Nalini C. Gnanapragasam, Former Deputy Director (Research), Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka; currently Agricultural Tea Consultant - Malwatte Valley Plantations PLC, Sri Lanka
Insect pests of tea: caterpillars and other seasonal, occasional and minor pests
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This chapter focuses on seasonal, occasional and minor pests of tea, which cause damage to tea plants largely through feeding processes. The chapter considers a variety of factors associated with each of these pests, including their geographical distribution, appearance, the damage caused and their respective biologies and ecologies. It also looks ahead to future research into these pests, including understanding their habits and habitats, their sensitivity to temperature, humidity and climate change in general.
J. P. C. Greyling, University of the Free State, South Africa
Improving the reproductive efficiency of sheep
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Sheep, in the form of mutton and lamb, fulfils, in large part, the world’s ever-increasing demand for animal protein. Large areas of the world are arid and semi-arid and are thus suitable for sheep farming, but there is only limited availability of pasture area. Therefore, sheep production must be increased for an efficient and a sustainable food supply. This chapter describes how sheep nutrition, animal diet and welfare, reproductive technologies and sheep production management techniques can all contribute towards achieving sustainable sheep production. The chapter concludes that, provided adequate nutrition is given and a strict animal health and reproduction programme is adhered to with a breed adapted to the specific environment, a lambing rate of 130–150% is achievable.
H. Spieß, B. Schmehe and C. Vollenweider, LBS Dottenfelderhof, Germany
Key issues in breeding and trialling robust cereal cultivars for organic farming
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This chapter provides an overview of key issues in organic crop breeding and presents objectives, activities and results of concrete organic cereal breeding projects. Organic crop breeding is a small but rapidly growing branch of organic agriculture. Its primary objective is to develop cultivars suitable for the conditions of organic farming systems, which include a limited and generally more diverse plant nutrient availability, higher pressures of weeds, diseases and pests as well as special product quality requirements. This chapter provides an insight into concrete organic crop breeding projects with a special focus on resistance breeding programmes and cultivar triallings for cereal crop diseases such as common and dwarf bunt of wheat (Tilletia caries, T. controversa), Fusarium head blight (Fusarium spp.), yellow stripe rust of wheat (Puccinia striiformis), loose smut of oats (Ustilago avenae) and barley leaf stripe (Pyrenophora graminea). The chapter also outlines future needs and strategies.
Richard M. Fulton, Michigan State University, USA
Maintaining the health of laying hens:
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Biosecurity plays a pivotal role in maintaining the health of poultry. Biosecurity is the protection of birds from disease-causing agents. This chapter reviews the range of biosecurity measures required to maintain the health of laying hens. It talks about separation of birds which is an important measure. It reviews disease identification and detection, including the identification of specific diseases and vaccination regimes for prevention or treatment. Finally, this chapter discusses in detail the common diseases of egg-laying chickens, some of them being respiratory diseases, diseases related to the nervous system, the intestinal system, etc.
John Gowing, University of Newcastle, UK
Improving water productivity in rainfed agriculture: challenges and opportunities for small-scale farmers in dry lands
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There is growing global recognition of the need to improve agricultural water management if we are to achieve sustainable food production systems which ensure future food security whilst maintaining ecosystem services, strengthening capacity for adaptation to climate change and averting degradation of land and soil quality. This chapter reviews state-of-the-art knowledge on how to increase water productivity in rainfed agriculture. It examines concepts, methods, constraints and examples drawn from both developing and developed countries, with a particular emphasis on small-scale farmers in the dry lands of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), and West Asia and North Africa (WANA).
Rajiv Kumar Sharma , Global Wheat Improvement Program – CIMMYT, India
Improving wheat cultivation in Asia
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It has been estimated that wheat production in South Asia needs to grow at the rate of 2-2.5% annually until the middle of 21st century to feed its population. This chapter reviews some of the key issues which must be addressed in order to improve wheat cultivation in Asia. We begin by considering how the genetic diversity of wheat crops can be both improved and exploited, then review the improvement of breeding techniques. Strategies for dealing with biotic and abiotic stresses, improving quality, and improving cultivation practices are also covered. Finally, we offer a case study on improving wheat cultivation in India.
