Traceability, or rapid access to knowledge of the history, treatment and location of cattle and beef products through supply chains, is of paramount importance to food safety investigations, corrective actions and product recalls. This chapter defines traceability as applied to beef before describing in detail methods of unique identification for cattle, such as radio-frequency identification and DNA profiling. The chapter explores the traceability of beef offered by barcoding and provides a case study of cattle and beef traceability through a supply chain from farm to retail using a distributed network, along with detailed suggestions for further reading on the subject.
David C. Barrett, Kristen K. Reyher, Andrea Turner and David A. Tisdall, University of Bristol, UK
Responsible and sustainable use of medicines in dairy herd health
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As well as having a moral obligation to safeguard animal health and welfare, veterinarians and dairy producers also have One Health responsibilities to protect human health and the environment from the risk of antimicrobial resistance and the food chain from medicine residues. This chapter describes the regulatory control of medicines in the United Kingdom and European Union, and discusses the wider implications of antimicrobial use in dairy production and the need for change in the way we view and use medicines. The chapter proposes how medicine prescribing practices might be changed in the dairy industry, and reports data showing that certain critically important antimicrobials can be phased out over a relatively short period, whilst simultaneously improving animal health, welfare and milk production.
Dr Michael Blümmel
The use and abuse of cereals, legumes and crop residues in rations for dairy cattle
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The production of animal feed requires a significant amount of water, competes with food production through the allocation of arable land, and restricts organic matter availability for soil health. Once feed is consumed, inefficient conversion then contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and other pollution. When choosing feed sources and feeding methods, it is therefore essential to consider context-specific trade-off analyses and optimization strategies, and to take into account the relationships between use of natural resources, feed products and the livestock in question. This chapter will review key elements in trade-off analysis and explore opportunities for and limitations to making better use of existing feed resources and producing more feed biomass of higher fodder quality with reduced environmental foot print.
Marion O. Harris, North Dakota State University, USA; Jens Jacob, Julius K ü hn-Institut, Germany; Peter Brown, CSIRO, Australia; and Guiping Yan, North Dakota State University, USA
Wheat pests: introduction, rodents and nematodes
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Three major groups of organisms cause biotic stress in wheat: pests, diseases and weeds. This chapter and the chapter that follows are about wheat pests. Three major pest taxa affect wheat: rodents, nematodes and arthropods. Rodents and nematodes are introduced in this first chapter, along with unique features of pests and wheat pest management. Insect and mite arthropod pests are introduced in the second chapter.
John M. Brameld, David M. Brown and Tim Parr, University of Nottingham, UK
The use of growth promoters in pig nutrition
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This chapter will describe the use of growth promoters in pigs, specifically growth hormone (GH) and beta-adrenergic agonist (BA), with the latter focussing on ractopamine. After introducing each growth promoter, their individual effects on growth and feed efficiency will be described, followed by sections on their mechanisms of action and effects on muscle fibre type and meat quality. Lastly, the recent studies on the use of the two growth promoters in combination will be described along with consideration of their future use commercially in relation to issues of global food security.
Deana R. Jones, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, USA
The effects of housing systems for laying hens on egg safety and quality
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Since the turn of the century, there have been rapid shifts worldwide in the housing and management systems used for laying hens. These have been mandated partly as a response to consumer concern for hen well-being. However, factors such as the quality, safety and price of eggs are also very important to consumers. In this chapter, we examine the impact of different housing systems on the safety and quality of eggs. Sections 2, 3 and 4 concentrate on safety, and review recent research about how hen housing and flock management affect indicator populations, food borne pathogens, and chemical contamination. Section 5 then considers the quality of both the egg’s shell and its interior. We also note how different research settings and methods have produced apparently contradictory results, and make recommendations for the direction of future research.
Charlotte Lauridsen
Recent advances in understanding the role of vitamins in pig nutrition
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Requirements for vitamins in modern intensive swine production are still based on genetically outdated lines of pigs and production conditions which have changed dramatically during the last 30 years. This chapter describes recent advances related to the role of vitamins and their importance for some aspects of oxidative mechanisms, especially in relation to the development and competence of the immune system. The chapter outlines the potential contribution of both fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins and offers new perspectives on the relationship between vitamins and antioxidation capacity.
Mladen Todorović, Centre International de Hautes Etudes Méditerranéennes (CIHEAM), Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Italy
Regional strategies in sustainable water management for irrigation: the eco-efficiency approach
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This chapter addresses a variety of challenges associated with regional water management, including the resolution of conflicts between sectors in order to resolve ‘demand versus availability’ equation and the symbiosis needed between agronomy and engineering in order to optimize the performance of irrigation networks. The chapter explores the adoption of the eco-efficiency approach as a modern management concept and indicator of sustainable water use, and presents a case study to demonstrate how the eco-efficiency approach has been applied over a large irrigation district located in Puglia region (Southern Italy). The chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Andy Butterworth, University of Bristol, UK
Welfare standards for laying hens
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Consumers regard animal welfare as an important attribute of the food they eat. Sellers have to pay due attention to animal welfare before selling food like eggs or poultry to people. There are many welfare standards for laying hens and this chapter looks into some of these standards like commercial welfare standards and global standards. The way in which these standards are implemented is important to ensure quality in production and this chapter looks into this important aspect.
Tia M. Rains and Mitch Kanter, Egg Nutrition Centre, USA
The nutritional role of eggs
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Eggs are an affordable, accessible and nutrient-dense form of food, and as such make a valuable addition to human diet. This chapter begins by reviewing the nutrient composition of chicken eggs. It then considers the relationship between egg consumption and human health and disease. This includes reviewing current research on the connection between egg intake, cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Eggs are also considered as part of a high-protein diet for the promotion of weight loss. Finally, some additional potential health benefits of eggs are briefly reviewed, and directions for future research are suggested.
Dr Dr Dana L. M. Campbell
Welfare issues affecting free-range laying hens
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Free-range laying hen production systems involve providing flocks of hens with the chance to use minimally controlled outdoor areas, rather than keeping them in intensive, environmentally controlled, indoor housing. Such systems are considered more natural and ethical. However, highly productive modern genotypes, selected for cage production, are harder to manage in large flocks and outdoor environments. To sustainably improve free-range housing and management, we must understand how hens behave in these systems, the welfare challenges they face and what modifications will, in practice, adequately address hens’ needs. This chapter reviews the following areas of significance and concern: individual differences in range use, behavioural expression on the range, correlations between ranging and health variables, parasite loads, adequate nutrition, grass impaction, feather pecking and cannibalism.
Kathy Braithwaite, Sugar Research Australia, Australia
Progress in understanding viruses affecting sugarcane
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There are currently around ten diseases of sugarcane known to be caused by viruses. In recent years our understanding of these diseases has greatly benefited from access to low-cost sequencing technologies which have revolutionized virus discovery, improved our understanding of genetic variation in viral populations, improved diagnostic options, and helped us to understand gene functions and identify gene targets for control. This chapter will address the broad themes of virus discovery, genetic variation, diagnostic technologies and control. The chapter presents case studies describing the impact of two major viral diseases in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia.
Dr Pasquale Steduto
The challenge of sustainable water resources management under water scarcity
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Historically, water control developments were mostly small-scale, locally managed and hydrologically independent, with annual rainfall, runoff and recharge setting the limits to annual use. In recent decades, the vast expansion of irrigation (the largest water user with about 70% withdrawal worldwide) has resulted in dramatic increases in water consumption. The escalation of water scarcity, further impacted by climate change, is posing huge challenges for sustainable water resources management. A solution, which has prominently influenced the agenda of planners, policy makers and financial institutions, for improvement of irrigation technology is replacement of traditional ‘inefficient’ techniques with ‘modern’ irrigation systems, assuming that significant amounts of water can be saved and released for other uses. This chapter reports case studies which demonstrate that, most of the time, water consumption increased with ‘modernization’ of irrigation. We argue that restoring a balance between sustainable supply and consumption of water first requires physical control of water allocation and consumption.
R. Gebbers, Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy (ATB), Germany
Proximal soil surveying and monitoring techniques
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The understanding of soil fertility is fundamental to agricultural production. However, soils can show great variation both spatially and temporally. This chapter outlines the key challenges faced in monitoring such variation and the solutions that have been developed and further employed to aid in optimizing crop production. Sampling methods are described, with a focus on proximal soil sensing where a sensor is placed in the soil or at a very short distance from the soil surface. These types of sensors provide information which is particularly useful in developing high-resolution soil maps for use in precision agriculture. A wide array of sensors is presented followed by a section on how such sensors may be integrated into agricultural management. An overview of future trends in research and development in this field is also included.
