Currey, Iowa State University, USA
Advances in nutrient management in greenhouse cultivation
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Precise nutrient management is essential to produce high-quality and high-yielding greenhouse crops while limiting cost and environmental damage. Traditional nutrient management strategies are being replaced by new types of fertilizers combined with precision delivery and management. This chapter reviews fundamental greenhouse crop nutrition concepts and including current methods of nutrient delivery with the importance of integration nutrition with irrigation systems. Different approaches to managing nutrients in soilless substrates and hydroponic systems, both conventional and organic, are summarized, as is the emerging role of beneficial microbes and biostimulants in greenhouse nutrient management. Fertilizer strategies to improve crop postharvest shelf life and reduce fertilizer leaching are also presented, as are the fundamental components of a comprehensive monitoring and management plan for greenhouse crop nutrition. This chapter concludes with a discussion of future prospects for nutrient management, as well as resources for readers to look for further information.
Diego Rubiales and María J. González-Bernal, Institute for Sustainable Agriculture, Spain; Tom Warkentin and Rosalind Bueckert, University of Saskatchewan, Canada; Maria C. Vaz Patto, ITQB NOVA-Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal; Kevin McPhee, Montan
Advances in pea breeding
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Cultivated forms of pea can be classified as dry or field pea (dry seeds for food or feed), vegetable or green pea (young seeds, pods or shoots for food) and forage pea (for silage or grazing). Quality requirements differ for each pea type. This chapter reviews advances in pea breeding, including the importance of genetic resources and diversity to pea breeding. The chapter examines the purposes of breeding, including improved/stable yield, improved quality and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Peter Toivonen, Pacific Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada
Pre- and post-harvest strategies to optimize fruit quality and shelf life
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Ensuring a sustainable tree fruit industry with regard to post-harvest quality management involves engaging approaches and technologies that encompass both pre- and post-harvest issues. The adoption of new, non-destructive technologies is important for quantifying and evaluating the challenge of quality management of fruit in post-harvest systems. This chapter examines the challenge of managing biological variance to improve the success of post-harvest technologies. The chapter looks at ways of measuring harvest maturity and improving sorting operations, as well as considering post-harvest technologies and temperature control. The chapter includes a detailed case study of post-harvest strategies in cherry cultivation in British Columbia. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in the field and provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Dr Paul Nelson
Modelling the environmental impacts of agriculture, focusing on oil palm
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Cultivation of crops affects the environment via flows of energy and materials. Impacts are felt in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, surrounding terrestrial ecosystems and the field itself. Models are useful tools for improving our understanding of the processes and predicting how they might be affected by changes in management. Current models range from simple indicators of risk or impact, based on empirical relationships, to dynamic process-based models. Increasingly complex and comprehensive models with increasing spatial and temporal resolution and extent are being developed, mostly by coupling diverse sub-models. This chapter reviews the range of models developed for oil palm systems, and discusses how other existing models might be adapted for oil palm.
Dr Dr Manoj Karkee
Optimizing fruit production efficiencies through mechanization
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Many technological advances in farming have been adopted over the last century transforming various operations. However, some processes in fruit and vegetable production such as tree fruit and berry harvesting have not changed, and crops such as apples, cherries, peaches, blueberries, and strawberries are harvested manually, an operation that is highly labor intensive, demanding a huge seasonal workforce in rural areas around the world. This chapter looks at optimizing fruit production efficiencies through mechanization. Starting with an introductory section on challenges faced in tree fruit harvesting, the chapter goes on to discuss harvest-aid (or labor-assist) machines (or platforms), which as the name suggests, are designed to assist human fruit pickers. Mass and robotic harvesting systems, which on the other hand, are designed to remove the need of manual picking, are also covered, with specific examples included. Fruit conveyance and handling, and mechanical pruning are also discussed.
Prof Prof M. P. Pritts
Strawberries: a case study of how evolving market expectations impact sustainability
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The strawberry industry is facing the reality that it has been built on an unsustainable foundation. with dependencies on fumigation, plastic, pesticides, fertilizers, diminishing groundwater, undocumented labour and fuel for transportation. This chapter offers a case study of the impact of that market expectations have had on the US strawberry industry. After an introductory survey of the history of strawberry production in the United States, the chapter examines the development of an annual strawberry production system with the capacity to provide fruit to consumers year around. The chapter looks at the impact of shifting market expectations on the sustainability of strawberry production and examines the challenges of maintaining the high levels of inputs required for annual strawberry production in just a few favourable locations. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to potential solutions to current challenges.
Cécile Bessou, CIRAD, France; Heinz Stichnothe, Thünen Institute of Agricultural Technology, Germany; Amir F. N. Abdul-Manan, Saudi Aramco, Saudi Arabia; and Shabbir Gheewala, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand
Life cycle assessments of oil palm products
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It is crucial to adapt models and tools that enable the identification of best oil palm cultivation practices in order to contribute to reduce the environmental impacts of agriculture. Oil palm causes impact on the environment both during cultivation and as a result of land use change for new plantations. This chapter describes the principles and modelling steps of LCA. It then reviews the results from published LCA and GHG assessments on palm oil products. Finally, it discusses the information yielded by existing studies on the environmental impacts of palm oil and outlines remaining challenges regarding LCA development and applications for palm oil products.
Dr Tan Joon Sheong
Fungal diseases affecting oil palm
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Oil palm is prone to attack by a number of fungal diseases such as basal stem rot (BSR), Fusarium wilt (vascular wilt) and bud rot disease. To date, only partial resistance materials have been identified for BSR. This chapter provides further insights on the BSR that is a major problem for plantations, particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia. The chapter focuses particularly on one variety of BSR, Ganoderma boninense, but also addresses Fusarium wilt and bud rot disease, examining the latest research on resistance materials.
Edgar Clive Turner and Julie Hinsch, University of Cambridge, UK
Integrated pest management in sustainable palm oil production
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Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is central to sustainable palm oil production. This chapter explores the rapid expansion of oil palm and its impact on the environment, the range of pest species found in plantations, and the impact of replanting on pest numbers. The chapter introduces the concept and history of IPM in oil palm as well as the diverse range of approaches that form IPM strategies, including plant breeding, targeted chemical applications, management to reduce pest numbers and transmission, and management to increase the numbers of natural enemies and pathogens of pests. The chapter concludes by considering how approaches focused on more diverse oil palm landscapes and more diverse pest control species assemblages can increase the effectiveness of IPM.