Prof. Prof. Paul H. Hemsworth
Humane transport, lairage and slaughter of sheep
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Contemporary public concerns about and policy debates on animal production focus on conditions that guarantee food security, public health, environmental quality and animal welfare. This chapter reviews the main welfare issues associated with management of sheep post-farm gate, including transport by road and by sea, and holding facilities, handling and stunning of sheep at abattoirs. The chapter argues that welfare monitoring at each stage of the post-farm gate production process is essential, together with provision of optimal thermal and spatial conditions in holding facilities and proper training for stockpeople on handling sheep to safeguard animal welfare. Finally, the chapter suggests a number of areas for future research.
Ilkka Leinonen, Newcastle University, UK
Life cycle assessment (LCA) of intensive poultry production systems
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Life cycle assessment provides a useful tool for identifying where significant improvements can be made to achieve environmental sustainability in agricultural production. Potential strategies for improving the environmental performance of intensive poultry systems are discussed in this chapter. These include improving feed efficiency by using additives such as enzymes in feed or alternatively improving the efficiency of birds through genetic selection, use of alternative feed ingredients, such as locally grown protein crops and agricultural by-products, as a replacement for South American grown soya, and considering other management options, such as improving poultry housing and adopting new strategies for manure management
K. Stafford, Massey University, New Zealand
Improving the welfare of lambs
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High lambing rates and maintaining high standards of lamb survival, health, nutrition and growth are essential for farm profitability, depending on the final product of sheep farming. The value assigned to lambs, the environment, farming tradition and economics of sheep farming will influence flock fecundity and how the flock is managed around lambing, as well as the welfare of lambs. This chapter examines the main issues affecting the welfare of lambs, including the handling and training of lambs from birth, causes of lamb mortality, techniques for marking lambs, and issues regarding the weaning of lambs and controlling infectious diseases in the lamb population. The chapter describes possible future trends in research in this area and provides guidance on where to look for further information on the subject.
Brian Fairchild, University of Georgia, USA
Hot weather management of poultry
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Maintaining an environment that minimizes stress on poultry is a significant part of obtaining a healthy bird that reaches its full genetic potential. One challenge that producers face is preventing heat stress and maintaining performance in hot weather conditions. By keeping bird body temperature, which slightly increases from 39°C to 41.1°C as the chick grows and develops, in the normal range, the bird will continue to grow, develop and efficiently utilize the feed that it consumes. The focus of this chapter will be on the principles of poultry management that farmers can implement in their poultry houses during hot weather to prevent heat stress and maintain normal bird body temperature. Ventilation, evaporative cooling and management practices that influence the ability of the farmer to keep birds cool will be reviewed.
Michael J. Goss, University of Guelph, Canada; Adrian Unc, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada; and Wilfried Ehlers, Georg-August University, Germany
Improving water management in organic crop cultivation
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Managing water for crop production requires capture and storage of water in the soil, which must also be protected from damage by raindrop impact and excess water. These actions ensure that the soil will benefit from increased organic matter content and be protected by harvest residues, living plants or a mulch of dead shoot material. This chapter describes actions to deal with excess water and offset water shortage through irrigation, and addresses issues concerning the water cycle, statics and dynamics of water in soil, the field water balance, soil evaporation, crop transpiration, crop water use, and water use efficiency. The chapter considers new developments and requirements in relation to future demand for food production without any risk to the natural environment or human welfare, and explores the potential to develop improved practices that allow soil organisms to protect crops from water shortage.