F. M. Shapter, A. Crowther, G. Fox, I. D. Godwin and L. Watson-Fox, University of Queensland, Australia; I. J. C. Hannah, AGR Industries, Australia; and S. L. Norton, Agriculture Victoria, Australia
The domestication, spread and uses of sorghum as a crop
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Although only a minimal component of human food in developed countries, sorghum remains the fifth most important cereal crop in terms of production and acreage. This is due to its robustness as a cereal crop, biotic and abiotic tolerances, and diversity of both varieties and uses. This chapter describes the diversity of sorghum and its related species, its anthropocentric origins, spread and domestication as well as reviewing its utility as both a source of nutrition for humans and domestic animals. The chapter also examines the population genetics of global sorghum and the crop’s relationship to its wild relatives.
Adam S. Davis, USDA-ARS, USA
Weed ecology and population dynamics
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Agricultural trends, including a global rise in herbicide-resistant weed genotypes and a growing demand for food produced with minimal external synthetic inputs, are driving producer interest in reducing reliance on herbicides for weed management. An improved understanding of weed ecology can support the design of weed-suppressive agroecosystems. This chapter explores current scientific knowledge of ecological levels of organizations, including populations, communities and agroecosystems, relevant to the study and management of agricultural weeds. A population dynamics framework for targeting management tactics to specific weed life stages is presented, and its applicability to solving real-world weed management problems is demonstrated in a case study of mitigating the invasive potential of an exotic bioenergy crop species.
Sam W. Peterson, Massey University, New Zealand
Producing quality milk from sheep
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This chapter describes the sheep dairy industry and begins by analysing the advantages and disadvantages of different sheep breeds for production of high-quality sheep milk. The chapter addresses in detail various issues arising from the dairy farming of sheep, including frequency of milking, the nutritional needs of pregnant and lactating ewes, the weaning of lambs, photoperiod and season. It also examines milk quality and the common problem of mastitis in ewes and possible prevention and management strategies for the condition. The chapter concludes with future directions the sheep dairy industry might take and points the reader towards further reading on the subject.
W. E. Pomroy, Massey University, New Zealand
Sustainable control of gastrointestinal nematode parasites affecting sheep
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The threat of anthelmintic resistance has loomed over recommendations to control gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in sheep for several decades, and in some regions GIN is threatening the sustainability of sheep farming. This chapter describes the current state of options to achieve sustainable control of GIN in sheep, covering general principles of worm control and methods specific to controlling GIN, including nematophagous fungi, condensed tannins, copper oxide wire particles and vaccines.
R. Stuart Rutherford, South African Sugarcane Research Institute (SASRI) and University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Progress in understanding fungal diseases affecting sugarcane: rusts
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Rust fungi (Uredinales or Pucciniales) are a globally distributed order of obligate parasitic fungi occurring on vascular plants. The typical symptom is a ‘rust-coloured’ (often orange or yellow) pustule on a plant leaf. Economically, rust fungi cause enormous crop losses, including in sugarcane. This chapter summarizes current knowledge of sugarcane rusts in terms of relevant background biology, pathogen dispersal, disease identification, environmental conditions favouring disease, crop loss, host-plant resistance and control measures. The chapter focuses on the history, identification and control of three varieties of rust: brown, orange and tawny.
Dr Dr R. Onwonga
Supporting smallholders in organic crop cultivation: the case of East Africa
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The value chains of several vegetables and other crops in Eastern Africa are growing in volume and value and are potentially making an impact on the livelihood of the involved producers, processers, transporters, retailers and sales-sites. This chapter reports the outcomes of selected ProGrOV case studies in East Africa involving farmers, students and scientists together with advisors from organic organizations in developing and testing agroecological practices for the intensification of kale, maize, sweet pepper and tomatoes for organic markets. After outlining the methodology of the field study approach, the chapter examines challenges and innovations in pest, weed and soil fertility management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Dr Dr James P. Legg
Viruses affecting African crops and their vectors
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Plant viruses are one of the major constraints to crop production in Africa. Consequently, research into understanding and managing viruses has been a major theme of IITA’s work over its 50-year history. This chapter reviews the progress made in characterizing the major viruses affecting bananas, cassava, maize, cowpeas, soybeans and yams, and in developing management options. The viruses covered include cassava mosaic and cassava brown streak diseases, maize streak disease, maize lethal necrosis and banana bunchy top disease. The chapter identifies virus vectors and discusses emerging techniques and future perspectives for plant virus management in Africa. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
D. K. Revell, Revell Science and The University of Western Australia, Australia
Sustainably meeting the nutrient requirements of grazing sheep
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In order to be sustainable, sheep rearing systems must be sufficiently flexible to respond to variable conditions and feed availability. This chapter argues that sustainable sheep management works with the resources available at a given place or time and learns from the sheep themselves. The chapter further describes how sheep cope with a variable supply of nutrients, and examines in detail (including via a case study) the importance of understanding the potential variety and usefulness of forages. The chapter also addresses how animals learn about forages, and concludes that sheep production can be made sustainable by providing diverse forages suited to the local environment and by managing the experiences of animals so they learn to combine appropriate mixtures of plants as sources of nutrition.
Dr M. M. Makagon
Understanding poultry behaviour
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In the context of poultry production, behavioural studies have been particularly useful for optimizing management strategies and understanding the welfare of commercially raised poultry. This chapter aims to provide an overview of the contributions that the study of animal behaviour has made to poultry science, and to provide general guidance on the design, execution and interpretation of behavioural research. We begin with an overview of commonly used research methods and methodological challenges that should be considered before behavioural data is collected. Next, we provide specific examples of how behavioural approaches have been used to explore the importance and consequences (positive and negative) of perch access. We offer some thoughts on current and future trends in applied ethology and conclude with a list of resources on the topics covered here.
Nick Bell, The Royal Veterinary College, UK
Preventing and managing lameness in dairy cows
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Lameness in dairy cows is a major economic and welfare problem worldwide. Despite its importance there are still significant gaps in the published evidence-base, particularly on the subject of disease pathogenesis, treatment and herd interventions. None-the-less, using a systematic approach involving quantifying lameness levels, analysing recorded lesions causing lameness, evaluating risk factors and prioritising interventions it is possible to support producers in the process of improving herd foot health. This chapter reviews the published evidence underpinning control programmes for the prevention and management of lameness in dairy cows.
Anita Dille, Kansas State University, USA
Surveillance and monitoring of weed populations
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To implement integrated weed management more effectively, the temporal and spatial distribution of weed populations in a field need to be determined. Weed species tend to be patchy and this influences the ability to calculate average weed densities when conducting a survey. This chapter reviews current and evolving practices for the scouting and mapping of weed populations both during and across growing seasons. It considers the use of scouts on the ground; UAVs with cameras flying over the fields; and advanced software and computer-based tools to detect, identify and record weed species. The use of regional and global scales to understand changes in the occurrence of herbicide-resistant or invasive weed populations is also discussed.
Robert Moore, RMIT University, Australia
Probiotics, prebiotics and other feed additives to improve gut function and immunity in poultry
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Poultry producers have been cautious in the application of probiotics, due to mixed experiences of their effectiveness and lack of knowledge regarding the scientific basis for their modes of action. Prebiotics have been more readily accepted because they can be added without any significant change to traditional practices. Recent research has increased our knowledge of the effects of both types of treatment, their possible modes of action, and the strengths and limitations of their use. We are beginning to understand why some products may give variable outcomes and what may be done to further validate the performance of existing products and develop a new generation of more reliable and effective probiotics and prebiotics.
