The use of unmanned aerial systems (UASs) in precision agriculture
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The rapid development of small unmanned aerial systems (UASs) in recent years has triggered considerable interest in their application for precision agriculture. The decreasing cost, the ultra-high spatial resolution and the increased flexibility of image acquisition have made UAS remote sensing an ideal technique for identifying, at close-to-real-time, field patterns. This chapter provides an overview of UAS platforms and sensors, and flight planning and imagery acquisition, before moving on to consider stitching and ortho-rectification in UAS image processing. The chapter reviews the applications of UAS imagery and methods of image analysis and incorporates a detailed case study. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Ruihong Zhang, University of California-Davies, USA and Hamed M. El-Mashad, Mansoura University, Egypt
Waste management in egg production
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Waste management is an essential component of an egg production system, affecting the environmental impact of production, food safety, worker safety, and animal health and safety. Manure, animal mortalities , and egg washing and processing wastewater are the major types of waste generated in an egg production facility. In this chapter, the characteristics of manure, poultry mortality and egg washing wastewater are discussed. Various methods and technologies for treating and managing these waste streams are then presented, including anaerobic digestion, aerobic treatments and thermochemical processes. The application of poultry waste products as fertilizer is also considered.
Greta Gramig, North Dakota State University, USA
Weed management in organic crop cultivation
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Managing weeds in organic production systems is critical to the economic success of organic farmers, as well as long-term ecological sustainability. Problems with weeds are a major reason why organic operations fail, or never get started. This chapter provides an overview of the range of tools and tactics that can be used to contend with weeds in organic systems and describes the integration of several tools and tactics. The chapter presents several organic farmer case studies to illustrate different types of weed management plans. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in scientific research that will help organic farmers manage weeds while conserving and building soil resources.
Carl Traeholt, South East Asia Programme Director, Copenhagen Zoo, Malaysia
Balancing oil palm cultivation with forest and biodiversity conservation
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With the formation of the Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil, environmentalists and consumers anticipated a decrease in the indiscriminate destruction of tropical rainforests. Ten years later, thousands of hectares of tropical rainforests continue to be cleared for oil palm plantations in the tropical world and endangered species are being lost in the process. This chapter, based on six years of collaboration between Copenhagen Zoo, Malaysia, and United Plantations Bhd in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, describes how measuring, monitoring and managing the environmental impact of plantation operations are key components in sustainable palm oil production. The chapter examines operational impacts of oil palm cultivation on both biodiversity and abiotic factors, as well as outlining methods of biological pest management. The chapter recommends that dedicated companies develop environmental divisions at estate level in order to ensure that biodiversity concerns are integrated into standard operational procedures.
Dr Tristan Durand-Gasselin
Advances in disease-resistant oil palm varieties
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This chapter describes advances in the breeding of disease-resistant varieties of oil palm, presenting the key issues associated with oil palm disease resistance, including the usefulness and sustainability of resistance and the agricultural practices required to enable it. The chapter focusses on the achievement of resistance to three major diseases of oil palm: Fusarium wilt, Ganoderma basal/upper stem rot and bud rot. The chapter looks ahead to potential future developments in the field of oil palm disease resistance.
Arthur Agnello, Cornell University, USA
Optimizing pest management in fruit cultivation
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Tree fruit growers in temperate regions have faced challenges in managing the complex of arthropod pests present in these systems because of increasing pesticide regulatory restrictions, public concerns about food safety and environmental quality, and resistance to older pesticides by key pests. Growers are attempting to adopt newer tactics such as reduced-risk (more selective) pesticides and increased reliance on sampling and monitoring techniques plus pheromone-based mating disruption, but these are more expensive and require more time and precise use patterns. In addition, most previous integrated pest management protocols were designed for management programs based on the use of older conventional pesticides. As this chapter shows, a more current and practical approach stresses a basic understanding of pest biology and development, which can be used in predictive models to support the effective use of more selective crop protectants and other sustainable tactics, such as mating disruption and biological control.
Venugopal Nair, Pirbright Institute, UK
Viruses affecting poultry
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Infectious diseases, particularly those caused by viral pathogens, pose one of the most serious threats to the growth and sustainability of the global poultry industry. The industry relies heavily on vaccination-based control strategies, but there are important challenges for this approach, such as the immunosuppressive effects of some viral pathogens and the increasing diversity of pathogens. This chapter reviews viral diseases affecting poultry, including the four most significant viral diseases in terms of their widespread distribution, effect on avian health and role in producing economic losses. For each disease, symptoms, diagnosis and control measures are discussed. The major threats to vaccination-based strategies are reviewed, and some potential responses are considered.
M. R. Bedford and C. L. Walk, AB Vista, UK
The use of exogenous enzymes to improve feed efficiency in pigs
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Exogenous feed enzymes have been in commercial use in swine diets for almost 30 years. This chapter focuses on the use of three classes of enzymes: NSP’ases, phytases and proteases. We review the evidence that their use is beneficial, and suggest likely mechanisms of action based on the evidence available to date. Lipolytic enzymes are also considered.
Ted DeJong, University of California-Davis, USA
Advances in understanding fruit tree growth
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Owing to the importance of photosynthesis to the efficient functioning of plants as solar energy collectors, scientists have been intensively studying the process of photosynthesis for more than 100 years, with the hope of increasing its efficiency. There is substantial evidence that fruit trees distribute their nutrient resources and photosynthetic competency, and adjust the angles of leaves in different parts of their canopy to optimize use of resources and sunlight as it passes through a tree canopy. This chapter examines the factors that influence photosynthesis in fruit trees, as well as the four key principles governing the distribution and use of photosynthates. Finally, the chapter looks at the features of fruit tree canopy architecture.
Prof. Arun Kumar Joshi
Variety selection in wheat cultivation
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Variation among wheat plants serves as the raw material for varietal development or plant breeding, allowing the selection of plants which are suited to particular environments, management methods or markets. The superiority of an identified line is normally validated through a series of trials, and once established the new variety is registered and released for cultivation by a competent authority. In this chapter, we review the methods used to develop new varieties of wheat, including both traditional breeding and modern molecular breeding using marker-assisted selection, genomic selection and next-generation phenotyping. We also consider the criteria used by both plant breeders and farmers to select between available varieties.
Brian Steward, Jingyao Gai, and Lie Tang, Iowa State University, USA
The use of agricultural robots in weed management and control
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Weed management and control are essential for the production of high-yielding and high-quality crops, and advances in weed control technology have had a huge impact on agricultural productivity. Any effective weed control technology needs to be both robust and adaptable. Robust weed control technology will successfully control weeds in spite of variability in the field conditions. Adaptable weed control technology has the capacity to change its strategy in the context of evolving weed populations, genetics, and climatic conditions. This chapter focuses on key work in the development of robotic weeders, including weed perception systems and weed control mechanisms. Following an extensive introduction, the chapter addresses the challenges of robotic weed control focusing on both perception systems, which can detect and classify weed plants from crop plants, and also weed control mechanisms, covering both chemical and mechanical weed control. A case study of an automated weeding system is provided.
O. Huguenin-Elie, Agroscope, Switzerland; L. Delaby and K. Klumpp, INRA, France; S. Lemauviel-Lavenant, INRA and Université de Caen Normandie, France; and J. Ryschawy and R. Sabatier, INRA, France
The role of grasslands in biogeochemical cycles and biodiversity conservation
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Grasslands have a multifunctional role in producing forage for animal production systems while providing a wide array of ecosystem services, including the regulation of biogeochemical cycles and the maintenance of biodiversity which are of utmost importance for agriculture and society as a whole. This chapter provides an overview of current knowledge on the roles of grasslands in regulating the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycles and conserving biodiversity. The chapter describes the ways in which environmental roles of grasslands are driven by nutrient management, frequency and timing of utilization, type of utilization (mowing or grazing), the lifespan of the grasslands and their position and diversity in the landscape. It then explains how different grassland types are necessary to target multiple services because the services of food production, carbon storage in soils, regulation of the N cycle and biodiversity conservation are maximized at different levels of grassland intensification.
Jack C. M. Dekkers, Iowa State University, USA
The use of molecular genetic information in genetic improvement programmes for pigs
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Genetic improvement of pigs has been achieved by selection of individuals for breeding based on estimated breeding values (EBV), derived using phenotypes for important traits. Ideally, phenotypes on the individual itself and its relatives are utilized in order to obtain the most accurate estimate of the breeding value of the individual. However, there are multiple challenges and limitations associated with these phenotype-based programs. Many of these can be overcome by using molecular information to help predict breeding values and inform selection decisions. This chapter describes how molecular genetic information can be used to enhance selection programs in pigs, what is required to develop such information, and what strategies are available for the use of molecular information in breeding programs. Example cases, challenges and future prospects are also reviewed.