B. M. Hargis and G. Tellez, University of Arkansas, USA; and L. R. Bielke, Ohio State University, USA
Gut health and susceptibility to enteric bacterial diseases in poultry
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Most pathogens of poultry and other vertebrates enter the body via a mucosal portal of entry, and for the vast majority, this means either the respiratory or gastrointestinal tract (GIT). This chapter surveys the main bacterial pathogens found in the GIT of poultry, and examines the process of symbiosis between prokaryotes and the host in the gut. The chapter analyses the impact of these bacterial pathogens on the biology of the host and the effect of dysbiosis in poultry. It examines the effects of inflammation of the GIT on anaerobiosis, assesses the role of mucins, and addresses the effect of gut infections on dietary disruption as well as the impact of airborne infections of enteric bacteria on poultry.
Dr Rafael Augusto da Costa Parrella
Improving sorghum cultivation in South America
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Sorghum production in Brazil has expanded significantly in recent years, with a current planted area of close to one and a half million hectares. Sorghum provides an excellent source of grain to feed cattle, poultry and swine, as well as forage for cattle, especially in situations of drought and conditions of low soil fertility. It can also be used in bioenergy production. In this chapter we review the history of sorghum production in Brazil, and then consider the improvements necessary to ensure that sorghum production can continue to meet demand. Particular emphasis is given to the need to develop adapted sorghum cultivars which will grow well in tropical soils and produce crops suited to their particular uses.
Margaret E. Graves, Dalhousie University, Canada; and Ralph C. Martin, University of Guelph, Canada
Grassland management to minimize the environmental impact of dairy farming
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Minimizing the environmental impact of dairy farming with perennial forage systems management is a complex process. The aim is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (enteric methane, nitrous oxide from soil and carbon dioxide from equipment and fertilizer use), adapt to the effects of climate change, reduce nitrogen and phosphorus losses into the environment, improve soil health, promote biodiversity and optimize land use. Well-managed forage systems can reduce methane emissions and nitrate leaching, and minimize feeding of concentrates, which have a greater impact on the agro-ecosystem. This chapter explores emerging strategies such as management-intensive grazing and novel forage species, cultivars and mixtures. The chapter also presents research based and applied case studies of intensive grazing for dairy cows.
Michael Stear, Karen Fairlie-Clarke, and Nicholas Jonsson, University of Glasgow, UK; Bonnie Mallard, University of Guelph, Canada; and David Groth, Curtin University, Australia
Genetic variation in immunity and disease resistance in dairy cows and other livestock
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For most diseases of economic importance in livestock, resistance can be considered to be a complex or quantitative trait with limited evidence of negative correlations with resistance to other diseases. Attention to such traits allows the selection of healthier and more productive animals. This chapter reviews the sources of variation in resistance to disease, and then considers three strategies for selecting for resistance: by directly selecting for resistance to important diseases, based on the incidence of disease or a disease-related marker; by selecting for animals with strong innate and/or adaptive immune responses to a specified challenge to achieve a broad-based disease resistance; and by selecting for animals that perform well in an environment in which disease is endemic. The discussion also covers high-density SNP chips, improved sequencing methodologies and genome-wide association studies (GWAS)
David R. Clements, Trinity Western University, Canada
Invasive weed species and their effects
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An invasive weed exhibits a tendency to spread rapidly to occupy new niches. This chapter describes ten examples of situations in which invasive weeds directly affect agriculture. The chapter also examines indirect effects, and discusses how climate change and globalization interact to promote invasions. The chapter explores the potential contribution of integrated weed management (IWM) to managing and controlling weed invasions, and provides extensive further reading on the topic.
Duy Ngoc Do, McGill University, Canada; and Haja N. Kadarmideen, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
Genetic factors affecting feed efficiency, feeding behavior and related traits in pigs
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Feed resource efficiency contributes to sustainable production of pig meat, both economically and environmentally. This chapter describes different measures of feed efficiency and the underlying genetics of feeding in pigs, drawing on studies of genetic correlations of residual feed intake (RFI) with pig production traits and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) revealing the genetic architecture and biological mechanisms of feed efficiency. The chapter looks ahead to the future and recommends adoption of an integrative systems genomic approach to ensure accurate genomic prediction and a more comprehensive biological understanding of feed efficiency.