Paul Miller, Silsoe Spray Applications Unit Ltd, UK
Spray technologies in precision agriculture
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The application of plant protection products plays a key role in the production of most crops. This chapter examines equipment designed to operate with field crops; however, many of the principles discussed will relate to other application systems. The chapter describes features of field crop sprayers for precision agriculture, including control of delivered dose, spatial resolution, matching physical characteristics of sprays to target requirements and minimising drift and exposure of systems outside the treatment area. The chapter includes two detailed case studies focussed on designing and developing a system for spot treatment of volunteer potatoes in vegetable crops and implementing a patch spraying system for applying herbicides to field crops. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr N. J. Beausoleil
Validating indicators of sheep welfare
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Until recently, assessment of sheep welfare has received little attention, perhaps because sheep have traditionally been managed extensively and their relative behavioural freedom has led to perceptions of fewer or lower risks to their welfare. However, extensively managed sheep are still vulnerable to welfare challenges, and intensive systems and their attendant welfare impacts are becoming increasingly common. Regardless of the production system, practical and validated indicators of both negative and positive experiences that influence sheep welfare are required to facilitate the identification, prevention and mitigation of negative welfare impacts and to enhance welfare wherever possible. In this chapter, a process is outlined for identifying welfare indicators that are valid and practical for use on-farm, during transport or before slaughter. The chapter includes a case study on the validity of body condition score as an indicator of hunger and points to the need for research to validate indicators of specific states identified as posing risks to sheep welfare.
Xiping Yang and Ramkrishna Kandel, University of Florida (Gainesville), USA; Jian Song, University of Florida (Gainesville), USA and Dezhou University, China; Qian You, University of Florida (Gainesville), USA and Fujian Agriculture and Forestry Universit
Sugarcane genome sequencing and genetic mapping
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Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is one of the most important crops for producing sugar and bioethanol, and breeding for superior sugarcane cultivars would benefit significantly from available genetic and genomic resources. This chapter explains the difficulties of sequencing and mapping the genome of sugarcane and strategies to overcome these difficulties. The chapter outlines progress on sugarcane sequencing, genetic mapping of simply inherited and complex traits. The chapter then focuses on the mapping of a gene controlling sugarcane brown rust resistance, Bru1, which exemplifies the concepts of marker-assisted selection. Finally, the chapter discusses prospects for future research in sugarcane genome sequencing and genetic mapping.
Michael A. Grashorn, University of Hohenheim, Germany
Poultry meat quality: an overview
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Meat quality is a complex issue, with different requirements from consumers and processors. Consumption quality is based on an assessment of subjective sensory qualities, nutritive value and assurance that animal welfare issues have been respected. In contrast, processing quality is mainly based on objective physical and/or chemical features. This chapter summarizes current research on poultry meat quality. Aspects of poultry meat quality (ingredients, nutritive-physiological value, hygiene and toxicology, physical and technological properties, sensory characteristics) are defined, factors affecting these aspects are named and methods for determining the aspects are described in detail. Indicators of meat maturation such as pH or conductivity are described as the main basis for consumption and processing quality of the meat. Attention is also drawn to poultry meat as an enriched food (for example, with n-3 fatty acids), to the incidence of and probable reasons for quality aberrations and to hygienic risks.
Roland Gerhards, University of Hohenheim, Germany
Precision weed management systems
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Weed populations in arable fields are often spatially and temporally heterogeneous, and high-density weed patches require intensive weed management. In areas with no or few weeds, input for weed control can be reduced. This chapter describes manual and geographic information system–based weed mapping approaches and sensor-based weed identification technologies and their application to create weed maps. It also describes the adoption of patch sprayers based on application maps and real-time sensor information. This chapter shows that site-specific weed control in cereals, oilseed rape, sugar beet and maize using Global Navigation Satellite System-controlled patch sprayers can reduce herbicide input by 20–60%. It looks ahead to the development of precision farming technologies for mechanical weeding, including automatic steering systems for intra-row hoeing and robotic inter-row weeding.
E. C. Oerke, University of Bonn, Germany
Precision crop protection systems
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The spatial distribution of plant pests within crops is often heterogeneous, at least during some growth periods. Within-field heterogeneity implies that plants at some sites may need pest control while plants at other sites do not. Automated detection, identification and quantification of diseases and invertebrate pests on a small scale are the prerequisites for a site-specific pest management strategy. This chapter reviews how sensor technologies in combination with informatics and modern application technologies may enable pest control where and when it is actually needed. We summarize and discuss the potential of aerial and proximal remote sensing using various types of sensors for applications ranging from quarantine, to the production of speciality crops, to crop loss assessment.
Z. Gao, China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, China
Use of brackish and marginal water for irrigation in water-scarce areas
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The lack of freshwater in arid and semi-arid regions makes brackish/marginal water a valuable alternative source of water for irrigation. The use of brackish water in irrigation could ensure high-yield, good quality, efficient and sustainable agricultural development if appropriate management strategies are adopted where natural conditions are favourable. This chapter discusses the following aspects: use of brackish water in irrigation and related issues, challenges and management strategies when irrigating with brackish water to achieve productivity and sustainability, research and results from using brackish water in irrigation, case studies from selected countries, future trends in research for the use of brackish water in irrigation and sources for further related information.
Scott Staggenborg and Hui Shen, Chromatin Inc., USA
Sorghum as a forage and energy crop
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Sorghum is an important source of grain and fodder, forage and biomass throughout the world. In the United States, grain sorghum is the prominent crop; however, non-grain sorghum plays an important role as a feedstock globally. This chapter reviews the different types of sorghum and their uses. We begin by considering the types of sorghum used for forage and biomass, and then offer a detailed discussion of the use of forage sorghum as feed for ruminant animals. We review the advantages of using sorghum as a dedicated energy crop, and finally consider the composition and uses of sweet sorghum cultivars.
E. Weltzien and H. F. W. Rattunde, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA, formerly International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Mali; T. A. van Mourik, International Potato Center, Ghana; and H. A. Ajeigbe, International Crop
Sorghum cultivation and improvement in West and Central Africa
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The diversity of sorghum cultivated in Africa attests to the African origin of this crop. Farmers in West and Central Africa (WCA) have developed strategies of using varietal diversity to minimize risk and maximize productivity in the context of complex and diverse adaptive challenges. This chapter provides insights and entry points to understanding sorghum in the WCA region. It also describes the major sorghum production systems, options for intensification and sustainable production, genetic diversity and opportunities to breed for enhancing sorghum crop value, as well as opportunities for progress in strengthening seed systems.
B. Tran and R. Hodges, Natural Resources Institute – University of Greenwich, UK
Post-harvest management of sorghum
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Sorghum is an important cereal, especially in the developing world where it is a major food source in regions where other cereal crops would not withstand the harsh conditions. After summarising sorghum’s nutritional status and world production figures, this chapter presents post-harvest operations: harvesting, transport, threshing, drying, cleaning, packaging and storage, then dehulling and milling. Means of storage and their management, major pests and their control as well as toxins produced by fungi are discussed. The chapter then lists the major transformations of sorghum and their end products. It then concludes with quality requirements.
Llewellyn L. Manske, North Dakota State University, USA
Restoring degraded grasslands
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Grazed grasslands are complex ecosystems, and careful and responsible management is essential for their growth and maintenance. This chapter examines the inter-relationship of species, microbial activity, nutrients and environmental factors in restoring and maintaining their health, sustainability and productivity. The chapter outlines the key factors in restoration of degraded grasslands, such as promoting both the ecosystem’s biogeochemical processes and internal grass mechanisms that gradually alter grassland species composition. The chapter also looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Amir Hagverdi, University of California-Riverside, USA; and Brian G. Leib, University of Tennessee-Knoxville, USA
Site-specific irrigation systems
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Conventional irrigation management is based on uniform application of water across a field, which may result in both over- and under-irrigation. This chapter focuses on site-specific variable rate irrigation using center pivot and lateral move irrigation systems, which are mainly used for row-crop irrigation. Via detailed case studies, it examines site-specific data acquisition and mining approaches, soil mapping, zone delineation, site-specific yield estimation and irrigation scheduling.
Sophie Bertrand, French Dairy Board (CNIEL), France
Setting environmental targets for dairy farming
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Environmental targets for dairy farming are necessary to help ensure that milk is produced in a sustainable way. However, setting such targets is not an easy task due to the variety of both dairy farming systems and methods for assessing environmental impacts. The IDF and FAO have undertaken important work, attempting to harmonize the methods for environmental assessments of the dairy sector and reduce confusion in published results. This chapter reviews the main, internationally accepted methods available to evaluate the environmental impact of dairy farming, identify levers of action and set environmental targets. It also highlights what further work is needed on water footprints and dairy ecosystem services in order to ensure a holistic approach to the environmental performance of dairy farms.