Luca Corelli Grappadelli, Brunella Morandi and Luigi Manfrini, University of Bologna, Italy; and Pasquale Losciale, University of Bari, Italy
Advances and challenges in sustainable peach production
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By adopting precise management techniques, growers can reduce the environmental impact of fruit growing, without sacrificing quality and yields, while maintaining income. This chapter discusses how improvements in sustainable peach production can be achieved by an interaction among quite varied disciplines. The chapter describes the importance of vascular flows to peach fruit growth and focuses on the significance of photosynthesis as the engine of productivity in peach production. The chapter considers the adoption of precision fruit growing, and provides a case study. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Gennaro Fazio
Advances in the development and utilization of fruit tree rootstocks: a case study for apple
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In the previous century, apple rootstocks were chosen on the basis of suitability for climate, required degree of vigor, and plant availability. Thus, the rootstock decision in the past was usually quite simple, with only one or two choices available to growers. However, with the proliferation of improved apple rootstocks available around the world, there is now a dizzying array of choices for apple growers. This chapter considers advances in the development and utilization of fruit tree rootstocks using apple as a case study. The history of use of clonal rootstocks is first discussed followed by sections on rootstock improvement efforts, propagation, and evaluation. Rootstock effects on the scion and rootstock tolerance to both abiotic and biotic stress are then considered. The chapter concludes with a discussion on trends in apple rootstock use. Although this chapter focuses mostly on apple, it exemplifies the various inherent rootstock properties and rootstock-induced qualities on grafted scions that can be found in other temperate fruit rootstocks.
Dimitrios Savvas, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece; and Damianos Neocleous, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus
Developments in soilless/hydroponic cultivation of vegetables
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In hydroponics, the plants are grown outside the natural soil, either on porous growing media (substrates) or in pure nutrient solution (water culture). The most commonly used growing media, which are characterized by a balanced availability of water and oxygen, are rockwool, perlite, pumice, and coir dust. Furthermore, water culture systems without any solid media, such as floating, NFT, and aeroponics are mainly used for leafy vegetables. This chapter describes the advantages and disadvantages of hydroponics, along with the equipment and substrates used. The chapter examines soilless/hydroponic growing systems for vegetables, including crop nutrition and nutrient solutions, product quality in hydroponics, and the specifics of soilless cultivation of greenhouse vegetable crops. The chapter offers guidance on irrigation and plant protection practices in soilless cultivation. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Federica Blando and Miriana Durante, Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), Italy; and B. Dave Oomah, formerly Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Canada
Bioactive/nutraceutical compounds in fruit that optimize human health benefits
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In the past decade, numerous reports demonstrate that high consumption of fruits and vegetables is beneficial for health, being associated with a reduced risk of degenerative diseases. This chapter provides a brief description of the chemistry of bioactive compounds (BCs) and their presence in temperate fruits, and discusses recent advances in strategies towards improving sustainable crop production for nutraceuticals. The chapter examines polyphenols, carotenoids, vitamin C and production practices that influence bioactive compound synthesis. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Elizabeth Alvarez, CIAT, Colombia
Diseases affecting oil palm
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The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is one of the world’s major sources of edible oil and a precursor of biodiesel fuel. This chapter reviews the oil palm diseases which act as a major production constraint in West Africa, South East Asia and South and Central America. The chapter also describes the characteristics of these key diseases and highlights the methods that are currently being applied to control them.
José Quero-García, INRA, University of Bordeaux, France; Amy Iezzoni, Michigan State University, USA; Gregorio López-Ortega, IMIDA, Spain; Cameron Peace, Washington State University, USA; Mathieu Fouché and Elisabeth Dirlewanger, INRA, University of B
Advances and challenges in cherry breeding
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Cherry breeding is currently carried out in many countries, by public and private programmes, and sweet cherry cultivars are continuously being released. However, classification into clear-cut groups of existing cultivars is difficult, because there is a vast continuum of morphological diversity and many traits are influenced by differences in environmental factors among growing locations, including climate and soil characteristics as well as cultural practices. Despite the high number of available commercial cultivars, both sweet and sour cherry cultivation are still based on a small number of cultivars. After offering a historical overview of cherry breeding, this chapter describes the main achievements in conventional breeding, before considering methodologies and the latest advances and key cultivars. The chapter considers new approaches and phenotyping protocols. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Ravigadevi Sambanthamurthi, Ng Mei Han and Choo Yuen May, Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Malaysia
Bioactive compounds in oil palm
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There is growing evidence for the protective effect of plant bioactives against diseases, and this has led to interest from the functional food and nutraceutical industries for the development of bioactive-enriched food and supplements. The oil palm fruit is a source of both lipid- and water-soluble bioactives. This chapter begins by considering lipid-soluble bioactives and their potential health benefits. It then moves on to considering water-soluble bioactives, which have only recently received attention. These include phenolic compounds and shikimic acid with potential health benefits against a whole spectrum of diseases including cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes. These water-soluble compounds enter the aqueous stream (vegetation liquor) and are usually discarded as palm oil mill effluent. The valorization of palm oil milling waste for the production of functional food and nutraceuticals offers an opportunity for increased productivity and sustainability of the oil palm industry.
Mohammad Babadoost, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, USA
Understanding and monitoring diseases of vegetables
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In-depth background knowledge on detecting and identifying plant diseases is essential for helping to raise healthy crops. This chapter provides an overview of historical developments in understanding and monitoring plant diseases, including the invention of light and electronic microscopes, Koch’s postulates on proof of pathogenicity, the development of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and the use of nucleic acid-based tools for detection of plant pathogens. The chapter then considers the epidemiology of plant diseases and disease diagnosis in plants. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Qin Zhang
The use of agricultural robots in orchard management
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The use of robotic or automated machines in orchard operations is associated primarily with insufficient labour availability and rapidly increasing labour costs in tree fruit production and is critical for improving yield of high-quality fruit with minimal dependence on seasonal human labour. This chapter provides an overview of robotic technologies for major tree fruit production tasks, including robotic pruning, thinning, spraying, harvesting and fruit transportation. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Sylvain Rafflegeau, CIRAD, UPR Systèmes de Pérennes, France; Doris Nanda, Université de Yaoundé I, Cameroon; and Claude Genot, INRA-UR BIA, France
Artisanal mills and local production of palm oil by smallholders
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In Africa, there are two oil palm supply chains. The first goes through industrial mills, from industrial plantations and surrounding smallholdings to a formal market of commercial oils complying with international quality standards, while the second goes through small-scale mills or traditional extraction, from smallholdings and ‘wild groves’ to an informal market of artisanal red palm oil. In this chapter, we concentrate on the second supply chain. We review the emergence of artisanal extraction of red palm oil in Africa, consider who is involved in this supply chain and why, and discuss the major operations and equipment involved in artisanal processing. We then review the composition and quality of artisanal palm oil and its various uses. Finally, we consider the sustainable development issues associated with artisanal red palm oil production.
Denise Neilsen and Gerry Neilsen, Summerland Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada
Optimizing precision in orchard irrigation and nutrient management
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Precise water and nutrient management in fruit production systems has become a key area of study over recent years, not only due to the changing climate but also due to increased demand for fruit from a growing population as part of a healthy diet. Irrigated fruit production has been proven to be both reliable and more efficient than rain-fed production and the trend is towards high efficiency irrigated systems. This chapter documents both precision management of irrigation and nutrients in orchards (mainly apple, pear, sweet cherry and peach). Precision management of irrigation is discussed in detail including the use of efficient irrigation systems, matching water supply to plant demand, reducing evaporation from the soil surface and responding to drought. A further section on nutrient management covers both ferti-irrigation or fertigation, where nutrients are dissolved in irrigation water, and foliar application, where dissolved nutrients are applied directly to the fruit tree in dilute water sprays.