Dr Dr Kenneth A. Sudduth
Variable-rate application technologies in precision agriculture
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The approach of precision agriculture (PA) can be viewed as cyclical in nature, involving data collection, development of management plans, implementation of those plans in the field and evaluation of the effort. This chapter examines the characteristics of variable-rate application (VRA) control systems, before going on to consider the implementation of both liquid and dry VRA systems. The chapter reviews a number of detailed VRA case studies and summarizes the current status of research in this field. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in the area.
Julius van der Werf, University of New England, Australia and Jennie Pryce, Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources (Government of Victoria) and La Trobe University, Australia
Using genetic selection in the breeding of dairy cattle
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There has been a huge increase in the productivity of dairy cows over the last half a century, with the yield per cow more than doubling. This is substantially due to the use of genetic selection in dairy cattle breeding programmes. In this chapter, we review the use of artificial insemination (AI), progeny testing, embryo transfer and in vitro fertilization in breeding programmes. We then discuss how traditional progeny testing schemes are being replaced by genomic testing, resulting in a halving of the generation interval and a doubling of the rate of genetic gain. Finally, we review the objectives of breeding programmes, noting the move from focusing exclusively on production traits to an emphasis on other traits such as those related to health, fertility, functionality and feed efficiency.
Lydie Dufour, INRA, France
Tree planting and management in agroforestry
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Agroforestry seeks to increase the productivity of the farm and help create resilient landscapes. The pattern of tree planting and tree management play an important part in the sustainability of an agroforestry system, as they determine the intensity of competition between trees and crop and the quality and quantity of wood production. This chapter focuses on the plantation and management of temperate agroforestry systems combining timber trees and herbaceous crops. The chapter covers choice of tree species, techniques of tree planting, plantation maintenance and approaches to tree pruning and thinning. Finally, the chapter explores future research trends in this area.
Anusha Bulumulla, Mi Zhou and Le Luo Guan, University of Alberta, Canada
The rumen microbiota and its role in dairy cow production and health
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Ruminants have a complex microbial community inhabiting their gastrointestinal tract. In particular, rumen microbiota converts lignocellulose material to nutrients and energy, which dictate to the animal’s performance through a host–microbe symbiotic relationship. Owing to their significant role in ruminant agriculture, rumen microbes have been extensively studied since the 1950s, and progress in this research has accelerated by the application of molecular biological techniques since late 1990s. This chapter summarizes current knowledge about rumen microbial diversity, ecology, function and relationships with host phenotypes. Further, it covers current trends and innovations, including ‘omics’ approaches and applications to study rumen microbiota, which have enabled us to identify rumen microbiota in depth and uncover new insights into the structure and function of this complex microbial community. Finally, knowledge gaps and future directions for research into rumen microbiota and its importance in animal production and health are addressed.
John Billingsley, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Global positioning systems (GPS) for agriculture: an overview
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The essence of a global positioning system is the ability to define a location anywhere on Earth in terms of three coordinates. The calculation is performed in terms of Cartesian axes including one through the poles, but the result is transformed into local coordinates that include height. This chapter introduces the use of global positioning systems in agriculture, explaining how the system works and focussing on ways in which accuracy can be improved. The chapter examines the use of a peer-differential system and looks ahead to future developments in this area, providing detailed guidance on where to find further reading on the subject.
Shane V. Crowley
The proteins of milk
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Milk and milk processing have been researched for many years and, today, milk proteins are probably the best characterized of all food proteins. This chapter provides an overview of major and minor milk proteins, the methods used to prepare milk protein fractions in the laboratory and the milk protein products that are produced on an industrial scale.
Dr Dr Pierre-Éric Lauri
Agroforestry for fruit trees in Europe and Mediterranean North Africa
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Although fruit trees are considered as high value for agroforestry and are the primary driver of agroforestry adoption worldwide, they are still underrepresented in agroforestry systems in temperate regions compared to the tropics. This chapter illustrates the large diversity of fruit tree-based agroforestry in Europe and in the Mediterranean North Africa, including the oases regions. The chapter then describes the most represented species-based (apple, olive) and emblematic place-based (arganery, oasis) agroforestry systems in these regions. Finally, the chapter details some biological and agronomical specificities of fruit trees that have to be considered when implementing performant fruit tree-based agroforestry systems, and presents updated work on how current trends in both fruit tree cultivation and agroforestry may converge into the design of agronomically and ecologically sound fruit tree-based agroforestry systems.
Michael S. Cockram, University of Prince Edward Island, Canada
Understanding the effects of handling, transportation, lairage and slaughter on cattle welfare and beef quality
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Handling, transport, lairage and slaughter are stressful for cattle, and can affect the quality of the beef produced. This chapter considers the complexity of each stage of pre-slaughter management arising from the interactions between different types of cattle, different physical environments, the manner in which cattle are handled and the methods used for slaughter. The effects of pre-slaughter management on beef quality, including the risk of dark, firm, dry meat and bruising are reviewed in this chapter. Further, this chapter discusses the main factors during transportation, which have been identified as affecting animal welfare and meat quality. Finally, an overview of the extensive research on how handling and slaughter can be optimised is presented.
Juliet R. Roberts, University of New England, Australia
Understanding and improving the shelf-life of eggs
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The shelf-life of eggs is determined by various government and industry agencies, as well as by retailers. It is based on the internal quality of the eggs and their microbiological safety. The avian egg possesses many intrinsic anti-microbial properties that are designed to ensure the safety of the developing chick. However, these same properties also protect the consumer of the egg. Many factors influence the internal quality and the microbiological safety of eggs, and this chapter takes a look at these factors. This chapter discusses technologies for increasing the shelf-life of eggs. Of primary importance is the handling and storage of eggs. This chapter also discusses the issue of coatings to increase shelf-life.
Ulrich Thumm, University of Hohenheim, Germany
Use of grassland for bioenergy and biorefining
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High-yielding, intensively managed, agriculturally improved grasslands provide biomass with qualities suitable for anaerobic fermentation and biorefining. Biomass from semi-natural grasslands or from landscape conservation areas has higher lignin content. It is suitable for combustion or pyrolysis, but requires pre-treatment before fermentation or hydrolysis to break down the cellulosic fibre. This chapter begins by reviewing grassland types, categorizing them according to their potential for biomass production. The next section details the options for use of grassland biomass, and covers biogas, combustion, pyrolysis and gasification, enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation to ethanol, and biorefining. Finally, we discuss the future prospects for the use of grassland biomass in bioenergy applications.
T. K. Turkington, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada; K. Xi, Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, Canada; and H. R. Kutcher, University of Saskatchewan, Canada
The role of crop rotation, intercropping and tillage practices for foliar disease management of wheat and barley
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The great majority of modern agro-ecosystems comprise rotations of a small number of crop species where each year’s crop is a genetically uniform monoculture. The narrow genetic basis for disease resistance in modern cultivars increases the potential for pathogens to overcome this resistance and attack a large number of plants at a similar state of development. In this chapter, we present a number of strategies for limiting foliar disease development in wheat and barley. We discuss how crop rotations with non-cereal species can substantially reduce inoculum sources for residue-borne cereal leaf diseases. Further strategies, such as intercropping, gene deployment and conversation tillage, are then presented, with discussion of the effectiveness of each strategy against particular foliar diseases. It is concluded that there is potential for residue-borne cereal leaf diseases to be managed under conservation tillage via crop rotation, fungicide application and careful choice of variety.
E. Hill and P. Solomon, The Australian National University, Australia
A lesser-known pathogen of wheat: Bipolaris sorokiniana
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The filamentous fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana (teleomorph Cochliobolus sativus) is a necrotrophic cereal pathogen of significant concern in the warm, nontraditional wheat cropping regions of Southern Asia. B. sorokiniana is also recognised as the predominant causative agent of the disease complex Helminthosporium leaf blight (HLB), comprising both B. sorokiniana and the tan spot pathogen Pyrenophora triciti-repentis. B. sorokiniana is the major constraint on wheat production in the Eastern Gangetic Plains within India, Nepal and Bangladesh and is causal to significant reductions in grain yield and quality. While efforts to identify host resistance have made headway since the early 1990s in establishing partial cultivar resistance, there remains a considerable gap in our understanding of the disease, the pathogen and the traits and mechanisms governing resistance. In the following section, we review the current status of understanding of wheat diseases caused by B. sorokiniana and their impact in the field and highlight knowledge gaps that remain unaddressed.