Baruch Rubin, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel; and Abraham Gamliel, The Volcani Center, Israel
Soil solarization: a sustainable method
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Solar heating of soils, better known as soil solarization, involves heating moist and mulched soil (with a transparent polyethylene film) for several weeks. Its advantages include its non-chemical nature and its effective use in a wide range of agricultural areas worldwide. This chapter reviews the use of solarization in sustainable weed management. We cover its mode of action, its effects on weeds, soil nutrients and pesticides, and the benefits and limitations of this strategy. The plastic mulching technology required for solarization is also discussed.
Gretchen R. Miller, Texas A&M University, USA
Understanding and measuring plant water use
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Plant water use is inextricably linked to both agricultural productivity and sustainable water resource management. Unlike plants in natural ecosystems, crops and horticultural species benefit from the active management of their growing environments. Tremendous advancements have been made towards more efficient irrigation systems and higher yielding cultivars; however, technological solutions are limited by the physical and biological processes governing plant water use. This chapter discusses the fundamentals of water movement through the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum and the mechanisms by which vegetation can control water loss to the atmosphere, i.e. evapotranspiration (ET). It also examines what drives ET, and the equations used to model and predict it. The chapter then reviews standard and advanced techniques for measuring plant water use across a range of scales, from leaf to landscape. Finally, it describes the emerging green water/blue water paradigm and how water embedded in agricultural products makes water management for sustainable agricultural a truly global issue.
T. F. Döring, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany
Organic production of wheat and spelt
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Wheat plays a major role in organic agriculture around the globe. This chapter reviews the current state of organic cultivation of wheat and of its close relative, spelt, with a focus on crop diversification, through rotational design, use of species mixtures containing wheat, and diversification at the genetic level, e.g. through variety mixtures. The chapter shows that there are constraints associated with diversification in organic wheat cultivation systems. Diversifying rotations may dilute wheat production within the rotation; intercrops containing wheat are often characterised by unpredictability and technical difficulties; and diversification of wheat through evolving crop populations may be hampered by seed-borne diseases. The chapter concludes that optimisation of organic wheat cultivation systems across the world through diversification depends on a continuous and reliable, systematic and comprehensive collection of agronomic data under conditions of increased crop diversity.
A. K. Barooah, Tocklai Tea Research Institute, India
Pesticide residues in tea: challenges in detection and control
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Tea growers require pesticides to prevent crop loss due to pest attacks, which are aggravated by climate change. As pesticides invariably leave residues, it is of utmost importance that samples of traded tea are monitored to ensure compliance to food safety standards. This chapter reviews research into the extent of pesticide residues in tea, conventional methods for determining trace levels of multiple residues in tea and the problems with these methods and advanced, rapid methods which are more suitable for ensuring food safety. We also consider food safety standards in the EU and Japan, methods of assessing the risk posed by pesticide residues and strategies for reducing the residues in tea.
M. A. Wijeratne, Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka
Planting and cultivation of tea
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Originating in natural forests characterized by warm and humid environmental conditions and nutrient-rich soils, tea’s growth and yield largely depend on climatic and soil factors of the land. Frequent removal of photosynthetically active tea shoots (harvesting) and periodic removal of leaf-bearing branches (pruning) exert physiological stresses on the tea bush, and it is crucial for sustainable productivity and profitability that tea be provided with optimum growing conditions. This chapter examines in detail the process of planting and harvesting tea, including tea’s climatic requirements, planting methods, bush management practices and both manual and mechanical harvesting techniques. The chapter looks ahead to future trends, challenges and potential developments in this area.
Rami A. Dalloul, Virginia Tech, USA
Understanding and boosting poultry immune systems
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In the perpetual battle against common poultry pathogens and other environmental antigens, the role of the immune system is an important and ongoing topic of research. This chapter reviews the various elements of the host defence system in poultry, and then provides specific examples of how certain supplements can modulate the immune system and its responses to specific challenges that are common in commercial production. The chapter focuses particularly on the challenge of coccidiosis and the role of probiotics, and looks ahead to future developments in this area.
Stephanie Clark, Iowa State University, USA
Sensory evaluation of cow’s milk
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Despite advances in dairy technology, milk is still a highly perishable product with a limited shelf life. Mistakes in milk handling between cow and consumer can lead to milk quality defects and shorter shelf life. Understanding where such mistakes can occur, how to recognize off-flavors, and how to remedy quality deviations can mean the difference between retaining and losing customers. This chapter discusses the sensory evaluation of milk. We review the processes involved in the sensory evaluation of milk products, discuss the different categories and causes of off-flavours in milk, and show how sensory evaluations can be used to determine the shelf life of milk products. We also review how staff can be trained to perform sensory evaluations, and methods for preventing the flavour defects discussed.
Kapil Chousalker, University of Adelaide, Australia and Kylie Hewson, Australian Chicken Meat Federation, Australia
Pathogens affecting table eggs
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The rise in consumption of infertile hen eggs, together with the simultaneous rise in egg-related foodborne pathogen outbreaks, indicates the importance of understanding the microflora on the eggshell and within the egg contents. Pathogenic microorganisms in a number of ways can contaminate eggs, and a range of microorganisms have the ability to penetrate the eggshell and survive in egg contents until consumption. This chapter begins with an overview of pathogen contamination of table eggs. The next section focuses on Salmonella spp., since these are considered the greatest safety threat in the consumption of eggs. Subsequent sections then discuss Campylobacter spp., other bacteria, yeasts and moulds.
K. Schwean-Lardner and T. G. Crowe, University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Transportation and the welfare of poultry
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A variety of factors before and during transport of poultry affect their welfare, with impacts ranging from slight discomfort to death. This chapter begins by considering the pre-loading factors which can eventually affect the birds’ welfare during transportation, and then reviews the physiological, behavioural and psychological responses, which birds may have during transport. We then review a wide range of factors, many which act interactively, which may affect welfare during transport, including the design of containers and trailers, journey duration, noise, vibrations and stocking density. Brief consideration is then given to the effects of lairage, and the transport of hens other than adult broilers
Silvana Pietrosemoli and James T. Green, North Carolina State University, USA
Pasture systems for pigs
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The inclusion of pastures in outdoor pig systems contributes significantly to improving the sustainability of these farming systems. This chapter examines the characteristics of pasture pig systems, including forages and pasture management as well the effects of pasture on meat quality. The chapter also provides a detailed case study of the pasture pig system developed at the Center for Environmental Farming Systems (CEFS) in the United States. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research in the field of sustainable pasture pig systems and provides guidance on further reading in this area.
Jan Dahl, Danish Agriculture and Food Council (DAFC), Denmark
Salmonella control in pig production
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Salmonella infections of zoonotic origin are one of the most frequent causes of zoonotic infections worldwide, and there are clear indications that, at least in some countries, pork is an important source of human salmonellosis. This chapter describes the epidemiology of salmonella and possible interventions in the pig and pork production chain. The chapter addresses animal surveillance and monitoring, control of feed and environment, and the importance of replacement animals and finisher herds. The chapter also considers vaccination as a reduction strategy and measures that can be adopted at the slaughterhouse stage. Including a detailed case study on salmonella reduction in Danish pig and pork production, the chapter offers detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
C. A. Avila, S. C. Irigoyen and K. K. Mandadi, Texas A&M AgriLife Research, USA
Tomato plant responses to biotic and abiotic stress
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The major challenge faced by tomato production is the need to increase productivity by improving resistance and tolerance to crop stresses. Cultivar improvement depends on our ability to identify, study and leverage the genetic diversity present among tomato germplasm resources worldwide from which new resistance/tolerance traits can be selected and transferred via breeding and biotechnology. To achieve this, it is critical to combine the study of the genome, epigenome, transcriptome, proteome and metabolome. This chapter summarizes the current status and advances in our understanding of tomato stress responses. Furthermore, it discusses future trends in tomato stress biology and its potential implications for tomato improvement.
J. W. S. Yancey, University of Arkansas, USA
Packaging systems for beef retailers and their effects on visual quality and palatability
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Packaging is one of the most vital processes in beef production, but is often overlooked by beef researchers. In addition to protecting the product, packaging is largely responsible for maintaining myoglobin in the bright red, oxygenated state in the retail case as expected by American consumers. However, retail beef packaged in the traditional, aerobic overwrap has issues with discolouration and short shelf life; thus, more protective options, such as vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging, have been implemented by some retailers. The future of beef packaging will not only protect beef but also actively inhibit oxidation and microbial growth and perhaps communicate with the processor and consumer about the quality of the packaged beef.