Dr Dr Andre da Silva
Advances in irrigation techniques in vegetable cultivation
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Water for agricultural use accounts for a very high percentage of worldwide water consumption. In order to maximize productivity and profitability, while reducing the environmental impact of vegetable farming, growers must choose the correct irrigation system for their crop as well as determine the best methods for managing and scheduling irrigation. This chapter considers recent advances in irrigation techniques used in vegetable cultivation. It is divided into three main sections: irrigation systems, irrigation system performance, and irrigation scheduling. The author’s coverage of irrigation systems includes sprinkler irrigation, drip irrigation, surface flood/furrow irrigation, and subirrigation (including seepage irrigation, irrigation drain tiles, and subsurface drip irrigation). Irrigation system performance is then discussed in relation to efficiency, uniformity, and water-use efficiency. The section on irrigation scheduling includes irrigate anytime, “Feel and Appearance” irrigation, systematic irrigation, the crop water demand method, the soil water status method, and combined methods.
Dr Rajinder Singh
Advances in marker-assisted breeding of palm oil
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Oil palm, with its long breeding cycle and large land requirement for breeding trials, can be considered as a suitable candidate crop for marker assisted selection (MAS) for breeding. This chapter explores the applications of MAS in oil palm breeding including paternity testing and prediction of monogenic and quantitative traits. The chapter shows that MAS enables accurate tagging of markers related to polygenic traits, a prerequisite for their eventual application in oil palm breeding, and suggests future lines or research in this area as well as further reading on the subject.
Dr Dr Christopher Wiegman
Advances in communication systems in agricultural robotics
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Unmanned agricultural ground vehicles (UAGVs) represent substantial potential with their ability to optimize crop yields and increase sustainability, making them a high priority with many academic and corporate institutions. These systems need to be safe and robust while operating in suboptimal conditions compared to other autonomous systems. The variability encountered in the field, such as ground conditions, weather, and the sheer size of the operations highlight just a few of the challenges they face. Reliable communication networks will help to achieve safe and reliable operations in these conditions. This chapter discusses advances in communication systems in agricultural robotics. The need for communication systems is first addressed. An introduction to wireless communication then follows with communication layers, network topology, and communication technologies all discussed. Sections are then included on both person-to-machine (cellular networks and Multiple-Input and Multiple-Output broadband radio antenna networks) and machine-to-machine (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, IPv6 over Low Power Wireless Personal Area Networks, and Radio Frequency Identification) communication. The chapter concludes with a discussion on security issues.
Matthias Meier, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Switzerland
Using life cycle assessment to compare intensive versus extensive agricultural systems
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The number of life cycle assessment (LCA) and LCA-based footprint studies comparing food products coming from different agricultural production systems, reflecting different production intensities, is rapidly growing providing an increasing amount of data for further analyses. This chapter examines the use of LCA to compare intensive with extensive agricultural systems. The chapter addresses the validity of LCA studies comparing intensive and extensive agricultural systems and looks at assessing validity at the inventory level (using the example of reactive nitrogen emission modeling and monitoring heavy metal emissions in different farming systems).
Dr Benoît Cochard
Advances in conventional breeding techniques for oil palm
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At the beginning of the 20th century, oil palm was a semi-wild crop which had not been subjected to breeding efforts. This chapter will review the history of oil palm breeding, starting from the beginning of the 20th century up to the present day. We will discuss breeding objectives, breeding methods and data collection methods currently in use, and will then review the impacts and progress of oil palm breeding programs. Finally, we will consider seed production and future trends in oil palm breeding.
Alfieri Pollice and Ramy Saliba, IRSA-CNR, Italy; and Antonio Lonigro, Università degli Studi di Bari, Italy
The use of treated wastewater for crop irrigation
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The reuse of treated wastewater for crop irrigation is important in the effective use of scarce water resources in ensuring a stable supply and in recovery of nutrients. This chapter explains the composition of wastewater, methods for treatment and guidelines for reuse for crop irrigation, including crop types and irrigation techniques.
Mary Ng’endo, World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Kenya; and Shonil A. Bhagwat, The Open University, UK
The role of biodiversity in agroforestry and other types of smallholder farming
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Agricultural biodiversity, commonly referred to as agrobiodiversity, is a part of biodiversity that is conserved in agricultural habitats and food production landscapes. Adopting a multidimensional approach to their management is essential to increase sustainability of agricultural habitats. This chapter describes the application of food system concept in providing a framework to enable such a multidimensional approach. The chapter outlines the multiple dimensions of food security and places food security in the context of global environment change. Finally, the chapter explains the concept of multifactor food security promotion.
Ben Putman, Martin Christie and Greg Thoma, University of Arkansas, USA
Improving the environmental performance of pig and poultry production
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Currently, pork and chicken account for nearly three-fourths of global meat consumption. With increasing concern for the environmental impacts associated with human activity, and due to the magnitude of the pork and poultry sectors, there is mounting pressure to meet the growing demand for these animal-based proteins with fewer resources and lower emissions. This chapter outlines improvement options for making pig and poultry production more sustainable and provides detailed case studies. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading about the subject.
Ai-Ping Hu, Georgia Tech Research Institute, USA
Advances in automating meat processing operations
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Meat processing presents a particular challenge to robotics, as it deals with deformable biological products that lack uniformity: no two fish, sides of beef or chicken carcasses are exactly alike. Meat processing plants have many adept human practitioners, skilled with knives, and has proven extremely difficult to automate with robots. This chapter selectively surveys the advances in robotic automation of the processing of fish, beef, pork and lamb, as well as poultry, providing a detailed case study of the latter based on the author’s own research. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading in the field.
Susan M. Boyetchko, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada , Canada
The use of microorganisms in integrated weed management
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Biological control of weeds by fungal pathogens, bacteria and viruses has been studied for more than three decades. The aim is to suppress or reduce the weed population below an ecological or economic threshold. This chapter describes the role of biopesticides in weed control, historical accomplishments in biological weed control and recently registered pathogens. The chapter then discusses new discoveries currently under development, target weed control and the role of screening and fermentation technologies, as well as looks ahead to future developments in this area.
Turan Karadeniz, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey; Faik Ekmel Tekintaş, Adnan Menderes University, Turkey; and Seyit Mehmet Şen, Kastamonu University, Turkey
The nutritional and nutraceutical value of walnut
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Walnut fruit is rich in vitamins, carbohydrates, minerals, proteins and unsaturated fats which promote human health. Walnut kernels also contain a very high amount of serotonin which is a neurotransmitter involved in regulating moods, feelings of happiness, sleep, anxiety and blood pressure. Walnut also has anti-cancer, anti-ageing, anti-tumour, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory and anti-fatigue effects. Walnut green husk (WGH) has also exhibited positive effects on the alleviation of fat disorders. This chapter introduces walnuts as a source of vitamins, protein, fat and carbohydrate, and outlines their health-promoting properties.