R. Nowak, INRA/Université de Tours, France
Understanding sheep behaviour
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The most important features of the behaviour of sheep are their marked sociality and the formation of a bond between mother and young. Sheep show a strong need to stay with their flock mates and become very distressed when isolated. Under farm conditions the social environment is mainly controlled by humans, and sheep are usually maintained in single-sex groups of similar age or size, the main exceptions being male–female groups at mating and the mother–young dyad. Separating lambs from their mother at an early age and rearing them with artificial milk is also a frequent practice. This chapter examines the importance of understanding sheep sociality, sexuality, mother–young bonding to sheep welfare, as well as describing the impact of environmental conditions on sheep behaviour.
Simon P. Turner and Richard B. D’Eath, Scotland’s Rural College, UK
Understanding pig behaviour
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The behavioural patterns of domesticated pigs are well conserved from their ancestors. This suggests that the underlying motivational systems are similar to those of wild boar and feral domestic populations. This chapter describes how commercial conditions, whilst providing some welfare benefits, can constrain behavioural expression. The chapter reviews the behavioural ecology of pigs, introduces the concept of behavioural needs and considers the developmental and additive genetic basis behind individual differences in behaviour. It looks ahead to future trends in research in this area and provides suggestions for extensive further reading on the subject.
Chung S. Yang, Rutgers University, USA
The potential role for tea in combating chronic diseases
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Tea, made from the leaves of the plant Camellia sinensis, Theaceae, is a popular beverage worldwide. For the past 30 years, tea has been studied extensively for its beneficial health effects in the prevention of cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and neurodegenerative diseases; reduction of body weight; and alleviation of metabolic syndrome. Whereas results from laboratory studies on these effects are strong, human studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects only in certain diseases in individuals who consume three to four or more cups of tea daily. This chapter reviews these beneficial health effects of tea, the possible mechanisms of actions of tea constituents, and the relevance of laboratory studies to human health.
Gerardo Moreno and Victor Rolo, INDEHESA, Institute for Silvopastoralism Research, University of Extremadura, Spain
Agroforestry practices: silvopastoralism
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Silvopastoralism is a traditional agroforestry practice that is still managed across the world for raising livestock in lands that often include a combination of grass understorey with a sparse cover of trees and/or shrubs. The woody component plays multiple roles such as forage resource, shading and sheltering for livestock and delivering wood, firewood, cork and tannings, among other goods. This chapter firstly describes silvopastoral systems from around the world. It goes on to stress the importance of trees for livestock production. A section is also included on the role of trees for biodiversity and ecosystems services as in recent times silvopastoral systems have been valued for their contribution to carbon sequestration, water quality and biodiversity conservation. The chapter concludes with how to design and manage silvopastures and a look to future trends in research, providing a list of priorities for silvopastoralism going forward.
Noris Ledesma, Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden – Florida, USA
The genetic diversity of mangoes
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This chapter provides a list of the principal mango cultivars, selected on the basis of their local and global importance. The description of cultivars is based on evaluations conducted by Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Miami, Florida. The data reflects some 30 years of research. Description information includes origin and information on tree form and vigour. The chapter also includes photographs of principal mango cultivars.
Prof. Prof. Mick Bailey
The influence of gut microbiome on developing immune and metabolic systems in the young pig
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The immune and metabolic systems of young piglets develop after birth, and the rate and type of development are strongly associated with the rate and type of colonisation of the intestine with bacteria. This chapter describes the enteric and mucosal immune systems of pigs and presents evidence from experimental studies of the links between the immune system and microbiota. The chapter describes the microbiome and metabolism of pigs and highlights its importance in the development of pig immune systems.
G. LaPointe, University of Guelph, Canada
Understanding and preventing spoilage of cow’s milk
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Milk spoilage is essentially a result of inadequate control of the growth of microorganisms, combined with the activity of enzymes which have found their way into milk from production and processing environments. Microorganisms have developed strategies to survive and thrive in cold (psychrotrophic) as well as in hot (thermophilic) conditions, with some even surviving pasteurization by forming spores. Preventing spoilage is a question of preventing contamination through hygiene and sanitation, proper cooling and understanding the conditions specific to the processes leading to the wide variety of dairy products and ingredients. This chapter examines possible causes of milk spoilage and describes strategies for preventing spoilage during both the production and processing phases. It also examines future trends in this area, including the prospect of better detection and typing methods for identifying problem areas as well as improved technologies for ensuring milk quality all along the value chain.
Robert L. Jarret, USDA-ARS, USA; Noelle L. Anglin and David Ellis, International Potato Center, Peru; Arthur Villordon, Sweet Potato Research Station, USA; Phillip Wadl and Michael Jackson, USDA-ARS, USA; and Genoveva Rossel, International Potato Center,
Sweetpotato genetic resources: today and tomorrow
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The sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) is the sixth most important food crop on a global scale. While China accounts for about 80% of global production, Nigeria, Uganda, Indonesia and Tanzania are also large producers of sweetpotato. The chapter examines the origin and dispersal of sweetpotato, including archaeological data for the early distribution of the crop, before moving on to considering its general botany. The chapter considers in vitro germplasm storage in sweetpotato genebanks, as well as issues of quality control. The chapter looks at the importance of managing sweetpotato crop wild relatives (CWR) and examines plant quarantine and phytosanitary issues and the status of genebanks under international treaties. The chapter considers a number of specific issues associated with sweetpotato germplasm. Finally, the chapter looks at the application of next-generation sequencing to sweetpotato and its CWR, before looking ahead to future trends in this area.
Ian Heap, International Survey of Herbicide-resistant Weeds, USA
Trends in the development of herbicide-resistant weeds
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Since the mid-1940s, herbicides have been the most cost-effective and efficient method of weed control for agronomic crops. Today, herbicide-resistant weeds, in combination with a decline in industry discovery programmes and a cessation in discovery of new herbicide sites of action, threaten the continued utility of herbicides. Weeds have evolved resistance to 160 different herbicide-active ingredients (23 of the 26 known herbicide sites of action) in 86 crops and in 66 countries. This chapter reviews the various kinds of herbicide resistance, and then considers resistant weeds by site of action, crop, region and weed family. It considers the available strategies for managing herbicide-resistant weeds, but concludes that although herbicides are likely to remain the backbone of agronomic weed control for the next 30 years, their utility will steadily decline, and we need to begin working on new weed control technologies that will eventually replace herbicides.
P. Okinda Owuor, Maseno University, Kenya
The effect of cultivation techniques on tea quality
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The profitability of tea production depends on whether the type of tea produced has the right quality that is acceptable to consumers. However, sensory evaluation of tea alone has been criticized as subjective. This chapter examines the environmental and agronomic factors lying behind tea quality, addressing the chemical quality parameters of tea, the relationship between black tea quality and specific cultivars, the effect of environmental factors such as altitude and temperatures and the relationship between tea quality and agronomic inputs.
Issmat I. Kassem, Yosra A. Helmy, Isaac P. Kashoma and Gireesh Rajashekara, The Ohio State University, USA
The emergence of antibiotic resistance in poultry farms
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The use of antibiotics in poultry farming has enhanced production via effectively controlling infectious diseases and promoting growth of birds, allowing the industry to cope with the increasing consumer demands and provide safe and affordable products. However, the use of antibiotics results in the selection of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including established animal and human pathogens. The emergence and proliferation of resistant pathogens and the cognate decrease in the efficacy of antibiotic therapy pose a concrete risk to public health and sustainable farming. Consequently, the need to tightly regulate the use of antibiotics in poultry farming has been highlighted as a pre-emptory necessity.
Prof. Gary Entrican
Understanding and improving immune function in sheep
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The prevention and control of infectious diseases of sheep can be achieved in a number of ways, including disease screening programmes, implementation of biosecurity measures, chemotherapeutics and vaccination. This chapter describes common diseases of sheep and some commonly used vaccines, and explains why the identification of immunological correlates underpins vaccine design. Focussing on ovine enzootic abortion (OEA) as a case study, the chapter reviews the current capability to study immunology in sheep, discusses barriers to progress and identifies future opportunities for applications of immunology to improve sheep production.
Nicholas B. Anthony , University of Arkansas, USA
A balanced approach to commercial poultry breeding
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Balanced selection aims to move all of the relevant traits of a breed in the direction of the preferred response. This approach takes into account performance traits of growth, yield and feed conversion, but also gives weight to fitness traits such as fertility, hatchability and early chick survivability. This chapter reviews a balanced selection approach as applied to poultry breeding. It begins by discussing resource allocation during rearing to help birds meet their genetic potential, and then reviews how selection programmes for the breeding of poultry have evolved over time. Subsequent sections discuss the pedigree lines leading to commercial products (pipeline genetics), the molecular methods used to guide selection and the connection between balanced selection and improvement of animal welfare.