Dr Indu Sharma
Recent molecular technologies for tackling wheat diseases
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There is a growing need to improve the management of wheat diseases if wheat production is to keep pace with a growing population. This chapter reviews the array of technologies and new methods available to improve resistance to wheat diseases. These techniques include SAR, ISR, the application of Effectors, Transcription factors, PR protein, RNAi, VIGS, Plantibodies, Genome editing, Genome wide selection, MAS, Tilling population, Gene cassettes and epigenetics.
Richard Kipling, Aberystwyth University, UK
Research challenges in adapting grasslands to climate change
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Climate change poses many challenges to European grasslands, from droughts, heat waves and changing precipitation patterns in the south, to warmer winters and wetter summers in the north and increasing frequency of extreme weather events. This chapter reviews the probable impacts of climate change and associated challenges, considering the external context and the adaptiveness of European grassland systems. The chapter includes a number of detailed case studies of climate change impacts and adaptation options from Finland, Italy and Austria. Finally, the chapter considers the challenges and limitations for climate change mitigation in grasslands and priorities for research, providing detailed guidance on further reading on the topic.
Dr Victor Manuel Medina-Urrutia
Organic mango production: a review
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In recent years the demand for organic mango, along with the health concerns of consumers, has increased. Few technologies are currently available to support organic mango production systems in the main mango-growing regions. This chapter explains current technologies for field sustainable and organic mango production and postharvest processing. The chapter describes the importance of climate and soil selection, selection of cultivars and rootstocks and soil preparation and planting. The chapter addresses issues arising from the management of established mango orchards including weed control, irrigation and pest and disease management. Finally, the chapter compares organic and conventional systems of mango production.
R. D. Warner and F. R. Dunshea, University of Melbourne, Australia; and H. A. Channon, University of Melbourne and Australian Pork Limited, Australia
Producing consistent quality meat from the modern pig
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Pork producers have focussed, over many years, on producing pork efficiently and sustainably, in order to satisfy consumer demand for lean pork and remain competitive. Increases in efficiency and leanness have been achieved through genetics, targeted nutrition and the use of entire males and metabolic modifiers. This chapter describes the various influencing factors that need to be considered in order to consistently produce high-quality pork in the modern pig industry. The chapter outlines the significance of visual appearance, sensory quality and protein functionality for processed pork products. The chapter presents influencing factors throughout the pig industry supply chain for the production of quality pork, as well as interventions for quality improvement, and looks ahead to future trends of research in this area.
Prof. Prof. Lidia Sas Paszt
Organic fertilizers and biofertilizers
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In recent years, both in the European Union and in the world, there has been intense development of organic agriculture, whose aim is to produce high-quality crops and healthy food while maintaining the biological balance of agroecosystems. An alternative to chemical fertilizers are products of natural origin, organic fertilizers, biofertilizers or natural growth bio-stimulants, which increase plant growth, yielding and resistance to pathogens and pests, and improve soil fertility, productivity and biodiversity. The chapter examines the role of biofertilizers and consortia of microorganisms to improve the effectiveness of organic fertilization, before moving on to consider the use of animal excrement, including manures, slurry and guano. The chapter considers the use of products or by-products of both animal and plant origin as fertilizers, before addressing the contributions of composts and biochar.
Dieter Prinz, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany
Rainwater and floodwater harvesting for crop irrigation
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Rainwater and floodwater harvesting are environmentally-friendly ways to utilize rainwater and surface runoff for irrigation, water storage and groundwater recharge. Water harvesting (WH) can also reduce flooding and soil erosion risk and can diminish impacts of climate change. This chapter discusses the role of rainwater harvesting, methods for rainwater harvesting and their application, as well as the water storage and floodwater harvesting systems.
Dr James M. Mwendwa
The use of allelopathy and competitive crop cultivars for weed suppression in cereal crops
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Due to the rise of herbicide resistance, diverse weed management tools are required to ensure sustainable weed control. This chapter focuses on competitive cereal crops and cultural strategies for weed management, including the use of weed-suppressive cultivars, post-harvest crop residues, and cover crops for management of the weed seedbank and eventual weed suppression. It also addresses factors influencing the effect of allelopathy on weeds, including soil and environmental conditions which limit or intensify the efficacy of allelochemicals. The response of some weeds to secondary metabolites released by living cereal crops and/or crop residues (selectivity) is also reviewed. Finally, recommendations are given for future research, aiming to address the knowledge gap regarding the fate of these compounds in the environment and their role in important physiological processes in both plants and microbes in the soil rhizosphere.
U. S. National Poultry Center – USDA-ARS, USA
Preventing spoilage of poultry meat
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The shelf-life of fresh poultry meat is determined by the level of contamination of processed meat by spoilage microorganisms, storage temperature and storage atmosphere. This chapter looks at the various ways by which to extend the shelf-life of poultry meat: vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging; bacteriocins, herbs and spices; high hydrostatic pressure and electrolyzed water. The chapter also says that low-dose irradiation, non-thermal dielectric barrier discharge plasma systems and oxygen absorbers are some of the techniques used to reduce microbial contamination and improve the shelf-life of poultry systems.
J. Isselstein, University of Göttingen, Germany
Protecting biodiversity in grasslands
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Grasslands in Europe are critically important to the biodiversity of agricultural landscapes. This chapter summarizes the conditions that facilitate biodiversity in permanent and semi-natural (i.e. managed) grasslands in temperate climate, with a particular focus on phytodiversity. The chapter exemplifies and explains losses in the biodiversity of managed grasslands in recent decades. It describes some of the main factors influencing biodiversity, leading to discussion of appropriate management measures and how these might be integrated into livestock production systems. Finally, the role of agri-environment schemes in preserving grassland biodiversity is considered. It is observed that the development of livestock systems is at risk of being decoupled from the grassland resources, and it is concluded that a more holistic approach to grassland management is necessary.
Claudia B. Monteiro Vitorello, Patricia Dayane Carvalho Schaker, Juliana Benevenuto, Natália de Sousa Teixeira e Silva and Sintia Silva de Almeida , University of São Paulo, Brazil
Progress in understanding fungal diseases affecting sugarcane: smut
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Amongst the relevant issues impacting sugarcane agricultural practices are fungal diseases, such as sugarcane smut, that constitute a worldwide threat to the cultivation. Smut is caused by the biotrophic fungus Sporisorium scitamineum. After providing a historical perspective on the disease, this chapter will present an overview of data gathered over the past few years using ‘omics’ techniques (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics) in combination with functional studies performed to identify candidate genes involved in the interaction. The chapter will discuss different aspects of the knowledge generated for each pathosystem and will consider data from various studies aiming at deciphering the molecular cross-talking between host and pathogen along with new trends and recurring issues in the study of smut disease.
Roberto Ugás, Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Peru
Organic agriculture and agroecology in Latin America
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This chapter provides an account of the development and current status of agroecology and organic agriculture in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). It highlights the main contributions made by LAC farmers, practitioners, researchers and value chain actors to the worldwide growth of agroecology and organic agriculture. It provides an overview of certified and non-certified organic agriculture in the region, the guarantee systems in place and the markets for such products. National standards and regulations for organic agriculture are included, as well as programmes for organic agriculture and agroecology which have been developed over the last 20 years. Numerous factors including favourable policies, capacity building, provision of good quality public services and infrastructure development are discussed and found to be key to promoting the transition of smallholders into more sustainable farming systems. The chapter concludes with a review of the performance of organic systems in the LAC region.
Anne E. Dorrance, The Ohio State University, USA
Oomycete and fungal pathogens of soybean
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Soybean production faces numerous biotic challenges, leading to significant yield losses each year. This chapter addresses oomycete and fungal pathogens of soybean. Case studies on the oomycete pathogens Phytophthora sojae and Pythium species as well as the true fungi Cercospora sojina, Phakopsora pachyrhizi and Macrophomina phaseolina, and the Fusarium species are presented. Through these case studies, the diversity in the pathogens which affect soybean, including their genetic diversity, different modes of infection and different host ranges is emphasized. The diverse range of management options and the future trends in research which should improve our ability to manage soybean diseases are also considered.