Jude L. Capper, Livestock Sustainability Consultancy, UK
The sustainability and ‘carbon footprints’ of conventional and alternative beef production systems
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The beef industry faces a significant challenge in producing sufficient food to supply the requirements of the growing population, while maintaining a culture of continuous improvement and reducing environmental impacts per unit of beef produced. Since the late 1970’s, the US beef industry made significant efficiency gains that improved resource use and reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and considerable opportunities exist for making greater gains in future. However, beef producers’ future access to specific management practices or technologies may be constrained by consumer perceptions.
John Lynam, Independent Consultant
Moving up the scale: challenges in tropical agroforestry
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From its early beginnings, agroforestry has moved from a ‘technology in search of a problem’ to a principal solution to critical global agendas, including climate-smart agriculture, agroecological intensification, land rehabilitation and payment for ecosystem services. This chapter addresses the challenges associated with agroforestry in agroecological intensification and sustainable landscapes. The chapter considers the challenge of developing policies in support of agroforestry, and the challenge of developing agroforestry at scale. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
John Billingsley, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
An overview of machine vision technologies for agricultural robots and automation
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As machine vision technology becomes ever more readily available it is of increasing value to agriculture. This chapter seeks to outline the principles that will endure as the technology changes and to point out areas in which it can be applied. After examining basic concepts of machine vision, the chapter looks at the various tools available for implementing machine vision and the tasks to which this technology can be applied. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Michael R. F. Lee, University of Bristol and Rothamsted Research, UK; M. Jordana Rivero, Rothamsted Research, UK; and John W. Cone, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
The role of pasture in the diet of ruminant livestock
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Grazed pasture is the single most important forage feed for ruminants due to its low unit cost and widespread global availability. However, there is a growing use of arable crops in ruminant rations, which may exceed that used by humans by 2050. This chapter describes the ways in which grazed pasture provides the energy, proteins, minerals and vitamins and other nutritional factors required by ruminants. The chapter shows that the use of pasture and its by-products underpins the possibility of sustainably delivering future ruminant livestock production systems and ensuring their future role in food security.
Prof. Prof. Richard Schultz
Agroforestry practices: riparian forest buffers and filter strips
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Riparian forest buffers are planned combinations of trees, shrubs, grasses, forbs and bioengineered structures adjacent to or within a stream channel designed to mitigate the impact of land use on the stream or creek. At the landscape level, riparian forest buffers link the land and aquatic environment and perform vital ecological functions as part of the network of watersheds that connect forest, prairies, agricultural and urban lands. This chapter is about riparian forest buffers and filter strips as agroforestry practices. Following an introduction to the concept of riparian forest buffers, then follows a section on forest buffer design and function. This discusses the distinct management zones in a riparian forest buffer, namely Zone 1: undisturbed forest; Zone 2: managed forest and shrubs and Zone 3: run-off control (grasses and forbs). The chapter concludes with sections on both special design considerations and management, and assessing buffer performance.
Bernhard Freyer, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Austria
The role of crop rotations in organic farming
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Crop rotations are defined in terms of a number of crops organized in a specific order over a defined period of time, with specific spatial arrangements and distribution in a field and landscape, that ensures the best growing conditions for all crops. Crop rotation is thus a way to utilize the performance of a single crop in a way that contributes to the whole farming system. This chapter examines the principles of crop rotation, precrop effects in crop rotations, and the nutrient effects of legumes and other rotation crops. The chapter also considers the role of rotation crops in suppressing weeds, diseases and pests and studies rotations and crop yields, as well as the challenge of designing a crop rotation. The chapter looks at measuring and modelling crop rotations, nutrient and humus balances, crop rotations on stockless farms, intercropping and crop rotations in tropical and subtropical conditions.
Pål Johan From, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway and University of Lincoln, UK; and Lars Grimstad, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway
Advances in actuation and control in agricultural robots
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In recent years, agricultural robots have moved away from being pure sensor-carrying platforms for gathering data in the field into becoming action-delivering platforms providing physical interaction with the environment. In this chapter, the actuation methods that are most commonly used on intelligent agricultural robots in order to transform this optimal action into implement behaviour, motion, physical interaction or manipulation are discussed. These actuation methods consist of both traditional actuators that have been transformed into precision farming tools and novel actuators enabled by robotics and autonomous systems. A short introduction to each actuator is presented followed by example uses found in the agricultural domain. The chapter concludes with a case study that looks at how different actuators are used to automate strawberry production.
Dr Dr Valerio Cristofori
Developing hazelnuts as a sustainable and industrial crop
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European hazelnut (Corylus avellana) is a major species of interest for food use and one of the few economically valuable commercial tree nut crops within the Betulaceae. Cultivated mainly in Turkey and Italy, this nut crop has been introduced into cultivation around the world, and global production shows an increasing trend due to demand predominantly from the confectionery industry. This chapter reviews the development of European hazelnut as an industrial nut crop, highlighting the environmental needs for suitable cultivation of the species which has not been domesticated for as long as other major crops. Propagation and orchard management strategies are discussed focussing on the recent innovations in research including the exploitation of hazelnut biomass and the application of the precision farming strategies in the new large hazelnut orchards. There also features a section on integrated pest management. The chapter concludes with a look to future trends in research.
Chunbao Li, Nanjing Agricultural University, China
The role of beef in human nutrition and health
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Beef is an important source of both macronutrients and micronutrients. Nevertheless, concerns have been raised regarding the effects of eating red and processed meat on human health. In this chapter, we review the nutrients available in beef and then assess the concerns raised about the health impacts of consuming red meat, particularly the suggested association between intake of red meat and the risk of cancers.
Diomy S. Zamora, University of Minnesota, USA; Samuel C. Allen, New Mexico State University, USA; Kent G. Apostol, Independent Researcher and Editor, USA; Shibu Jose, University of Missouri, USA; and Gary Wyatt, University of Minnesota, USA
Temperate alley cropping systems
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The implementation of modern agricultural practices has largely excluded trees from the rural landscape, causing negative environmental impacts. Alley cropping, an agroforestry practice where agricultural crops are grown simultaneously with long-term tree crops, helps mitigate negative environmental impacts and offers a promising land-use alternative to conventional farming for temperate regions. This chapter provides an overview of economic and ecological benefits, challenges and major considerations of implementing these practices within North America. The chapter focuses on a system performance evaluation of a pecan-cotton system in the southern United States and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Damase Khasa and Alain Atangana, Université Laval, Canada
Tropical tree domestication in agroforestry
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Trees, whether occurring in wild stands or in agricultural landscapes, play a key role in the livelihoods of smallholders in the tropics. This chapter discusses tropical tree domestication in agroforestry, summarizing the authors’ contribution to the development of new tree crops in the tropics using agroforestry techniques. Following an introduction, a section is then included on the principles and techniques of tropical tree domestication covering identification of species for domestication, selection of ‘plus trees’ and vegetative propagation methods. The authors then provide examples of key tree species that have been targeted for domestication in the Amazon Basin (Bactris gasipaes, Calycophyllum spruceanum, Guazuma crinita and Inga edulis) and the Congo Basin (Irvingia gabonensis, Irvingia wombolu, Dacryodes edulis, Ricinodendron heudelotii, Cola acuminata, Cola anomala, Cola nitida and Prunus africana). The chapter concludes with a case study on participatory domestication of Allanblackia floribunda, a high-value agroforestry tree species in Central Africa.