Felipe H. Barrios-Masias, University of Nevada, USA; Cristina Lazcano, University of California Davis, USA; and Leonardo H. Hernandez-Espinoza, University of Nevada, USA
Advances in understanding vegetable physiology: root systems as the next frontier in improving sustainable vegetable production
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Root systems are responsible for the uptake of water and nutrients needed to support crop growth and development, ameliorate the effects of other stressors and increase vegetable production. Roots are crucial for maintaining plant water status and meeting shoot transpirational demands as the leaves assimilate carbon (C). This chapter focusses on the potential of root traits to support increases in yield, maximize the effective use of resources and provide abiotic stress tolerance in vegetable crops. The chapter discusses root traits and molecular indicators regarding water and nutrient uptake, root-microbe interactions, abiotic stress and technologies for crop improvement. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Laurent Urban, University of Avignon, France; Mônica Maria de Almeida Lopes and Maria Raquel Alcântara de Miranda, Federal University of Ceará, Brazil
The nutritional and nutraceutical/functional properties of mangoes
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Mangoes can be considered a major source of bioactive compounds, notably vitamin C, phenolics (mainly gallic acid) and carotenoids, among which many are provitamin A. This chapter describes the claimed health benefits associated with the antioxidant properties of these compounds, which potentially encompass protection against cardiovascular diseases, metabolic diseases and cancers. The chapter examines specific cell, animal and clinical studies that suggest mango pulp, juice and extract are effective against metabolic diseases and certain forms of cancer. The chapter considers levers that can be used to increase bioactive compounds in mangoes either before or after harvest, and includes a case study on the use of pulsed light to increase concentrations of vitamin C, carotenoids and phenolics.
Inma Estevez, Neiker-Tecnalia and Ikerbasque (The Basque Foundation for Science), Spain ; and Ruth C. Newberry , Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway
The contribution of environmental enrichment to sustainable poultry production
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Environmental enrichment comprises stimuli added to the poultry housing environment to enhance the biological adaptation of the birds and improve their welfare. By promoting species-typical behaviour, it has the potential to reduce the risk of harmful behaviours and health conditions, and to guide birds to use the available resources more uniformly. Environmental enrichment may also promote positive emotional states and enhance the birds’ ability to cope with unpredictable environmental changes. In this chapter, we review environmental enrichment strategies that are relevant to commercial meat poultry production, their benefits in terms of the behaviour and welfare of the birds and their potential for contributing to more efficient and sustainable production models. Potential risks or problems that may arise when environmental enrichment is not appropriately implemented are also discussed, finishing with discussion of current gaps in knowledge and concluding remarks.
Matt Spangler, University of Nebraska, USA
Traditional animal breeding of cattle to improve carcass composition and meat quality
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Genetic selection for carcass attributes such as marbling and tenderness is relatively new compared to selection for growth traits. Estimated breeding values (EBVs) allow for the comparison of animals for their genetic potential as parents for a given trait. This chapter reviews the role of EBVs, how they are calculated and their use in selection for carcass composition and meat quality.
Gerardo Martínez
The integrated management of bud rot disease and Phytophthora palmivora in oil palm
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This chapter provides an overview of research on oil palm bud rot disease which severely affects palm oil production in Central and South America. The chapter reviews the approaches adopted in identifying the causative agent and managing the disease. The chapter describes recent research undertaken by the Colombian Oil Palm Research Centre (Cenipalma) to show Phytophthora palmivora as the causative agent of bud rot, as well as strategies it has developed for controlling its spread throughout oil palm stands. The chapter shows how an understanding of disease biology is critical for developing a successful integrated pest management programme.
Alison Bailey, Lincoln University, New Zealand
Trends in dairy farming and milk production: the case of the United Kingdom and New Zealand
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This chapter reviews the importance of dairy farming to the rural economies of the United Kingdom and New Zealand. It begins by assessing global milk production, considering producer and cow numbers, productivity and trade. It then turns to an examination of the situation in the European Union (EU), which as a whole is the largest milk producer in the world. Marketing structures, production, consumption and trade within this region are reviewed. The next section looks at the United Kingdom (a member state of the European Union at the time of writing). The United Kingdom is the third largest milk producer in the European Union and thirtieth in the world. Finally, the case of New Zealand is reviewed in detail. New Zealand has an almost similar land area to that of the United Kingdom (27 million and 24 million hectares, respectively). However, it is the thirteenth largest milk producer in the world and also the world’s largest exporter of milk products.
Marion O. Harris and Kirk Anderson, North Dakota State University, USA; Mustapha El-Bouhssini, ICARDA, Morocco; Frank Peairs, Colorado State University, USA; Gary Hein, University of Nebraska, USA; and Steven Xu, USDA-ARS Northern Crops Institute, USA
Wheat pests: insects, mites, and prospects for the future
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Wheat pests are the subject of this chapter and the previous one. There are four major taxa of wheat pests. Rodents and nematodes were discussed in the previous chapter. Insects and mites are discussed in this chapter. Case studies are presented for eight species: Hessian fly, orange wheat blossom midge, bird cherry oat aphid, greenbug, Russian wheat aphid, Sunn Pest, wheat stem sawfly and wheat curl mite. We end with a discussion on future prospects for genetically based wheat resistance and new pest management technologies.
Sabrina Vandeplas, Adisseo France SAS, France
Zoonoses affecting poultry: the case of Salmonella
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Salmonella is a major causative organism of gastroenteritis in humans worldwide, and most cases are caused by the consumption of raw or undercooked poultry products. In response to public concern, many countries have introduced survey and control programmes for Salmonella in poultry. However, it remains an economic burden in many areas, and there are emerging risks associated with new serovars. In this chapter, we describe the invasion and transmission mechanisms of Salmonella, review the currently available detection methods and then provide a detailed overview of the strategies available for controlling Salmonella in poultry, with a particular focus on those employed before the meat is harvested.
Dr Dr Ailin Liu
Towards improving the salt tolerance of soybean
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The growth and production of soybean, an important cash crop, are severely restricted by salt stress. Salt-tolerant soybean varieties can contribute to sustainable soybean production. This chapter describes different approaches to developing salt tolerance in soybean, including a study of germplasm resources for salt tolerance, -omic approaches and molecular breeding of salt-tolerant soybean varieties. The chapter looks ahead to future trends and developments in this area.
Laurence Beaudoin-Ollivier, Université de Montpellier and CIRAD Montpellier, France
Insect pests affecting oil palms
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Monocultures – including oil palm – are known to induce strong parasitic pressure. Coleoptera and Lepidoptera are the main insect pests affecting oil palms in all continents where it is cultivated. This chapter offers an overview of the major types of oil palm pests (23 species) that have been selected from among the most damaging groups in Latin America, West Africa, South East Asia and the Pacific as examples for illustrating the relationships found between the oil palm and herbivorous arthropods, before looking ahead to future research trends in the study of oil palm pests.
Ahmad Dermawan, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Indonesia; and Otto Hospes, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Sustainability pathways in oil palm cultivation: a comparison of Indonesia, Colombia and Cameroon
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Oil palm development is a major subject in controversies over sustainable agriculture. Economic benefits are very high due to the crop characteristics and its impact on smallholder development and economic growth. Producer countries have targeted oil palm expansion to meet national and global demands for food and energy. However, oil palm development also has considerable environmental costs in the form of deforestation, loss of biodiversity and greenhouse gas emissions. In this article, the concept of sustainable pathways is used to describe how sustainability issues are being addressed in three different countries: Indonesia, Colombia and Cameroon.
John R. Teasdale, ARS-USDA, USA
The use of rotations and cover crops to manage weeds
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Crop rotation has been known for many years as an effective strategy for controlling weeds because it has a disruptive effect on weed populations. Cover crops are important additions to cash crop rotations because they suppress weeds during rotational periods when crops are absent and provide ecosystem services that enhance soil quality and fertility. This chapter describes current research on crop phenological diversity and management disturbance diversity, before suggesting new analytical frameworks for assessing the multifunctional properties and overall sustainability of cover crops and crop rotations. The chapter looks forward to future developments in this area and provides suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Dr Dr Arlene Garcia
Welfare of weaned piglets
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Demands for improved animal welfare and animal handling systems from governments, non-government organizations and consumers are increasing. The weaning period in pork production has particular potential to positively impact animals. This chapter focuses on current practices that can be detrimental to piglet well-being, improvements to these practices, and advances in technology that could improve animal well-being, profitability and sustainability.