John Moran, Profitable Dairy Systems, Australia
Improving smallholder dairy farming in tropical Asia
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This chapter reviews the importance of smallholder dairy farmers in Asia. It assesses their needs and the obstacles they face in improving dairy production. The chapter discusses ways of benchmarking performance and examples of initiatives to support smallholders. It identifies both constraints faced by smallholder dairy farmers in Asia and ways of addressing them to ensure sustainable increases in production and yield.
Prof. Fredy Alpeter
Genetic improvement of sugarcane by transgenic, intragenic and genome editing technologies
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The grand social, economic and environmental challenges of the twenty-first century are demanding the acceleration of the genetic improvement of sugarcane to sustainably produce sugar and biofuel and to support the emerging bio-based economy. This chapter focuses on the contributions and future potential of biotechnology including enabling technologies, transgenic, intragenic and genome editing approaches for the improvement of agronomic sugarcane traits as well as metabolic engineering to develop value-added products and biofuels.
Prof. Francesco Tei
Integrated weed management in tomato cultivation
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Weeds pose a major threat to agriculture and cause crop yield losses in a big way. What needs to be done to counter the threat of weeds? This chapter discusses many measures to tackle the problem of weeds, especially in tomato cultivation. One of the most important is Integrated Weed Management (IWM). IWM combines direct and indirect weed control strategies to effectively tackle the problem of weeds in tomato cultivation. This chapter then looks into the preventive steps to be taken and discusses methods like crop rotation. Chemical weed control is another important aspect. The chapter also presents case studies on how research has been used to improve tomato cultivation in practice.
Professor Professor Sammy Aggrey
Genes associated with functional traits in poultry: implications for sustainable genetic improvement
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Poultry production primarily focuses on the supply of saleable products. Meat and eggs are classified as production traits and are the focus of improvement in poultry breeding organizations, while the functional traits of birds have received much less attention. However, over the past decade, the decline in some functional traits and increased awareness of poultry welfare has led to increasing interest in including functional traits in genetic improvement programmes. In this chapter, we first consider the key functional traits of reproductive capacity, skeletal integrity, cardiovascular fitness and disease resistance. We review how advances in molecular biology and sequencing of the chicken genome have made it possible to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and gene variants associated with functional traits, and discuss how these traits are genetically related to production traits. We consider how this information can be used to implement sustainable genetic improvement of poultry.
Sang Mok Sohn, Dankook University, South Korea
Improving organic agriculture in the developing world: Asia
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Traditional Asian farming methods are often seen as being close to organic production, but there is a need for considerable research and farmer education if the sector is to develop in accordance with scientifically led organic knowledge and to fulfil its potential. This chapter describes key crops grown in Asia and the current state of organic production in Asia, focussing particularly on rice production systems. The chapter examines types of organic rice farming and organic vegetable production. Finally, the chapter deals with the challenge of improving organic agriculture in Asia.
E. K. Doyle, University of New England, Australia
Improving sheep wool quality
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Wool is a natural fibre produced by nearly 500 different sheep breeds. Mean fibre diameter is the most important wool quality parameter and has the largest influence on the value of wool. Wool fibre competes with synthetic, cellulosic and cotton fibre consumption, and currently makes up 1.2% of world fibre production. This chapter considers five key areas where the wool industry needs to increase efficiency and improve the management of sheep in order to maintain market share and remain competitive. We review the utilisation of breeding values, health and welfare management for improved wool quality, optimisation of nutritional management, adoption of precision sheep management and improving consumer awareness of the provenance of wool products. The focus of the chapter is the quality of Merino wool.