Victoria Ndolo
The nutritional and nutraceutical value of wheat
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Wheat is a source of nutrients and phytochemicals with nutraceutical value. These components are unevenly distributed in the different parts of the wheat kernel, and their content in wheat varies widely depending on variety of wheat (V), genotype (G), growing environments (E), year/season (Y) and interaction effect (GxE or VxY). Knowledge of the nutritional and nutraceutical value of wheat and its determining factors may be used to select wheat for inclusion in the diet, for food product development and for selecting characteristics during breeding. This chapter describes the nutrients and phytochemicals found in wheat and reviews the factors that influence variations in their concentrations. The chapter concludes by considering the effects of wheat processing on nutrient and phytochemical content in wheat.
Dr Francois-Regis Goebel
Progress in understanding and managing insect pests affecting sugarcane
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This chapter describes major achievements in pest management in sugarcane agroecosystems based on applied research conducted in different countries. The focus of the chapter is on two major groups of pests: stalk borers (Lepidoptera) and white grubs (Coleoptera). Chapter sections address determination of crop losses, biological control using parasitoids and entomopathogens, push-pull strategies with the use of companion (or service) plants, agricultural practices and their influence on pest population dynamics, insecticide use and biosecurity. The chapter also discusses new tools for pest detection and management such as modeling, remote sensing and use of geographical information systems (GIS). The chapter looks ahead to future developments such as an integrated pest management system for pests of sugarcane.
Suzanne Hendrich, Iowa State University, USA
Nutritional, nutraceutical and functional properties of soybeans
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Soybeans have desirable nutritional properties, since they contain about twice the protein of other legumes per serving. Some soybean protein ingredients have protein digestibility corrected amino acid scores commensurate with proteins thought to be optimal to meet human protein needs. This chapter examines recent human clinical studies related to the efficacy and safety of soybean foods and food or dietary supplement ingredients including soybean oils, proteins, isoflavones and selected other compounds for which soybeans are a significant source.
Elizabeth A. Cooper and Stephen Kresovich, Clemson University, USA
The comparative and evolutionary genomics of sorghum
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Sorghum has a relatively small diploid genome, and retains much of the chromosomal structure and organization of its common ancestor. It also has multiple origins of domestication in different regions of Africa, resulting in a highly diverse germplasm well adapted to drought and other challenging environmental conditions. This makes sorghum ideal for dissecting the architectures of complex yet desirable traits. This chapter discusses what we know about the evolution and structure of the sorghum genome, the impact of domestication and the genetic architecture of key traits such as C4 photosynthesis and drought tolerance.
James D. Ferguson, University of Pennsylvania, USA
Nutritional strategies to improve nitrogen efficiency and milk protein synthesis in dairy cows
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Dairy production is associated with significant losses of nitrogen to the environment, contributing to the degradation of air and water systems. These losses must be decreased to make dairy farming sustainable, and a primary means of doing this is to increase the conversion of feed protein into milk protein. This chapter considers the two nitrogen-utilising systems in the cow: the rumen microbiota and ruminant tissues. The more efficient both the rumen and tissue systems are, the lower the urinary nitrogen excretion. We review approaches to estimating rumen microbial protein synthesis, the protein and energy requirements of dairy cows and the use of milk urea nitrogen (MUN) to assess the nitrogen efficiency of dairy cows. We then consider the development of nutritional systems which account for rumen microbial synthesis, rumen-degradable and undegradable feed protein and endogenous protein supplies of amino acids based on utilisation of feed inputs.
Lauren E. O’Connor and Wayne W. Campbell, Purdue University, USA
Nutritional composition and the value of pig meat
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Pork is a commonly consumed protein source which contributes various macro- and micronutrients to the diet of people living in the United States, some positively and negatively influencing indices of human health. This book chapter provides data about the nutritional content and current intakes of pork and pork products by people living in the United States as well as the effects of consuming pork on weight control, body composition, cardiometabolic health, cancer and sleep health. Pork, as part of a higher protein diet, can aid in weight control, have a favourable effect on body composition, and may improve sleep health. Cardiometabolic risk is not influenced by the consumption of pork as part of total red meat in human clinical trials, inconsistent with the observational evidence. Strong associations exist between processed red meats, inclusive of pork, and cardiometabolic morbidities and mortalities as well as cancer. More research is needed pertaining to the consumption of processed pork products on indices of human health.
Fábio R. Marin, University of São Paulo (USP) - Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture (ESALQ), Brazil; Daniel S. P. Nassif, Federal University of São Carlos, Brazil; and Leandro G. Costa, Murilo S. Vianna, Kassio Carvalho and Pedro R. Pereira, Univers
Predicting the effect of climate change on sugarcane cultivation
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Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) can be used to produce ethanol and biomass for energy generation, as part of a climate change mitigation policy. It is also an important crop from a food security perspective, with almost 75% of the world's sugar coming from sugarcane plantations. In this chapter we review the potential impacts of climate change on sugarcane crops, focusing on the likely effects of changes in air temperature and CO₂ concentration. The effects of changes in rainfall patterns and water stress are also discussed. Experimental and process-based dynamic crop growth models (PBCM) simulation results are used to show the potential climate change impacts on the crop for the main sugarcane-producing countries.
S. R. Bean, B. P. Ioerger, J. D. Wilson, M. Tilley, D. Rhodes and T. J. Herald, USDA-ARS, USA
Structure and chemistry of sorghum grain
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Sorghum is grown around the world under diverse environmental conditions. Combined with the high degree of genetic diversity present in sorghum, this can result in substantial variability in grain composition and grain quality. While similar to other cereal grains such as maize and millets in some aspects, sorghum has many unique compositional traits which impact grain quality and utilization. This chapter reviews the composition of sorghum grain, including its physical structure, composition of bio-macromolecules and micronutrients. This chapter also includes a summary of research showing how various factors can impact sorghum grain composition.
Prof. Michel A. Wattiaux
Sustainable nutrition management of dairy cattle in intensive systems
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When measuring the sustainability of a dairy farm, one should take into account its technical and economic performance, its stewardship of natural resources, and the norms and policies of the society in which the farm operates. This means that managing dairy herd nutrition depends not only on meeting the nutrient requirements of the animals for full expression of their genetic potential, but also on the relationships between cattle nutrition, other components of the farm, the local economy and the aims of the dairy farm. In this chapter we discuss the importance of phosphorus and nitrogen in cow nutrition, the associated environmental concerns and a range of sustainable solutions to these concerns. We also address the carbon footprint associated with dairy farming by examining a case study of intensive dairy production systems in California and Wisconsin.
Pietro Rocculi, University of Bologna, Italy
New developments in packaging of eggs to improve safety and quality
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The correct choice of the packaging system is a key factor for maintaining high-quality characteristics of eggs during storage. In this chapter, the fundamental aspects of shell egg packaging are reviewed. In particular, a possible explanation of critical issues will be discussed to offer an innovative solution of active packaging through the combination of CO2 atmosphere and humidity absorber. The proposed solution permits better maintenance of egg freshness during storage with the contemporaneous increase/modulation of its functionality.
Mark Trotter, Central Queensland University Institute for Future Farming Systems, Australia
Precision livestock farming and pasture management systems
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Precision livestock farming (PLF) focuses on individual animal monitoring and management. Precision pasture/rangeland management is concerned with monitoring and dealing with landscape spatial and temporal variability whilst considering the influence that animals bring to these systems. This chapter reviews a range of technologies currently applied or in development which facilitate this individual animal and refined landscape management across the spectrum of extensive grazing production systems. The chapter examines the challenges faced by the livestock industry and the potential solutions offered by precision management, focussing particularly on techniques currently applied in precision animal and pasture management. The chapter includes detailed case studies on using a basic farm GIS to determine sustainable long-term stocking rates, and integrating satellite multi-spectral imaging with plant growth modelling to manage livestock rotations. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and provides guidance on further reading.
Kerry Walsh and Zhenglin Wang, Central Queensland University, Australia
Monitoring fruit quality and quantity in mangoes
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This chapter explores quality of mango from the perspectives of the grower, the packer, the retailer and the consumer. The chapter examines specifications for fruit at harvest maturity and at commercial maturity (eating stage), as well as technologies for monitoring relevant attributes, including machine vision in estimation of canopy flowering, temperature logging for heat sum fruit maturation models and tools for estimation of fruit size, colour and dry matter content. It discusses the importance of dry matter content in an eating quality specification for guiding harvest decisions. It also addresses use of machine vision in the context of estimating fruit number and fruit size in the orchard and estimating surface defects in the packhouse. Finally, the chapter discusses postharvest tools for measuring temperature, colour, firmness and ethylene and CO2 content. The chapter finally includes an example decision support system that uses heat sums and dry matter levels to guide in the decision to harvest.