Albrecht Serfl ing, Doris Kopahnke, Antje Habekuss, Flutur ë Novakazi and Frank Ordon, Julius K ü hn-Institute (JKI), Institute for Resistance Research and Stress Tolerance, Germany
Wheat diseases: an overview
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Fungal and viral pathogens lead to significant yield losses in wheat crops worldwide. This chapter reviews the important fungal and viral diseases of wheat, considering their mode of infection, symptoms, distribution and effect on wheat yield. Responses to each pathogen are discussed, including adaptations to wheat production systems, the use of fungicides and insecticides, and improvement of the resistance of wheat to pathogens. Particular emphasis is placed on resistance of wheat as the most cost-effective and environmentally friendly form of plant protection.
Prashant Jha, Montana State University, USA; and Krishna N Reddy, USDA-ARS, USA
The role of herbicide-resistant crops in integrated weed management
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Herbicide-resistant (HR) crops have been a boon for farmers who have adopted them as they provided simple, flexible and economical tool to manage a broad spectrum of weeds and weeds resistant to other herbicides. This chapter reviews the major types of HR crop (commercialized or under development), their benefits and pitfalls. It also discusses how they can fit into an integrated weed management (IWM) programme.
Christopher Teh Boon Sung, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia; and Cheah See Siang, Sime Darby Research Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia
Modelling crop growth and yield in palm oil cultivation
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Since the development of the first semi-mechanistic oil palm model, OPSIM, the development of new oil palm models has increased in frequency, aiming to take into account aspects of oil palm physiology and the physical processes and causal relationships between the environment and the crop. This chapter describes the development of a new oil palm growth and yield model called PySawit. The chapter discusses the evaluation of PySawit’s accuracy when its predictions were compared with several measured parameters of growth and yield in oil palm aged 1–19 years. The chapter includes a full explanation of the methodology of the model and discussion of its results.
David Chikoye, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Zambia; Friday Ekeleme, Stefan Hauser, Abebe Menkir and Alpha Y. Kamara, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; Peter Neuenschwander and Obinna Ajuonu, Intern
Weeds affecting field crops and water bodies in sub-Saharan Africa
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In sub-Saharan Africa, weeds are a serious challenge, undermining food security and economic development. Weeds interfere with various human activities. Despite the different classes of weeds based on habitat (terrestrial or aquatic), life cycle (annual or perennial) or morphology (dicots or monocots), they possess common characteristics such as competitiveness, persistence and cause economic losses. This chapter considers integrated management techniques for a range of weeds, including spear grass (Imperata cylindrica), Striga hermonthica and floating aquatic weeds. The chapter examines the role of Chromolaena odorata in the humid tropics and control measures against it, as well as considering weed control in plantain and cassava systems. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Ann C. Kennedy, USDA-ARS and Washington State University, USA
The use of bacteria in integrated weed management
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Annual grass weeds are increasing as a dominant weed species in the western United States, Canada and Mexico. Downy brome, one of the most widespread, invasive annual grass weeds, negatively affects cereal yields, reduces forage quality in grazing lands, degrades rangelands, and increases the fire frequency of western lands. This chapter reviews how naturally-occurring bacteria were screened to find those that suppress downy brome but do not harm native plants and crops, and how one such bacterial strain, Pseudomonas fluorescens strain ACK55, was identified as able to a reduce downy brome root formation, root growth, and tiller initiation. It then discusses long-term field trials in the western US, in which application of the bacteria resulted in almost complete suppression of downy brome for three to five years after one application, when desirable plants were present.
Dr Tina Widowski
Welfare of laying hens: an overview
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Although the majority of the world’s laying hens are still housed in conventional (‘battery’) cages, public concern for the welfare of laying hens is rapidly changing the methods by which eggs are being produced and marketed in many regions of the world. However, alternative housing systems have their own costs and associated welfare problems, as well as benefits. There are also various welfare concerns for laying hens which are not based solely on how adult laying hens are housed. In this chapter we provide an overview of the current state of knowledge on the major welfare issues for laying hens, including the welfare trade-offs involved with different housing systems, the behavioural requirements of laying hens, the issue of injurious pecking and skeletal health concerns. We also identify new and emerging issues that are directing future research in the area.
Wenyan Han, Xin Li, Peng Yan, Liping Zhang and Golam Jalal Ahammed, Tea Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (TRI, CAAS), China
Tea cultivation under changing climatic conditions
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Predicted climate change is likely to pose a major threat to normal tea cultivation. This chapter reviews the effects that climate change is likely to have on which regions are suitable for tea production and the duration of the plucking period. We consider how tea production might be improved by temperature increase and CO2 elevation, but also discuss the negative effects of heavy rains, frosts, the proliferation of pests and diseases and soil degradation. We suggest that tea quality is likely to deteriorate due to the imbalance in the ratio of free amino acids to polyphenols. Appropriate planning for adaptation and mitigation needs to be developed and extended for sustainable development of the tea industry. The adaption and mitigation strategies should have three levels: government policy, R&D for new technologies and techniques and community involvement and technology extension, which should be integrated and implemented immediately.
James Lowenberg-DeBoer, Harper Adams University, UK
The economics of precision agriculture
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This chapter reviews data on the use of precision agriculture (PA) in agronomic crops production, examines whether economic research has correctly predicted PA technologies adopted by farmers and identifies several PA technologies that recent economic research has identified as having profit and adoption potential. Data shows mechanized farmers adopted global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) guidance technologies rapidly. Those same data show that use of variable rate technology (VRT) grew more slowly. The review of the economics research shows that by the late 1990s economists understood that GNSS guidance and related technologies were likely to be widely adopted in the longer run and they were raising questions about the profitability of VRT. Studies over the last decade show that the most economically promising PA technologies include sensor-driven VRT N, agricultural robotics, artificial intelligence (AI) and big data, and PA for medium and small farms.
S. Hauser and F. Ekeleme, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria
Weed control in cassava cropping systems
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Weed control in cassava fields appears to have received highly variable levels of attention on the different continents where cassava is grown, despite clear messages from farming communities on its importance. Moreover, although grasses and broadleaved weeds are perceived as a major problem in cassava cultivation, the crop is one of the few without concrete chemical and mechanical weed control options. This chapter will discuss the effects of weeds on cassava root yields, farmers’ perceptions of the importance of weed control and the control methods used in different cropping systems. The focus is primarily on Africa, due to the fact that the continent accounts for the largest portion of global cassava production, weed control is not as well developed there and weeds pose a larger threat to livelihoods in Africa than in South America or Asia.
J. I. Sanz, M. Mosquera, J. A. Beltrán, Cenipalma, Colombia
Closing yield gaps for small- and medium-scale oil palm producers: improving cultivation practices
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The proportion of small- and medium-scale growers in the Colombian oil palm sector has increased in recent years both in terms of land area planted and in terms of number of growers. However, a yield gap has been found among producers, which depends upon their size, with large-scale producers attaining average yields of 6.6 ton FFB/ha per year, higher than those obtained by small- and medium-scale producers. One reason that could explain this yield gap is the lack of adoption of technologies that could overcome yield-limiting factors. This chapter makes use of a detailed case study of strategies implemented by Cenipalma in Colombia to narrow the yield gap between large and small oil palm producers, including the use of organic matter on palm stands and improved irrigation. The chapter proposes future lines of research on further improving the efficiency of oil palm production at both large and small scales.
Philippe Roumagnac, CIRAD, France; Dimitre Mollov, USDA-ARS, USA; and Jean-Heinrich Daugrois and Denis Filloux, CIRAD, France
Viral metagenomics and sugarcane pathogens
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Plant viral metagenomics has recently proved effective for studying the collection of plant viruses. The advent of metagenomics-based approaches has led to the discovery and characterization of new plant viruses. This chapter describes the plant virus metagenomics methods developed during the last decade and their application in sugarcane pathology. The chapter includes recent studies that have used viral metagenomics-based approaches both to detect existing viruses and identify new viruses. It also looks at the use of these techniques to study the genetic diversity of viruses such as the sugarcane yellow leaf virus.
M. Bagavathiannan, Texas A&M University, USA; W. Everman, North Carolina State University, USA; P. Govindasamy, Texas A&M University, USA; A. Dille and M. Jugulam, Kansas State University, USA; and J. Norsworthy, University of Arkansas, USA
Weed management in sorghum cultivation
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Sorghum is, and will remain, an important crop in the USA, especially in marginal environments due to its low input requirements and high resilience. Weed management is a key production challenge for sorghum, and the herbicide tools available are very limited, particularly for post-emergence (POST) control of grass weeds. The weedy relatives such as shattercane and johnsongrass present challenges for selective control in sorghum due to genetic similarities. This chapter presents a number of weed management options and considerations for sorghum, and discusses the critical period for weed control, placing an emphasis on pre-emergence (PRE) control of grasses and other tough-to-control annual weeds. It is concluded that an integrated weed management approach, encompassing a strategic application of PRE and POST herbicides used in combination with non-chemical tactics, will be critical to achieving sustainable weed management in sorghum.