Dr Abie Horrocks
Integrated pest management in wheat cultivation
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This chapter provides an overview of integrated pest management (IPM) in wheat cultivation. IPM uses biological, cultural and chemical methods in a compatible way. A wide variety of biological control agents contribute to pest control in wheat and successful IPM strategies require looking at the system as a whole, rather than treating pest problems in isolation. The New Zealand-based participatory project outlined as a case study emphasises how direct access to experts by farmers is critical for the successful adoption of IPM. IPM is not a rigid recipe for successful pest control, because strategies implemented from farm to farm may vary even though the IPM principles on which they are based do not. Research that supports IPM needs also to be flexible and dynamic.
Peter Paulsen, Frans J. M. Smulders and Friederike Hilbert, University of Veterinary Medicine, Austria
Food safety management on farms producing beef
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The production of safe, high-quality beef requires both good farming practices and additional measures targeted against specific hazards to human or animal health. This chapter provides an overview of good farming practices for beef cattle farms, with particular discussion of biosecurity, animal welfare and the importance of clean cattle policies. Hazard-specific control measures are then presented for one important hazard: E. Coli O157. Finally, existing quality assurance programmes for beef production are briefly reviewed.
J. Upton, E. Murphy and L. Shalloo, Teagasc, Ireland; M. Murphy, Cork Institute of Technology, Ireland; and I.J.M. De Boer and P.W.G. Groot Koerkamp, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Improved energy and water management to minimize the environmental impact of dairy farming
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As demand for animal products such as milk increases, the livestock sector places increasing demands on already scarce resources such as land, water and fossil fuels, while also contributing to environmental problems such as climate change. In this chapter, we consider how dairy farms can manage both energy consumption and water in order to minimize their environmental impacts. First, section 2 offers an overview of the current situation with respect to energy, and covers current usage, existing efficiency incentives and consumption modelling. Section 3 then presents two groups of strategies for addressing energy consumption: those which primarily aim to save on-farm energy costs, and those which aim to reduce not only costs, but also energy consumption and emissions. Section 4 reviews the results of these different groups of strategies, and makes recommendations for the development of dairy farming technology. Finally, section 5 addresses the issue of sustainable water use.
Randy C. Ploetz, University of Florida, USA
Integrated disease management in mango cultivation
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Mango, Mangifera indica L., is affected by a great number of fruit, foliar, stem and root diseases. This chapter covers diseases that seriously impact the crop. Their significance, geographical distribution and history are outlined, and the symptoms, causal agent(s) and epidemiology of each are detailed with emphasis on their management. Insect pests, nutritional disorders and other non-disease items are not considered.
Munir J. Mohammad Rusan, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Jordan and International Plant Nutrition Institute (IPNI), USA
Fertigation techniques for efficient water and nutrient use in agriculture
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Irrigated agriculture constitutes about 20% of the total cultivated land in the world, has much higher crop productivity compared to rainfed agriculture and contributes significantly to meeting the challenge of feeding the world. However, water resources are very limited, especially in the arid and semi-arid regions where irrigated agriculture is most practised. This chapter describes how fertigation (application of nutrients through irrigation water) acts as a powerful and efficient tool to optimize the efficient use of both water and nutrients. The chapter examines the advantages and limitations of fertigation, the prerequisites for successful and efficient fertigation, and the equipment available for fertilizer injection. The chapter also covers fertigation under greenhouse conditions and how the principles of the ‘4 rights’ (4R) can be applied to nutrient stewardship. Finally, the chapter addresses monitoring of soil, plant and water under fertigation, and looks ahead to future research in this area as well as providing guidance on further reading.
Gaspar H. Korndörfer, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Brazil
Improving nutrient management in sugarcane cultivation
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A nutrient management strategy which relies on the total replacement of all nutrients in the biomass is not sustainable from an economic or environmental point of view. This chapter therefore reviews more sustainable strategies for nutrient management in sugarcane cultivation. It begins by discussing the benefits of crop rotation, green manure and trash retention, before a detailed consideration of cane fertilization with nitrogen and other macronutrients, micronutrients and silicon. The potential uses of cane processing residues are considered. Finally, foliar diagnosis is reviewed as a tool to evaluate the nutritional status of a crop.