Cleve D. Franks, DuPont Pioneer, USA
The principles and processes of sorghum breeding
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This chapter provides an overview of the basic principles and processes involved in the breeding of sorghum. A number of standard field operations are described, such as crossing, emasculation and harvesting, followed by a discussion of various methods of selection and topcrossing. After describing these classical breeding methodologies, there follows an evaluation of new directions in sorghum breeding, such as the use of molecular markers and high-throughput means of phenotyping plants. These techniques are discussed in terms of the availability of technology and their economic viability. It is concluded that although classical breeding methodologies will continue to be a requirement in future, sorghum breeders will need to make use of evolving technologies if they are to be successful.
Andrea Dührkoop and Oliver Hensel, University of Kassel, Germany
An overview of subsurface irrigation techniques
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Water is a scarce resource which plays a crucial role in agriculture. As climate change and population growth increase the strain on water supplies, involved actors are forced to look for water-saving irrigation methods for food production. This chapter reviews four key subsurface irrigation techniques: clay pot (pitcher) irrigation, auto-regulative subsurface pipes, subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) and porous pipe irrigation. Advantages, disadvantages and case studies for each technique are presented. In the final sections, subsurface irrigation with treated wastewater and a model for designing irrigation systems are also discussed.
D. L. McNeil, University of Tasmania, Australia
Advances in cultivation of walnuts
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Walnuts as a crop has expanded considerably in production and value over the last 30 years. There has been a shift in dominant production area from California to China. While the United States is still the world’s largest exporter of walnuts China now dominates world production. This chapter provides detailed statistics on the expansion of walnut production, examining key issues around what is now a highly diversified production environment, including blight (Xanthomonas arboricola pv. Juglandis) management and new potential methods for control. The chapter presents recent advances in molecular genetics, including marker-assisted selection, genetic relationship characterization, full genome description and genetic modification system. The chapter discusses the different expansion trajectories of several different regions in order to understand their causes. Finally, the chapter discusses opportunities for the future and provides a list of sources of additional information.
Teresa Barreneche, BFP, INRA, Université de Bordeaux, France; Roberto Botta, Università di Torino, Italy; and Cécile Robin, BIOGECO, INRA, Université de Bordeaux, France
Advances in breeding of chestnuts
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In the two last centuries, diseases and pests from Asia have been introduced in chestnut plantations in both Northern America and Southern Europe, jeopardizing indigenous populations and some local chestnut varieties. The societal demand for chestnut in these countries has considerably increased, and recent developments in the field of tree genome mapping and sequencing open up new perspectives for breeders with different applications which rely on knowledge of the genome. This chapter describes breeding for resistance to diseases threatening chestnut orchards and outlines a French program for breeding for ink-resistant rootstocks. The chapter then examines breeding for resistance to gall wasps, breeding for fruit quality and efforts in Japan to breed for ‘peel-ability’ of chestnuts. Finally, the chapter describes future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.
N. Jovanovic, S. Dzikiti and M. Gush, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), South Africa
An integrated approach for the estimation of crop water requirements based on soil, plant and atmospheric measurements
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Measuring crop water requirements is an essential part of managing agricultural water in crop fields. In this chapter, we propose a research approach for the determination of crop water requirements that integrates soil, plant and atmospheric measurements. Selected methods for estimating crop water requirements (lysimetry, atmospheric, plant- and soil-based methods), their spatial scale and time frequency, and their applicability are discussed. A case study is presented for an apple orchard in South Africa, where atmospheric (eddy covariance system), plant (sap flow) and soil water content measurements (time domain reflectometry) were used to determine seasonal evapotranspiration (ET) and crop water requirements, transpiration and the extent of over-irrigation (deep percolation). Splitting ET into crop transpiration and soil evaporation allowed us to determine basal crop coefficients Kcb, which are more transferable than the Kc crop coefficients and less dependent on management practices. The chapter also provides recommendations for further research and additional literature.
S. H. Anderson and R. P. Udawatta, University of Missouri, USA
Agroforestry: a system for improving soil health
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Introducing agroforestry into agroecosystems can be an important method to help promote soil health by its influence on soil physical, chemical and biological properties. This chapter highlights the benefits of agroforestry systems on soil properties important for soil health. These include critical soil biological, physical and chemical properties important for maintaining and improving soil health. The chapter outlines the critical soil biological properties important for energy and nutrient transformations, as well as critical soil physical properties including soil density, porosity, water retention, pore size distributions, hydraulic conductivity, infiltration and thermal properties. The chapter shows that improving these parameters may reduce losses of sediment, nutrients and herbicides from land to water and enhance soil water storage.
Marcia Endres and Jim Salfer, University of Minnesota, USA
Advances in robotic milking
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In recent years, growth in the number of robotic milking installations on farms has been driven by the need for better labour management and also for improved quality of life for dairy producers. This chapter reviews published research on such robotic milking systems (RMS). Aspects related to barn design, feeding management and udder health in automated systems are covered. The authors’ field observations on RMS herds in Minnesota and Wisconsin, USA, are also included. These comments cover feeding cows in RMS, milk quality and milk production using RMS and the economic considerations of implementing RMS on the farm. The authors conclude that the trend towards robotic milking is set to continue into the future and the per cent of dairy farms around the world using automation for milking their cows will further increase.
Kirsten Brandt, Newcastle University, UK
The impact of organic agriculture on diet and health
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Consumers of organic vegetables tend to consume them in higher amounts and with more concentrated phytochemicals, so any benefits of phytochemicals for human health are doubled for a typical consumer of organic food. This chapter explores the associations between organic consumption and diet choices, addressing the claimed and perceived links between organic foods and health and assessing the combined impact of a diet of organic food. Lastly, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in research in the area concerning the benefits of organic nutrition.
Elly Ana Navajas, Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria, Uruguay
The future of DNA technologies for improving beef quality: marbling, fatty acid composition and tenderness
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DNA genotyping with high-density panels and genome sequencing provide new opportunities for genetic improvement of beef quality traits by genomic selection (GS). Adoption of GS in the beef industry is lower than that in the dairy industry. Lower accuracy of genomic predictions is one of the reasons, which is associated with the difficulties to build large training populations. Nevertheless, current accuracies for meat quality traits are promising, indicating that there is potential to include then in beef breeding programmes, although more studies are needed. The information from training populations is a valuable resource for genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Current DNA technologies enable a better understanding of the genetic basis of traits of interest. Larger training populations are associated with greater statistical power for GWAS and improved genomic predictions accuracies.