Dr Louis Jean Claude Autrey
The development of sugarcane cultivation
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Sugarcane is considered one of the most efficient plants on the planet given its capacity to transform solar energy into chemical energy with high carbon fixation rates. It has traditionally been exploited for sucrose production, but has now also gained importance for energy and ethanol production from bagasse and molasses, two major co-products from sugar processing. This chapter provides an overview of the history of sugarcane and the variety of species, as well as a description of the features of the plant. The chapter introduces breeding, agronomic practices in sugarcane and milling. Finally, the chapter examines types of sugarcane cultivated today and looks ahead to future research and development in this area, and provides suggestions for further reading on this subject.
Estelle Jaligot, CIRAD, UMR DIADE (IRD, UM), France
Advances in understanding oil palm reproductive development
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As for many other crops, yield components of oil palm rely partly on the optimal implementation of its reproductive development. As a result, studies focusing on the mechanisms underlying sex ratio determination, inflorescence development or fruit maturation have rapidly multiplied, significantly improving our comprehension of these processes. Because the influence of the environment on plant development is multiple and since climate models predict large-scale changes in the areas where the oil palm is presently cultivated, current research is increasingly focusing on investigating the effects of such changes on both the physiology and the productivity of the plant, in a bid to help breeding schemes adapt to new requirements regarding stress adaptation traits.
D. Luján-Rhenals, University of Arkansas Fayetteville, USA and Universidad de Córdoba, Columbia, R. Morawicki, University of Arkansas Fayetteville, USA, E. J. Van Loo, University of Arkansas Fayetteville, USA and Ghent University, Belgium and S. C. Rick
Waste management and emissions in poultry processing
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A major contributor to emissions and to waste generation in food production is the poultry slaughter-processing plants, especially because one of the greatest sources of indirect emissions from food consumption in the European Union and the United States is the consumption of meat. Quantifying the effects of these emissions is crucial to the successful initiation of strategies to reduce the poultry-processing plant’s environmental footprint. Approximately 15% of poultry greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are generated from multiple sources during post-harvest operations. Operations such as bleed out, scalding and evisceration have the most significant impact on the poultry processing waste stream. The aim of this chapter is to review and analyse what is currently known about the environmental impact of conventional and non-conventional poultry production and processing and discuss where data limitations exist.
Roger W. Elmore, Rodrigo Werle and Charles Wortmann, University of Nebraska, USA; Phinehas Tukamuhabwa, Makerere University, Uganda; and Nathan Mueller, University of Nebraska, USA
Sustainable soybean production research and practice: contrasting case studies from three soybean production areas
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Good agricultural practices (GAPs) vary within and among production systems. Improved production technology and favourable weather result in increased productivity in many parts of the world, but not everywhere. Our objective here is to address the question of whether we produce soybean sustainably. We focus on three case studies – Nebraska/U.S., Brazil and Uganda – to compare and contrast current production practices with research-based information on GAPs, while focusing on production system sustainability. In all three cases, abundant opportunities exist to overcome production constraints while improving sustainability.
R. M. Gous and C. Fisher, University of KwaZulu-Natal and EFG Software, South Africa
Using models to optimize poultry nutrition
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Today’s commercial poultry production is about making decisions and implementing them, the main objective being to maximize profit for the enterprise. Alternative courses of action should be thought of and the consequences of these actions need to be predicted. Animal nutritionists face various problems when formulating feeds for poultry. Advances in simulation modelling have made it possible to look into all aspects of production when formulating feeds for animals. This chapter deals with these issues and looks at the use of simulation models to optimize poultry production. The goal of nutritionists and modellers is to predict the responses of the poultry to nutrients. This chapter looks into this issue. The chapter also describes the methods used to predict the potential laying performance of hens and the environmental factors that affect the desired feed intake. Finally, this chapter also explains how models can be used to optimize feeding programmes.
Dr Biksham Gujja
The Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative
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With ever-growing demands for sugar and difficulties in expanding cane area to meet such demands, increasing cane productivity per unit area, but with a reduced ecological footprint, has become imperative. The Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) addresses these concerns. This chapter describes the origins of SSI, its basic principles and the significance of tillering architecture, as well as giving an account of SSI field trials in India. The chapter outlines the expansion of SSI to Africa and Latin America and looks ahead to future challenges and developments in this area.
Emeritus Prof. Norman R. Scott
‘Towards’ sustainability of dairy farming: an overview
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There are many challenges to be faced in making dairy farming sustainable for feeding 9–10 billion people by 2050. This chapter defines what sustainability may mean for the dairy industry and assesses the current sustainability of dairy farming today, before going on to consider visions for a sustainable short-term future. These include emerging technologies such as integrating an ethanol producing plant with a dairy and making use of fuel cells. The chapter speculates on the longer term future of the industry up to 2050 and beyond.
P. N. Bhattacharyya and S. R. Sarmah, Tocklai Tea Research Institute, India
The role of microbes in tea cultivation
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Tea crops can suffer from nutrient deficiencies, attack by a variety of pests and pathogens and climatic stresses, which result in considerable crop losses. However, the application of synthetic chemicals to alleviate crop loss has exerted a detrimental impact on the tea ecosystem. Plant growth–promoting microorganisms play an essential role in maintaining sustainable tea cultivation and ecosystem restoration, thereby promoting primary productivity and inducing systemic resistance of plants to diverse pests and diseases. Beneficial soil microorganisms may exhibit mechanisms such as phosphate solubilization, siderophore production, biological nitrogen fixation, potash mobilization, rhizosphere engineering and production of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase and phytohormone in plants. This chapter summarizes and discusses recent progress regarding the understanding of tea soil microflora and its significance to tea plantations. The selection of microbial bioagents might represent a reliable component in the management of significant tea diseases in order to achieve sustainable tea production.
John Fulton, The Ohio State University, USA
Variable-rate seeding systems for precision agriculture
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Variable-rate seeding (VRS) is the practice of adjusting the seeding rate or amount across a field in order to maximize yield and profit. This method of precision agriculture relies on site-specific data such as soil type, landscape position and yield maps. In the last decade, adoption of this method has dramatically increased as new planter technologies have emerged. This chapter summarizes current practices in VRS, reviewing the available technology and discussing the key strategies in its implementation. It also discusses the economic value of VRS, and the environments in which it could produce the greatest economic return.
Dr Dr Nicolas Guyot
Understanding the natural antibacterial defences of egg white and their regulation
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Egg white is poor in the nutrients needed by microorganisms and exhibits remarkable antimicrobial properties. Therefore, it participates in protecting both hatching and table eggs from bacterial contamination. This chapter offers a comprehensive overview of the natural defences of egg white and of key parameters controlling hygienic quality and bacterial growth in egg white. In Sections 2 through 4, major and minor egg white proteins with antibacterial properties are described, with particular emphasis on their mode of action and their relative importance. Section 5 discusses the physicochemical and environmental conditions influencing bacterial growth or the activity of antibacterial proteins. Section 6 then covers hen-associated factors influencing the natural defences of egg white. Finally, Sections 7 and 8 explore the physicochemical and antibacterial properties observed in egg white during egg storage and incubation. They also highlight innovative methods to maintain or increase egg white antimicrobial activities.
Dr Tinashe Chiurugwi
Supporting smallholders in improving wheat cultivation
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We present an overview of how research and development (R&D) can support smallholder wheat farmers (i.e. wheat farmers with limited access to resources and services), reviewing published research and presenting a case study based on our ongoing wheat technology transfer project in Kenya. Global wheat consumption is increasing rapidly, and most developing countries rely on imports to fulfil national demands. This presents an opportunity for smallholder wheat producers, but a range of factors limit their productivity, generally affecting female farmers more than male farmers. Transfer of research results to smallholder farmers’ fields has had significant impact, although slow. The case study aims to gather information to support effective knowledge and technology transfer.
Sandrine Petit and David A. Bohan, UMR Agroécologie, AgroSup Dijon, INRA, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, France
The use of insects in integrated weed management
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Seed predation by insects is a potentially promising approach to the regulation of weeds that could offset herbicide use as part of integrated weed management. Using the example of carabid beetles, as the most intensively studied grouping of insect weed seed predators, this chapter describes the current state of knowledge in this subject area and highlights future research trends. The chapter examines the interaction between weeds and predator communities and assesses how fields and landscapes can be managed to enhance weed seed predation. The chapter looks at the level of weed regulation that can realistically be expected from this approach, and provides a detailed case study from the United Kingdom.