A. Schouten, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Natural antifungal compounds for the control of diseases in wheat and other cereals
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Secondary metabolites are essential when considering the ecological context in which an organism operates. They have an array of functions, related to signalling and dealing with biotic and abiotic stress situations. For defence against pathogenic fungi, plants can synthesize various metabolites. Wheat, like several other cereals, produces various benzoxazinoids, which are also associated with herbicide detoxification and the defence against herbivores and microorganisms. Apart from these benzoxazinoids, wheat seems to produce only a limited number of other metabolites with known antifungal activity when compared to other cereals. Nevertheless, wheat is still capable of successfully defending itself against pathogenic fungi by outsourcing its defences, that is, through the mobilization of the microbial community. This chapter provides an overview of the way in which these natural antimicrobial compounds contribute to the defence of wheat against fungal pathogens, as well as considering the counter defensive actions undertaken by some of those fungal pathogens.
Dr Byron Zamasiya
Supporting smallholders in soybean cultivation: the example of Zimbabwe
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Low crop productivity due to soil fertility decline is a major challenge constraining maize-based smallholder farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa. The decline in soil fertility is largely due to continuous cropping without soil replenishment and reduced N2 fixation. In Zimbabwe, soybean has emerged as a key crop that has the potential to help to improve soil fertility and food and income security among smallholder farmers. The majority of research has focused on the biophysical side of soybean production. This chapter adds to existing literature by focusing on the opportunities and constraints for soybean cultivation by smallholder farmers. We review collaborative projects that have promoted soybean cultivation by smallholder farmers, and make recommendations regarding the training, financial and marketing systems required to support smallholder farmers further.
R. G. V. Bramley, CSIRO, Australia; T. A. Jensen, University of Southern Queensland, Australia; A. J. Webster, CSIRO, Australia; and A. J. Robson, University of New England, Australia
Precision agriculture and sugarcane production – a case study from the Burdekin region of Australia
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Precision agriculture (PA) involves the use of spatial information about crop performance and the biophysical characteristics of the production system at the field and sub-field scale, to optimise agronomic management decisions. This chapter uses the case study of a 26.7 ha field in the Burdekin sugarcane-growing region of Australia to illustrate how PA technologies might be used to enhance sugarcane production; in this case, a saving of A$330/ha in gypsum application costs through the use of variable-rate application (VRA). The chapter examines potential future prospects for further development of sugarcane PA including improved variable-rate fertiliser equipment, on-the-go sensing of commercial cane sugar (CCS) at harvest, detection and spot spraying of weeds, and a reduced risk of detrimental environmental impacts from sugarcane production through recognition that, under uniform management, areas that are low yielding have low efficiencies of fertiliser use and so may have increased risk of nutrient loss off-site.
Noam Alkan, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), Volcani Center, Israel; and Anirudh Kumar, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), Volcani Center, Israel and Indira Gandhi National Tribal University (IGNTU), India
Post-harvest storage management of mango fruit
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As soon as a high-quality fruit and good yield are achieved, the mango fruit is harvested and the post-harvest-handling venture begins. It is estimated that, from harvest to plate, more than one-third of the fruit yield is lost. The purpose of this chapter is to review existing information and research outcomes in the preservation of fruit quality and reduction of post-harvest damage and loss by adopting suitable technologies and knowledge during post-harvest operation, storage management, transportation and marketing of mango fruit.
Ludovic Brossard, Jean-Yves Dourmad, Florence Garcia-Launay and Jaap van Milgen, PEGASE, INRA – Agrocampus Ouest, France
Modelling nutrient requirements for pigs to optimize feed efficiency
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Improvement of feed efficiency is crucial if pig production is to meet the challenge of sustainability in terms of production costs and environmental impact. This implies to precisely know the nutrient requirements of sows and growing pigs to develop adapted feeding strategies and thus optimize performance. This chapter describes existing modelling approaches developed to predict the nutrient requirement of a single individual animal (growing pig or sow) in terms of protein/amino acids, energy and minerals, and depending on characteristics of the pig and the feed, and environmental conditions. The chapter proposes and explains the integration of individual variability among animals into models for pig feeding, its application in precision feeding, and illustrates via a case study the relevance of the application of these models for improving feed efficiency.
Martin A. J. Parry, João Paulo Pennacchi, Luis Robledo-Arratia and Elizabete Carmo- Silva, Lancaster University, UK; and Luis Robledo-Arratia , University of Cambridge, UK
Photosynthetic improvement of wheat plants
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The light-driven assimilation of CO2 in photosynthesis is the primary determinant of the biomass of wheat. The current theoretical maximum efficiency of photosynthesis in wheat is 4.6%, but in practice it rarely exceeds 2% and averages less than 1% in the field (Zhu et al. 2008). Improving this conversion efficiency represents a key opportunity to not only increase yield, but also to decrease the demand for land and increase the efficiency with which other resources are used. This chapter reviews some of the key factors determining photosynthetic performance and explores the options for improving the photosynthetic capacity and efficiency of wheat by selecting for a range of important traits.
Luis Augusto Becerra Lopez-Lavalle, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Colombia
Molecular approaches in cassava breeding
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In cassava, as for other major crops, molecular markers can reveal the genetic basis for both qualitative and quantitative phenotypic changes. This chapter examines the genetic diversity of cassava, the process of marker-assisted selection (MAS) and the application of genome sequencing to cassava. The chapter looks ahead to the future potential of genetic engineering of cassava.
Dr D. F. Chapman
Plant-animal interactions in grazing systems
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This chapter reviews the interactions between plants and animals that govern the production efficiency of temperate pasture-based livestock production systems. These interactions operate at different temporal and spatial scales, and are highly variable. We take as our case study the dry matter intake (DMI) of animals grazing pasture because DMI is central to most of the interactions. We consider management, plant, sward and animal factors affecting DMI, and review management practices and plant breeding objectives that have sought to increase it. We conclude that there is very limited scope to alter DMI in pasture-based production systems operating near the optimum for long-term financial and environmental sustainability. Rather we propose that plant breeding should focus on plant structural characteristics that favour consistent attainment of optimal post-grazing herbage mass because we can be confident this will increase total herbage accumulation, pasture utilisation and herbage nutritive value.
Pamela L. Ruegg, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
Minimising the development of antimicrobial resistance on dairy farms: appropriate use of antibiotics for the treatment of mastitis
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Mastitis is the most prevalent bacterial disease among dairy cows, and the majority of antimicrobials given to dairy cows are for the prevention or treatment of this disease. Thus, a thorough understanding of mastitis is necessary when considering the appropriate use of antibiotics. After reviewing how antimicrobials are currently used on dairy farms, this chapter considers recent research on the prevalence and development of antimicrobial resistance in mastitis pathogens. It then shows how consistent diagnostic protocols and recording systems, attention to medical history, appropriate choice of antibiotics and control of treatment duration can all contribute to minimizing unnecessary use of antimicrobials and promoting effective treatment of mastitis.
Nicolas Tremblay, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada
Modelling and decision support systems in precision agriculture
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Decision support systems (DSSs) are computerized systems, including models and databases, for decision-making purposes. In a precision agriculture (PA) framework, spatial and temporal requirements for DSSs are of particular importance but dealing with uncertainties and human aspects leading to adoption should not be dismissed. This chapter examines the key issues associated with deploying DSSs in PA before moving on to consider their human and social aspects. The chapter provides a number of detailed case studies on the application of DSSs, with an emphasis on nitrogen management. Finally, the chapter considers research options for DSSs to improve productivity in a PA framework, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr F. Ortega
Persistence and yield stability of temperate grassland legumes for sustainable animal production
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Forage legumes are essential for sustainable production systems, but their positive environmental and economic effects cannot be realized unless they also show persistence and yield stability. These are complex traits which depend on the interaction of different biotic and abiotic environmental factors with the genetic background of the sown species/cultivar. This chapter surveys the global cultivation of forage legumes and considers important challenges to achieving persistence and yield stability. The chapter includes a case study on the improvement of persistence in red clover by recurrent selection for general adaptation to the environment, and then discusses physiological studies on drought stress tolerance in white clover and broad-leafed birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.). Finally, the chapter considers potential trends in future research into improving the persistence and yield stability of forage legumes, in the face of increasing biotic and abiotic stresses.