Michael A. Gold, University of Missouri, USA
Agroforestry for the cultivation of nuts
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Row crop agriculture covers over 1.28 billion ha of land globally. Though extremely productive in terms of yield, annual cropping systems rely on external inputs of energy, nutrients and pesticides, leading to a suite of ecological consequences. This chapter focuses primarily on the opportunities and challenges associated with alley cropping practices involving overstorey nut crops as one element of the solution to address global needs for economically viable food production, while enhancing environmental services. The chapter examines the key challenges facing nut-based agroforestry systems, focusing on the genetic improvement of nut trees as well as the challenge of managing temporal and spatial tree and crop interactions. The chapter addresses orchard design and management, pest management in nut tree alley cropping and financial decision support tools. Finally, the chapter focuses on a number of case studies and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Willem S. Molenaar
Production of doubled haploid lines for hybrid breeding in maize
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The production of genetically homozygous inbred lines is essential for hybrid maize breeding. There is a strong interest in the use of DH lines in research and maize breeding due to their many advantages compared to inbred lines produced by the traditional method of recurrent selfing. This chapter describes the major steps in production of DH lines in maize and present current research, from the production of haploid seed to the harvest of DH seed. The chapter reviews recent findings concerning the genetics behind haploid induction and new and more efficient methods for identification of haploids. The chapter discusses chromosome doubling protocols as well as recent research on spontaneous chromosome doubling, which may have the potential to make DH production more efficient. Finally, the chapter considers practical aspects of the cultivation of plants derived from haploid seeds as well as applications and advantages of DH lines in maize breeding, and provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Salman Zafar, BioEnergy Consult, India
Waste management and recycling in oil palm cultivation
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In a typical palm plantation, almost 70% of the fresh fruit bunches are turned into wastes in the form of empty fruit bunches, fibres and shells, as well as liquid effluent. Until recently, most of the wastes from palm oil mills were either burnt in the open or thrown away in waste ponds or open areas. This contributed enormously to global climate change by emitting carbon dioxide and methane. This chapter reviews the technological advancements which now make it possible to convert palm oil waste products into useful energy or recycle them into value-added products to generate additional profits for the industry.
Dr Dr Cornelius Adewale
Improving the environmental performance of horticultural production: fruits and vegetables
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Horticultural crops (fruits and vegetables) are generally considered to have a relatively low environmental impact compared to other food types, yet there is huge diversity among crops and their impact. For fruit crops, the largest impacts occur at the farm level, most often related to machinery use, pesticides and fertilizers. For vegetables, post-harvest energy use is often a hot spot, whereas this chapter examines key findings from life cycle assessment (LCA) of horticultural crops, including a comparison between production systems. The chapter looks at the unique challenges of LCA for horticultural crops, and provides a detailed case study of the OFoot Project in Washington State, USA. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides suggested reading on the topic.
Phillip E. Strydom, Agricultural Research Council and University of Stellenbosch, South Africa
The effects of carcass chilling and electrical stimulation on visual beef quality and palatability
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The conversion of muscle to meat during the rigor mortis process and the conditions under which this process occurs is most important for quality attributes of beef including colour, water holding capacity and tenderness. Electrical stimulation is used to prevent cold-induced toughening of beef, especially hot-boned meat, but is also generally applied because it is thought to enhance the ageing process and, therefore, improve tenderness of aged beef. However, indiscriminate use of electrical stimulation, combined with improper chilling, may have detrimental effects on tenderness, colour and water-holding capacity of meat. This chapter discusses the advantages of electrical stimulation and factors influencing the effectivity of electrical stimulation.
Dr Dr Jan Bettgenhaeuser
Mapping and isolation of major resistance genes in cereals
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Diseases caused by pathogenic viruses, bacteria, oomycetes, and fungi are a major threat to cereal production worldwide. However, cereal plants have evolved a plethora of disease resistance genes to combat such threats. This genetic resistance forms an essential component of plant protection and is exploited by breeders to develop crop cultivars with high levels of field resistance. Despite the importance of disease resistance for crop improvement, only a minority of the disease resistance genes has been isolated from cereal genomes and molecularly studied so far. Here, we highlight the latest advancements in cereal genomics that have facilitated the rapid isolation of cereal resistance genes. A particular focus will be given to barley and wheat, two cereal species with particularly large and complex genomes. As a case study, we will discuss the recent cloning of the wheat Stb6 resistance gene, for which several new genomics approaches have been combined.
Pablo Pacheco, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Indonesia; Patrice Levang, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Indonesia and Research Institute for Development (IRD), France; Ahmad Dermawan, Center for International Fore
The palm oil governance complex: progress, problems and gaps
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Oil palm expansion has delivered economic development in host countries, including indirect benefits for local infrastructure development and rural poverty reduction, and multiplier effects for the national economies. However, its development has often come at the cost of basic rights and of biodiverse, carbon-rich tropical forests, with local communities evicted from their lands and precious ecosystems destroyed. This chapter aims to decipher the current systems and structures involved in the governance of palm oil. It then considers why, despite significant improvements in the governance complex, there have been no major changes in the performance of the palm oil sector. It identifies several structural constraints which constitute governance challenges, and argues that these must be addressed in order to build more sustainable and inclusive oil palm supply chains and landscapes.
T. Shah, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), India
The economics of groundwater development and governance
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The last century has seen a dramatic increase in the demand for groundwater, first as a source of drinking water, and more recently for agricultural use in arid and semi-arid regions. This sudden surge in demand can be explained by several attractive properties of this resource: it is free, available on demand, suitable for precision irrigation and typically outlasts surface water stocks in times of drought. However, unregulated overdevelopment of this resource poses a threat to its sustainability. This chapter presents a number of different approaches to groundwater governance: the idea of a public monopoly, direct governance, a contingency approach and the possibility of collective action. Socioeconomic theory is used to evaluate the appropriateness of these approaches in different contexts. It is concluded that there is no universal method of governing groundwater economies; the appropriate approach will depend on both the nature of the society and the nature of the aquifer.
KiChang Nam, Sunchon National University, Republic of Korea, Eun Joo Lee, University of Wisconsin-Stout, USA and Dong Uk Ahn, Iowa State University, USA
The colour of poultry meat: understanding, measuring and maintaining product quality
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The colour of poultry meat is often the first thing used by consumers to assess meat quality, and so it plays a vital role in purchasing decisions. This chapter begins by reviewing the fundamentals of meat pigments, including the chemistry of haem pigments. It then considers the colours of fresh, cooked, cured and irradiated poultry meat, reviews the mechanisms of discolouration in poultry meat and discusses how discolouration can be prevented. Finally, methods for objective colour measurement of meat products are reviewed.
Dr Dr W. Tadesse
Doubled haploid production in wheat
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A doubled haploid is a genotype formed from haploid (n) cells through random chromosome doubling or artificially induced chromosome doubling methods. In vitro haploid production followed by chromosome doubling greatly enhances the production of homozygous wheat lines in a single generation and increases the precision and efficiency of the selection process in wheat breeding. This chapter outlines the origin and production of doubled haploids (DH), detailed procedures of DH production using anther culture and the wide cross system using maize. The chapter analyses the application of DH in wheat breeding, integration of DH with marker assisted selection (MAS) and genomic selection (GS) schemes.