Atik Dharmadi, Research Institute for Tea and Cinchona, Indonesia
Supporting smallholders in tea cultivation
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This chapter describes how smallholder organization can be strengthened to support tea cultivation. Smallholders are weak in terms of productivity owing to low yields and lack of working capital in comparison with large state-owned and private plantations. The chapter describes how the transition from a smallholders’ group to a smallholder-owned company can be managed, and reviews existing literature on smallholder development and lessons that can be learned in this area. It examines the ways in which smallholder-owned companies compete and form partnerships, and looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Ingunn Stensland, Linley Valley Pork, Australia and John R. Pluske, Murdoch University, Australia
Use of probiotics and prebiotics in pig nutrition in the post-weaning period
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Prebiotics and probiotics have attracted considerable interest as alternatives or replacements for growth-promoting antibiotics and/or some heavy metals in diets for pigs, particularly in the post-weaning period where the newly weaned pig is subject to considerable challenges in its new environment. This chapter briefly reviews the microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract of the young pig and the important role it plays in the early stages of life. The chapter then defines probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics, in addition to reviewing the research conducted on the topic, including a case study where a probiotic product (Peribios™) has been used commercially to modulate the production around parturition. Finally, it looks ahead for possible future trends and offers suggestions on where to look for more information on the topic.
Apiradee Uthairatanakij
Understanding post-harvest deterioration of mangoes
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Post-harvest deterioration in the quality of mangoes is determined in large measure by pre-harvest factors ranging from the cultivar grown to orchard management and harvest practices. This chapter describes the changes related to ripening in mangoes and the pre-harvest, in-harvest and post-harvest practices which can lead to deterioration or damage. The chapter also addresses measures that can be taken to modify mangoes to reduce the risk of deterioration and damage, including fruit thinning and individual fruit bagging or nets. The chapter discusses viable and cost-effective solutions to mango damage and deterioration and looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Willmar L. Leiser
Sorghum tolerance to low-phosphorus soil conditions
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Many sorghum growing areas in Africa are affected by phosphorus (P) scarcity. In these areas small-scale farmers depend on sorghum for food security and income, but have difficulty accessing or paying for P fertilizer. With the expected future price increases for P fertilizer, this problem is likely to increase. Enhancing sorghum tolerance to low P soil conditions is therefore of great importance both now and for the future. This chapter first gives an overview of the worldwide P challenge, and then focuses on the challenges of breeding sorghum for low soil P conditions, taking breeding for smallholder farmers in West Africa as a case study. We summarize the implications for applied sorghum breeding in West Africa, and review the future trends and challenges (both breeding and agronomic/socioeconomic) in bringing benefits of sorghum low-P tolerance to West African farmers.
Francis X. Johnson, Stockholm Environment Institute, Sweden
Sugarcane as a renewable resource for sustainable futures
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Sugarcane is not only the main source of sucrose but also the world’s most important energy crop with an important role in the global sustainability transition, owing to its high productivity, its concentration in developing and emerging economies and the wide array of commercial products that it can provide. This chapter describes the diversification of sugarcane production systems into multiple energy and non-energy products, improving economic competitiveness and environmental sustainability. The chapter examines how improved sugarcane production can contribute to social equality where good governance and inclusive institutions are designed and implemented. It also focuses on sustainability assessment, including the entire supply chain from cultivation through end use. The chapter finally describes the development of bio-refineries using sugarcane as feedstock and examines the ways in which efficient and effective use of sugarcane resources supports sustainable development pathways.
C. J. C. Phillips, University of Queensland, Australia
Understanding the behaviour of dairy cattle
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In recent years, I have developed the necessary tools to gain a thorough understanding of cow behaviour in intensive management systems. This improved understanding can facilitate the design of new, sustainable management systems, which promote cattle welfare. In this chapter, I provide an overview of the study of cattle preferences and behaviour. I consider the importance of understanding the perceptual world of cows, and then how the preferences and emotions of cows are revealed through their social, nutritional and reproductive behaviour; their movements; and their responses during transport and slaughter. Careful research to identify cows’ emotional responses to increasingly artificial environments should facilitate the identification of systems that are more conducive to high levels of welfare.
Shipra Singh and Anita Pandey, G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, India; and Lok Man S. Palni, Graphic Era University, India
The role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in tea cultivation
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Continuous application of chemical fertilizers in tea gardens may increase production, but it adversely affects the quality of tea. There is therefore growing interest in rhizosphere associates of tea, including symbionts such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). These colonize tea plant roots and support both growth and improvement in the quality-related parameters of tea. This chapter reviews the use of AMF-based bio-inoculants in tea cultivation. It begins by discussing the range of AMF associated with tea and their effects on the tea rhizosphere. We consider the development of an AMF-based bioformulation for use in tea plantations, and then review the effects of using such a bioformulation on both tea plant growth and tea quality.
Agustin Zsogon, University Fedefrale de Vicosa, Brazil
Understanding and improving water-use efficiency and drought resistance in tomato
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The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is both a well-established genetic model for plant biology and a horticultural cash crop of increasing importance to human nutrition. Tomato is mainly cultivated under irrigated conditions, so water use is of considerable significance for healthy plant growth and adequate yield. This chapter reviews recent advances in tomato physiology, with particular emphasis on the promising convergence between developmental physiology and water relations. It also endeavours to integrate recent findings with selected earlier studies, and includes a case study of the potential of the wild species Solanum pennellii as a source of drought-resistance for cultivated tomatoes.
Dr R. Perumal
Sorghum breeding for biotic stress tolerance
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Sorghum breeding is poised to take advantage of remarkable advances in genomics and molecular technologies. Thus, while classical breeding methods have been successful in identifying and incorporating resistance to biotic stresses, this chapter will feature the use of the new tools and technologies that can inform, simplify and accelerate breeding of improved sorghums. We also aim to document many of the previously discovered genetic sources of resistance, since these will be of use with rapidly developing technologies for gene editing and gene transfer. We first review recent classical and molecular developments relating to the major biotic stresses of sorghum, which include diseases (fungal, bacterial and viral), pests, the witchweed, Striga, and nematodes. We go on to consider the structure and function of resistance of ‘R’ genes and their deployment.
Prof. Barbara J. Stoecker
Sorghum as a food grain
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Grain sorghum is the fifth most produced cereal crop in the world, preceded only by rice, wheat, corn and barley, and it is a dietary staple for more than half a billion people in more than 30 countries. Sorghum is a principal food in areas of Africa and Asia as well as being used as a raw material for alcoholic drinks and beverages. This chapter describes the protein and starch make-up of sorghum and the effects of cooking and processing sorghum on its digestibility and nutrient availability. It also assesses the protein quality of sorghum for human use, describes the sensory and functional characteristics of food products containing sorghum and outlines the health benefits of sorghum.
Sami Dridi, University of Arkansas, USA
Understanding feed and water intake in poultry
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Feed and water efficiency are two vital economic and agricultural traits. Selection for phenotypic feed efficiency has tremendously improved livestock productivity over the past 50 years. However, there have been a number of undesirable changes in the regulation of energy homeostasis and probably water balance associated with this success. Feed and water efficiency encompasses complex mechanisms regulating feed and water intake, energy expenditure, water retention and excretion, and intermediary metabolism related to nutrient and water utilization and partition. Knowledge of these should be used to guide more effective selection. This chapter focuses first on feed intake regulation, offering a review of current understanding of both central feed intake regulation and peripheral and hormonal regulation. It then turns to the issue of the regulation of water homeostasis. It aims to facilitate further progress by asking new questions which may help in developing mechanisms-based strategies to improve both feed and water efficiency.
Yasumi Horimoto, University of Guelph, Canada and Hajime Hatta, Kyoto Women’s University, Japan
The nutritional and physiological functions of egg yolk components
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Eggs are of particular interest in nutrition because they contain all the nutrients necessary for human health, except for dietary fibre and vitamin C. The aim of this chapter is to discuss current trends in the study of nutritional and physiological functions of egg yolk. In particular, we will focus on the bioactive components derived from egg yolk (focusing on proteins/peptides and lipids), issues related to egg cholesterol and recent applications of IgY. Research on other areas such as sialic acids and lutein is covered, although in less detail. To place these trends in context, a brief overview of background knowledge about egg yolks is also provided. This chapter updates and expands on the review provided by Hatta et al. (2008).