John J. Burke, USDA-ARS, USA
Sorghum breeding for abiotic stress tolerance
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Sorghum is a major global crop for food, feed and biofuel. Globally, domesticated sorghum is often grown on marginal lands and in environments exposing the plant to temperature extremes and water deficits. Although sorghum exhibits better abiotic stress tolerances than many crops, significant sorghum yield losses are experienced annually in response to unfavourable environments. This chapter focuses on methods for identifying diversity among germplasm collection. It then shows ways of exploiting germplasm diversity to improve soybean responses to low temperature and water-deficit stress.
Thomas F. Döring and Ulrich Köpke, University of Bonn, Germany
Organic grassland
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Organic farming makes up an increasing share of agricultural and food systems. Within organic agriculture, grasslands are of particular importance because of their multiple benefits to soils, crops, livestock and ecosystems. In this chapter, we review the multifunctionality of grasslands in the context of organic agriculture, with a special focus on crop rotations. Generally, differences between organic and non-organic systems are smaller for grasslands than for arable systems. However, marked differences between the production systems do occur with respect to nutrient management, particularly nitrogen. As nitrogen losses constitute one of the most important challenges for organic grassland management, we review current knowledge on the possibilities to contain such losses. Further we present two case studies, from the United Kingdom and Germany, showing that trade-offs between different aims, for example productivity and biodiversity conservation, are not restricted to conventionally managed grasslands but frequently occur in organic grassland systems as well.
James E. Wells and Elaine D. Berry, US Meat Animal Research Center, USDA-ARS, USA
Pathogens affecting beef
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Mankind has long recognized that animals harbour disease. Zoonotic pathogens are agents from animals that cause disease in humans. This chapter reviews the zoonotic diseases related to cattle. It describes zoonotic parasites and viruses and the pathogens related to cattle. Historically, good management practices and animal husbandry have improved the safety of beef supply. Therefore, pathogen control using good animal management and biosecurity practices, as well as the use of vaccines, is explained.
Larry McDougald, University of Georgia, USA
Parasites affecting poultry
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Parasitic infections and infestations are a major challenge to poultry production worldwide. This chapter comprehensively surveys parasites affecting poultry, divided into the broad categories of protozoa, flagellates and worms as well as arthropods including lice, bedbugs, flies, beetles, mites, fleas and ticks. The chapter examines diagnosis, control, management and disinfection for each of the major parasites associated with poultry farming. It also addresses the pathology, epidemiology and molecular biology of the major parasitic infections, and suggests lines of future research and enquiry in this field.
Dr Pina M. Fratamico
Methods for detecting pathogens in the beef food chain: an overview
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The main food-borne pathogens of concern in the beef chain are Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and Salmonella; other pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes and Campylobacter spp. may also be present. Furthermore, the occurrence and development of antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) pathogens in the beef chain is a public health issue. Traditional culture-based methods are laborious and time consuming. Rapid methods, including nucleic acid-, immunologic- and biosensor-based techniques can be very sensitive and specific and provide more timely information regarding the presence of pathogens in the beef chain. This chapter reviews these methods, as well as recent advances in next-generation sequencing technologies.
Dan S. Long, USDA-ARS, USA
Site-specific nutrient management systems
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Site-specific nutrient management systems were created to manage for spatial and temporal variability in biophysical factors that determine the availability and demand of crop nutrients. These systems differ among geographical regions in the information utilized and the way they operate to accomplish their common purpose: namely, improve nutrient use efficiency and balance trade-offs between profitability and environmental concerns. This chapter looks at system inputs that are used to inform site-specific nutrient management, illustrates system processes and outputs with examples from the Midwestern and Western U.S., and identifies trends and further developmental needs.
Sung Woo Kim, North Carolina State University, USA
Meeting amino acid requirements in pig nutrition
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Protein is one of the major components of the pig’s body, and dietary protein is the sole source of essential amino acids required for the protein synthesis for body maintenance, growth and reproduction. The protein synthesis is limited when there is a deficiency of any amino acid, and it is therefore important to ensure that feed meets the amino acid requirements of pigs at their various growth stages. This chapter reviews the principles and practical aspects of meeting the amino acid requirements of pigs, with information organized according to the growth stage and physiological status.
Xinchao Wang, Xinyuan Hao, Lu Wang and Yajun Yang, Tea Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (TRI, CAAS), China
Mapping and exploiting the tea genome
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Long-term cross-pollination has produced considerable heritable variation within and between populations of the tea plant and related species, resulting in a high level of genetic diversity. A good understanding and management of this pool of genetic diversity is of vital importance for crop improvement, since it directly affects the potential for genetic gain through selection. This chapter provides an overview of genetic diversity of tea plant and its characterization and utilization and examines the origins and global distribution of tea cultivars, assessing the current status of tea genetic resources. The chapter explains the processes of tea germplasm evaluation and characterization and examines the exploitation and utilization of the genetic diversity of tea, looking ahead to future research trends in this area for ensuring this diversity.
Kellye Eversole and Jane Rogers, International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium, USA; Beat Keller, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Rudi Appels, Murdoch University, Australia; and Catherine Feuillet, Bayer CropScience, USA
Sequencing and assembly of the wheat genome
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The genome sequence is an essential prerequisite for defining the complete gene catalogue of an organism, and it provides a framework for identifying and understanding the function of variants associated with phenotypic traits of interest. For wheat, these traits include disease resistance, crop yield improvement, protein content, quality factors and resistance to abiotic stressors such as drought or poor soils. This chapter reviews the challenges posed by the structure and composition of the wheat genome and how they are being addressed through genome sequencing strategies. It describes the sequencing approaches and resources that have been generated to date and provides some examples of how they are used. The chapter also discusses the road map of the International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium for the completion of a reference sequence that will meet the needs of breeders and researchers seeking to improve crop varieties and to understand the dynamic genome environment and complexity of the world’s most important crop.
Dr Dr Steven P. C. Groot
Organic seed production, certification and availability
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Through evolution, plants produce seeds with variation in speed of germination and, for instance, dormancy to spread the risk of germinating in the wrong season. Although domestication and breeding has created crops with more rapid germinating seeds, compared with their wild relatives, for many crops the variation in performance is such that upgrading and seed treatments are needed to create starting materials for commercial crop production. Measures are needed during the production itself, and during harvesting, cleaning and drying. In this chapter we will report on various factors that influence organic seed quality and availability, on methods for seed sorting, upgrading and storage, on methods of seed sanitation that are applicable for organic seeds and on seed certification systems. We will point on research that has been performed in the past and resulted in commercially available methods for upgrading of seed quality and on promising new research lines.
Prof. Prof. Sandra Edwards
Organic pig production systems, welfare and sustainability
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Organic pig production systems seek to produce pig meat in a more ethical and natural manner. This involves adherence to standards relating to accommodation, feeding, health management, husbandry and behavioural freedom which differ from conventional pig production practice. To be sustainable, organic systems must command a market premium by demonstrating differentiation in terms of enhanced animal welfare and reduced environmental impact, whilst ensuring safety and healthiness of products. Whilst some of these claims can be justified, others are open to challenge in current systems. A great diversity in organic production systems and the outcomes which they achieve is apparent, but the growing organic market is leading to increasing research into organic pig production and continuous system improvement.
Ian Batey, formerly CSIRO, Australia
Measuring wheat quality
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Wheat quality depends on the genetic make-up of a particular wheat sample. The environment in which it is grown then influences this quality potential. This chapter describes the effects of protein and starch on wheat quality, and the way these components give rise to wheat properties considered important to quality. The chapter examines methods of measuring flour quality and the importance of variety identification, as well as describing likely future trends in this area of research.
Dr P. Moroni
Mastitis, milk quality and yield
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Mastitis is one of the most economically important diseases in dairy production and it is defined as an inflammation of the mammary gland. This chapter examines the impact of clinical and subclinical mastitis in cows on milk quality, and provides a detailed account of indicators of mastitis. In addition, it describes the impact of mastitis on milk composition and quality, addressing its effect on the protein, fat, lactose and iron content of milk. The chapter also examines the impact of mastitis on milk yields and provides suggestions for further reading on this subject.