Emeritus Prof. Emeritus Prof. E. A. Heinrichs
Rice insect pests: biology and ecology
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Rice farmers face many abiotic and biotic constraints in their quest to increase rice production. In conjunction with the introduction of new high yielding drought and flood tolerant rice varieties, increasing yields will require a reduction in losses to insect pests. This chapter presents the knowledge and expertise of leading rice entomologists from Africa, Asia and the Americas to provide the first global coverage of rice insect pests. It presents insects based on the following feeding types: root and stem feeders, stem borers, rice gall midges, leafhoppers and planthoppers, foliage feeders, and panicle feeders. In each case, the chapter provides an overview together with a case study of a particular insect, summarizing key information such as classification, distribution, host plants other than rice, description, biology, plant damage and ecology.
Dr N Rajanaidu
Diversity in the genetic resources of oil palm
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Oil palm planting materials are based on an extremely narrow genetic base, and it has been generally recognized that the narrowness of the gene pool is a major obstacle towards increasing yields in many crops including oil palm. This chapter discusses the rather narrow genetic base of current breeding materials and the work undertaken by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board with the aim of broadening this genetic base. The chapter examines the ways of assessing genetic diversity in oil palm, through the analysis of fruit forms and types, morphological traits and genetic markers. It also reviews the methods for the conservation of oil palm collections and the ways of utilizing germplasm in order to develop improved varieties
Peter R. Davies, University of Minnesota, USA
Zoonoses associated with pigs
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Zoonoses are defined as diseases and infections that are transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans. Major food animal species occupy a special position within the framework of zoonotic disease. This is particularly the case in developed societies, where direct livestock contact has become relatively rare, and where for much of the population the food supply has become the predominant route of exposure to livestock associated pathogens. This chapter provides a broad overview of the zoonotic hazards associated with pigs. Emphasis is given to the agents and pathways which most contribute to zoonotic risk, and to how these risks may be modulated by changing conditions at the human-swine interface.
Pierre-Marie Bosc and Cédric Gaillard, CIRAD, France
Understanding smallholders in oil palm cultivation: a case study from Sumatra
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This chapter provides insights about oil palm smallholders in the Riau province of Sumatra, Indonesia, based on two recent sets of data. Based on two surveys conducted in 2013 and in 2015, the chapter characterises smallholders’ production structures, relying on the methodological framework elaborated in 2012 by the international initiative World Agriculture Watch. After defining smallholders, the chapter describes the Sumatra surveys, data collection methods and analysis results. The chapter looks ahead towards a typology of independent smallholders and examines future trends in this area.
Bernard Dubos and Didier Snoeck, CIRAD, France
Maintaining soil health in oil palm cultivation
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Many existing oil palm plantations were set up after clearing equatorial and tropical rainforests. In tropical forests, the topsoil is where the fertility lies due to its physico-chemical properties, developed through an accumulation of organic matter and intense biological activity. In the first four years after felling the properties of this topsoil change rapidly, but it has been reported that the topsoil then evolves towards a new, stable chemical state. A central challenge is therefore to ensure that this new stable state possesses the properties that enable high yields. In this chapter, we consider the key issues and challenges involved in maintaining soil health. We then review the effects of management practices in oil palm plantation on soil health, and consider the potential benefits of biomass recycling.
Dr Dr Boby Mathew
Advances in statistical methods to handle large data sets for GWAS in crop breeding
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One of the most important statistical methods of handling large data sets for genome-wide association mapping (GWAS) is quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis. Two approaches to QTL analysis are linkage analysis (LA) and linkage disequilibrium (LD) mapping. Even though association and linkage mapping are viewed as fundamentally different approaches, both methods try to make use of recombination events. This chapter discusses some of the main challenges for GWAS studies with large data sets. This chapter describes both single-locus and multilocus association models, before going on to discuss high dimensional data space in GWAS, the significance threshold for association, and dimensionality reduction methods. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this field.
Tom J. Humphrey and Lisa K Williams, Swansea University, UK
Zoonoses affecting poultry: the case of Campylobacter
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Campylobacter has been associated with poultry for many years. It is the leading cause of bacterial foodborne illness in developed countries, with C. jejuni and C. coli being identified in most cases in humans. These two species are also found in poultry. Campylobacter is ideally suited to the poultry niche, and can grow at the higher body temperature (42C) of birds. Campylobacter has been shown to have a negative effect on the health and welfare of the birds; evidence of host adaptation and host-specific species leads us to believe that Campylobacter is more than a commensal of chickens.
Jean-Pierre Caliman, Suhardi and Pujianto, Smart Research Institute, Indonesia
Improving soil health and crop nutrition in oil palm cultivation
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Soil health is increasingly regarded as a key factor in oil palm nutrition and productivity. This chapter presents the current state of knowledge about soil and nutrient management through several examples of efficient and productive oil palm cultivation. The chapter highlights the challenges which still need to be addressed in order to make the crop more sustainable in the long term while considering some new concepts in agricultural development. The chapter also considers the emerging tools provided by the fast evolution of new technologies such as sensors and drones, and the tremendous possibilities introduced by molecular biology backed by the amazing increase in calculation capacity and information flows. The chapter considers key issues relating to soil fertility, nutrient management, mineral nutrition and planting materials, and focuses particularly on issues affecting smallholders.
P. Bramel, Global Crop Diversity Trust, Germany
Wheat genetic resources: global conservation and use for the future
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The importance of wheat to the global food supply means that many institutions across the world hold collections of wheat germplasm to study and preserve wheat genetic material. This chapter describes a global ex situ conservation strategy to assess the status of wheat genetic resources held by institutions, identifying major germplasm collections from existing public databases and targeting institutions holding unique accessions of wild relatives. Drawing on information from the surveys, the chapter identifies areas for global action. These include regeneration of old accessions, safety duplication of collections, a comprehensive global information system to enhance the use of conserved germplasm, global rationalization of accessions and filling gaps. The chapter concludes that ex situ collections, currently underutilized, represent significant pools for the future improvement of wheat. With new tools from genomics, exploitation of these collections is likely to increase, but there is an urgent need to better secure their conservation.
Jean-Michel Lecerf, Institut Pasteur de Lille, France
Palm oil and health
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Palm oil is often criticized for its supposed effects on human health, due to its high saturated fatty acid content. However, it is this high saturated fatty acid content (50%) which makes it a solid oil, and therefore a good technological alternative to partially hydrogenated trans fatty acids. Palm oil has therefore enabled a reduction in the intake of trans fatty acids. This chapter reviews the effects of palm oil consumption on human health, including its effects on cardiovascular risk markers such as fasting lipids and lipoproteins and post-prandial plasma lipids and lipoproteins. The evidence for a connection between cardio-vascular problems and consumption of saturated fatty acids more generally is also considered. We argue that there is a lack of good epidemiological data showing the adverse role of palm oil consumption in cardiovascular disease, and that there is a place for palm oil in a healthy, balanced diet.