Megh R. Goyal, formerly University of Puerto Rico , Puerto Rico
Trickle irrigation systems
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Trickle irrigation is the practice of dripping water into soil at very low rates, using outlets placed closed to the plant to ensure targeted application to the root zone. Since the 1950s, trickle irrigation technology has become increasingly advanced and widespread. It is believed that the technique will become still more important with the depletion of existing water resources and the long-term effects of climate change. The present chapter focuses on surface trickle irrigation, presenting a summary of the basic components of the technology, before discussing the main advantages and disadvantages of the technique. Trickle irrigation makes use of water in a highly efficient way, in that it avoids typical causes of water loss and allows poorer-quality water to be used. However, trickle irrigation systems are costly to install and challenging to maintain. There is a need to develop cheaper, small-scale trickle irrigation systems that are better suited to smallholder needs.
K. Wang and A. K. Handa, Purdue University, USA; and A. K. Mattoo, USDA-ARS, USA
Understanding and improving the shelf life of tomatoes
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The shelf life of tomatoes is regulated via a myriad of physiological, biochemical and environmental processes. Tomato, a climacteric fruit, undergoes increases in respiration and ethylene production at the onset of ripening; once the ripening process is initiated it cannot be reversed. Ripening is associated with marked changes in gene expression, regulating the biosynthesis of a large number of catabolic enzymes, including cell wall hydrolases implicated in fruit softening. This chapter explores the advantages and disadvantages of cultivating ripening-impaired tomato mutants and genetically engineered genotypes characterized by inhibition of the ripening process. It shows how control of tomato diseases during both pre-harvest and post-harvest operations can avoid devastating losses, and considers the use of ethylene inhibitors, such as aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG), and 1-MCP, post-harvest management through modified atmosphere packaging, temperature and humidity control, and off-vine ripening of mature green tomato fruit during transit or the marketing chain.
Sanford D. Eigenbrode, University of Idaho, USA; and Sarina Macfadyen, CSIRO, Australia
The impact of climate change on wheat insect pests: current knowledge and future trends
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Assessments of sustainability of wheat production systems under climate change must eventually include projected impacts on pests, weeds and diseases. Generating these projections is challenging because of the various mechanisms by which climate change can influence prevalence and impacts of these biotic constraints on production are diverse, and data are limited. This chapter reviews the literature on the potential impact of climate change on principal insect pests of wheat, the different methods that have been employed to assess likely impacts, and the gaps in knowledge that exist. It suggests a research agenda to address these gaps.
S. A. Clay and S. A. Bruggeman, South Dakota State University, USA
Site-specific weed management
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Weeds vary in species and density across fields, but an attempt at uniform management is typically implemented. In this chapter, we review the definition and underpinnings of site-specific weed management, and discuss how information about weed spatial and temporal variability can be used to determine if weed management strategies should be varied by location. We consider how data regarding weed distribution can first be collected using satellites, aerial platforms and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and then verified (ground-truthed) by scouting. We also review the advantages of site-specific weed management, as well as the major factors which stand in the way of its adoption.
M. L. Thonney, Cornell University, USA
Sheep nutrition: formulated diets
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The primary feeds for sheep are renewable and contain high concentrations of components that are not suitable for human consumption, making sheep farming sustainable. In some economies, maize, barley, sorghum, wheat, soya beans, rapeseed and their by-products are inexpensive enough to be fed strategically during some stages of the life cycle of sheep. This chapter provides a general overview of sheep nutrient requirements, discusses the measurable components of sheep feeds that supply those nutrients (including fermentable fibre), and suggests practical methods of combining feed ingredients to achieve functional supplements and diets.
Jennifer M. Young, North Dakota State University, USA
Transport and lairage of pigs
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Defects in meat quality cost the swine industry millions of dollars each year. Reduction in stress prior to slaughter can help alleviate these costs. This chapter describes the main events that may contribute to pre-slaughter stress and their impacts on animal welfare and pork quality, from on-farm loading facilities and handling to transportation, lairage and handling at the slaughter facility. The chapter evaluates the effects of different pre-slaughter events on animal welfare and pork quality, and describes what producers, truck drivers and slaughter facilities need to do in order to mitigate these factors.
M. S. Lilburn and R. Shanmugasundaram, Ohio State University, USA
The effect of incubation temperature on embryonic development in poultry
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The aim of this chapter is to examine the specific effects of exogenous and endogenous heat on embryonic growth during different stages of incubation, with an emphasis on controlled incubation temperature studies. The chapter explores the challenges inherent in establishing a temperature recommendation for incubation of poultry eggs, and considers forms of pre-incubation holding as well as the outcomes of both early and late incubation temperatures. Finally, the chapter addresses the connection between incubation temperatures and poultry immunology, as well as thermal manipulations and the potential impact on moderating post-hatch heat stress in chicks. Suggestions on where to find further information is provided as well as suggestions for future lines of research in this area.
Dr Dr Sambasivam Periyannan
Trends in exploring wheat and barley germplasm for novel disease resistance traits
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Wheat and barley are major food crops grown for human consumption worldwide, yet the sustained production of these important cereals continues to be threatened by rapidly evolving fungal pathogens. This chapter highlights recent advancements in phenotyping, genotyping and other breeding technologies that have the potential to speed up the discovery and utilisation of new sources of disease resistance for wheat and barley. Technologies covered include Focused Identification of Germplasm Strategy (FIGS), speed breeding, genome-wide association studies and genomic selection. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Susanne Padel, The Organic Research Centre, UK
Setting and reviewing standards for organic farming
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One of the cornerstones of organic farming is the fact that it is governed by clear standards which are legally protected in many parts of the world, but there is concern that the current certification system does not fully safeguard the objectives and principles of the movement and encourage further improvements in sustainability. The chapter provides a brief history of organic standard development, and introduces the values and principles of organic farming that have guided this process. The chapter discusses advantages and disadvantages of the different types of rules currently used to achieve common objectives, such as prohibitions or obligations to use specified inputs and practices. The chapter explores whether trends in sustainability assessment could help to close the gap between ambition and rules, concluding that research can improve the evidence base, evaluate the impact of standards and produce a better understanding of the barriers that prevent new producers from converting to organic farming.
Richard K. Gast, USDA-ARS, USA
Sampling and detection of Salmonella in eggs
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The detection of Salmonella in the edible internal contents of eggshells provides the most incontrovertible and epidemiologically relevant evidence that laying flocks might pose a threat to consumers. Accordingly, dependable tests for Salmonella in eggs remain essential for achieving public health objectives. Research has helped explain how eggs are contaminated by Salmonella, where the pathogen is deposited and how it potentially multiplies during egg storage, and what types of assays are best able to find contaminants. However, effective utilization of egg testing results is constrained by the methodological challenges of rapidly detecting contamination, which occurs at extremely low cell numbers and prevalence.
Shlomo Yahav, Institute of Animal Science, ARO, Israel
Thermal adaptation and tolerance of poultry
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Fowls are endothermic species controlling body temperature (Tb) within a relatively narrow range, despite moderate to extreme changes in environmental conditions. Tb is recognized as the main characteristic that reflects thermal status. Significant developments in the genetic selection of domestic fowl enhanced performance-improved feed efficiency and increased metabolic rate, leading to low capability to balance energy expenditure and maintain body water balance under extreme environmental conditions. This chapter will focus on the effect of combinations of environmental conditions (temperature, ventilation, relative humidity) on thermal status and performance parameters of broilers, turkeys and laying hens. Furthermore, it will offer the use of epigenetic temperature adaptation during embryogenesis as a tool to improve thermotolerance and performance.
Jungsoo Joo, University of Maryland, USA; Aishwarya Pradeep Rao, University of Maryland and University of Arizona, USA; and Debabrata Biswas, University of Maryland, USA
Safety management on the poultry farm
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Transmission and colonization of poultry pathogens and infectious diseases can be controlled, and the colonization of major zoonotic pathogens in the poultry can be minimized, through better farm safety management, phytosanitary measures and a pre-harvest Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. Such safety management practice can also significantly reduce food safety challenges that are present during post-harvest processing and packaging, improve the microbial quality of poultry products, better protect consumer health and mitigate environmental contamination. Appropriate control of pest and wildlife infiltration and a well-designed, low-stress environment are fundamental to maintaining optimal flock health. Safety training and education of breeders, farmers, suppliers and workers are essential to produce healthy birds while ensuring that poultry farming remains sustainable and economical.
Walter Bottje and Byung-Whi Kong, University of Arkansas, USA
The cellular basis of feed efficiency in poultry muscle: mitochondria and nucleic acid metabolism
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Feed is one of the most significant costs involved in animal production, and feed efficiency is therefore a very important genetic trait in animal agriculture. In poultry, a clear link between breast muscle mitochondrial function and feed efficiency has been reported. This chapter provides an overview of the mitochondrial processes which occur in muscle cells, presents the evidence that enhanced mitochondrial functions lead to high feed efficiency, and then considers the role of enhanced nucleotide metabolism and muscle cytoarchitecture in the feed efficiency of broilers.