Sandra Edwards, University of Newcastle, UK
Welfare of gilts and pregnant sows
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Mismatches between the evolutionary biology of the sow and current commercial production systems give rise to welfare challenges of stereotyped behaviour development in confined systems and aggression in group housing systems. This chapter describes the welfare issues associated with individual confinement systems and examines the nature and significance of stereotyped behaviour in gestating sows. The chapter addresses the issue of hunger in the pregnant sow and drivers to adopt group housing systems for pregnant sows. The chapter has a particular focus on the importance of social organisation in sows and looks in detail at the relationship between aggression in stable groups and the method of feed provision available. Finally, the chapter examines sows in extensive systems and looks ahead to future research trends in this area, providing extensive suggestions for further reading.
Dr Dr Danielle Guzman
Challenges and opportunities in pear breeding
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Although pear (Pyrus spp.) is an economically important fruit worldwide, pear cultivars and production practices have been among the slowest of the temperate fruits to change to meet modern consumer demands and labor-efficient orchard realities. In the United States, the majority of the pear orchards are low-density plantings with large trees of long-standing cultivars that can reach up to 15 feet in height. Large vigorous trees require difficult and labor-intensive management, and are non-sustainable and inefficient in terms of application of inputs such as water, pesticides, and bio-regulators. This chapter addresses the challenges and opportunities in pear breeding. Starting with sections on both pear cultivars and pear rootstocks, there then follows a discussion on germplasm resources. Breeding techniques and improvement of particular traits is then considered including dwarfing, precocity, cold hardiness, fire blight resistance, tree architecture, and self-incompatibility. The chapter concludes with a discussion on future trends in this field of research.
J. R. Guarin and S. Asseng, University of Florida, USA
Wheat crop modelling to improve yields
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Crop simulation models are robust tools for scientists, farmers and policymakers that can be used to develop practices and strategies to increase agricultural productivity and sustainability on a local, regional or global scale under conditions and treatments difficult or impossible to test using solely field experimentation. Crop models are increasingly being used to explore solutions to issues such as global food security, climate change impact assessment and adaptation, nitrogen fertilization, irrigation and seasonal variability management. This chapter examines the experimental data sets, dynamic modelling processes and fundamental applications of current wheat (Triticum spp.) crop models, as well as future trends and challenges of wheat crop modelling.
Jonathan Amory, Writtle University College, UK; and Nina Wainwright, British Pig Executive (BPEX), UK
Welfare of pigs during finishing
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Finisher pigs, those of a post-weaning age kept for slaughter, make up the majority of the world pig population of approximately 1 billion. The intensive production system for post-weaned pigs is characterised by higher animal density, larger farms, use of concentrated foods and control of the production environment, particularly temperature, humidity and lighting. This chapter explores the relationship between nutrition management and the welfare of finishing pigs and the links between physical and social environment and welfare of finisher pigs. The chapter addresses the importance of environmental enrichment and ways to avoid tail-biting behaviour. Finally, the chapter describes methods of practical welfare assessment of finisher pigs and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Vijaya Subramaniam
Life cycle assessment (LCA) of palm oil in practice: the example of Malaysia
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Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool for evaluating the environmental impact of a product or process throughout its entire life cycle. This chapter reviews the application of LCA methodology to assess the environmental impact of the production of crude palm oil (CPO), including the impact of land-use change from logged-over forest to oil palm production. It assesses ways of mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from oil palm cultivation such as ways of reducing methane and the use of biogas capture technologies.
Chris Barbey and Kevin Folta, University of Florida, USA
Advances and challenges in strawberry genetic improvement
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The commercial strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) is a popular temperate fruit that is both nutritious and widely appreciated for flavour. The purpose of this chapter is to highlight some of the newest innovations in strawberry production with particular emphasis on genetic improvement of the crop. The threats and solutions to sustainable strawberry production are presented. The trend for developing more robust and sustainable strawberry cultivated varieties via genetics is discussed in detail and a number of technologies put forward including high-throughput genotyping and quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis, targeted sequence capture, third-generation sequencing and Expression QTL. High-throughput phenotyping is also covered, which is an increasingly important area of interest, both to improve breeding through traditional selection and for integration with genomics data for discovery. The chapter concludes with a look to future trends in research.
Marcel Djama, CIRAD and MOISA, University of Montpellier, France and Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Certifying sustainability in oil palm cultivation
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In recent years, transnational private regulations, aimed at implementing sustainable development principles, have emerged across several commodity sectors. To address the growing environmental and social concerns raised by oil palm expansion, the sector has adopted voluntary sustainability standards led by industry and civil society, as well as national standards and regulations implemented by the main producing countries. This chapter presents these sustainability initiatives as well as addresses some important limitations on them, due to the increasing complexity of the regulatory framework, the market segmentation associated with a growing demand for non-certified palm oil from emerging countries and the unresolved issues of smallholders’ inclusion in certification. The chapter suggests a way forward for sustainability certification, which includes strengthening global cooperation and including smallholders in the process, and looks ahead to future research in this area.
Denis J. Murphy, Head of Genomics and Computational Biology Research Group, University of South Wales, United Kingdom
Advances in the genetic modification of oil palm
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Transgenic crop modification uses recombinant DNA methods to alter gene expression in order to create new varieties for breeders that may be either difficult or impossible to produce using conventional approaches. Over the past few decades, transgenic methods have been successfully applied to develop genetically modified (GM) varieties of the major oilseed crops. In this chapter, the research efforts for production of GM oil palm plants over the past 20 years will be reviewed. Although these efforts have yet to result in stable lines of commercially useful GM varieties of oil palm, there are good prospects that the greatly improved knowledge of genomics coupled with advanced technologies such as genome editing will be successful in the future.
Bruce Maxwell, Montana State University, USA
Weed-plant interactions
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Crops or desired plant species co-occur with undesired species, and the co-occurring species thereby come to be classed as weeds. This human-imposed classification is based on the perception that there is an interaction that results in some negative effect of the weed on the crop or desired species. This chapter offers an evolutionary perspective on crop–weed interactions and examines the nature of shared resource pools between desired crops and weeds. The chapter addresses the effects of direct competition between weeds and crops for resources, the indirect effects of competition and the spatial and temporal dynamics of crop–weed interaction.
Amanda Karlström, NIAB EMR and University of Reading, UK; Magdalena Cobo Medina, NIAB EMR and University of Nottingham, UK; and Richard Harrison, NIAB EMR, UK
Advances and challenges in apple breeding
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Breeding new apple varieties is a costly and time-consuming endeavour, often selecting for consumer-preference traits at the expense of other traits of agronomic importance. However, combining both sustainable cultivation with market acceptability is a goal that if achieved would benefit growers, consumers and the environment. This chapter summarises the current status of apple breeding and genomics research, taking a forward look at the key factors that may improve the selection efficiency within apple breeding programmes to simultaneously enhance both resource-use efficiency traits and resilience to biotic and abiotic stress. The chapter discusses how coupling enhanced automated phenotyping, rapid cycling through generations, genome-assisted selection and genome editing using CRISPR-Cas9 would improve breeding programme productivity. Also covered are advances in genetic characterisation of key rootstock traits, for example, selection of traits which lead to reduction in inorganic nitrogen application, may result in more sustainable cultivation.