Pekka Huhtanen, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden
Feed evaluation and formulation to maximise nutritional efficiency in dairy cattle
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This chapter reviews the evaluation of energy and protein value of ruminants’ feedstuffs. It emphasises the importance of accurately estimating feeding values to optimise production. The chapter discusses experimental methods and models used to evaluate the energy and protein values of feeds. The advantages and weaknesses of static empirical models and dynamic mechanistic models are discussed. The chapter emphasises the need to evaluate models using large data sets from productions studies to improve the accuracy of predictions of production responses.
Dr Dr Peter Neuenschwander
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: fruit and other tree crops
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This chapter reviews control methods for the main pests affecting fruit and other tree crops. It describes the use of classical biological control for mango, papaya, cacao, coconut and citrus. Mango mealybug, Rastrococcus invadens, has been controlled with great success across West and Central Africa by two parasitoids. On papaya, the spiralling whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus has been controlled by two serendipitously introduced parasitoids. Papaya mealybug Paracoccus marginatus from South America was brought under control within one year by another parasitoid. These results were compromised by the invasion of the tropical fruit fly Batrocera dorsalis. The resulting mis-use of pesticides was replaced by bait sprays and parapheromones, a parasitoid introduced in Benin and Cameroon, and management of the African weaver ant Oecophylla longinoda. A new species of phytoseiid mite was introduced against the coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis. On cacao, Phythophthora megakarya was controlled by managing shade trees, soil cover, and applying fungicides. Cultural control measures were developed for cashew.
Xin Sun and Eric Berg, North Dakota State University, USA
Factors affecting the colour and texture of pig meat
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In pork, colour and texture are the two most significant factors influencing consumer perceptions of quality. It is therefore important to understand the many factors that can affect pork colour and texture, because these factors influence purchasing decisions. Furthermore, those in charge of marketing pork must be informed regarding the assessment methods available to monitor, evaluate and categorize pork colour and texture. In this chapter, we will explore the biological and environmental factors that affect colour and texture in pig meat. We will then introduce and discuss existing and potential methods for assessment of the colour and texture attributes of pig meat.
Jacques Le Gouis, INRA, France and Malcolm Hawkesford, Rothamsted Research, UK
Improving the uptake and assimilation of nitrogen in wheat plants
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Nitrogen is a critical macronutrient with a major influence on wheat grain yield and end-use quality. The key challenges are to detect and use genetic variability to breed for more efficient wheat varieties. For this, traits related to nitrogen capture by the root system, then nitrogen assimilation and finally nitrogen remobilization from source organs to the grain are to be considered. The possibility of using these traits will depend on the available genetic variability and the identification of molecular markers associated with relevant chromosomal regions. Future major research trends include the developments in high-throughput phenotyping and characterization of the response to combinations of environmental factors.
Nalini C. Gnanapragasam, Former Deputy Director (Research), Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka; currently Agricultural Tea Consultant - Malwatte Valley Plantations PLC, Sri Lanka
Insect pests of tea: shot hole borers, termites and nematodes
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The tea plant (Camellia sinensis (L) O. Kuntze) is a perennial crop and every part of the plant is prone to infestation by some pest over its lifetime. The prevalence and occurrence of the pest is primarily determined by the specific agro-climatic conditions, the type of cultivar and the cultural practices adopted within a given specific location. This chapter briefly describes the biology and ecology of important pests attacking tea in the different tea-growing areas of the world and the type of damage/injury induced, focusing on shot hole borers, termites (both live wood and scavenging varieties) and nematodes.
Mingyang Huang and Yu Wang, University of Florida, USA; and Chi-Tang Ho, Rutgers University, USA
Factors affecting pork flavour
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Pork-related products such as bacon, sausage and ham comprise a large portion of the meat products sold in today’s market due to their desirable flavour. The application of various processing methods such as cooking, curing, deboning, grinding, canning and application of additives or spices during processing greatly contribute to the characteristic aromas of specific pork-related products. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an integrated overview of the essential flavour constituents in pork products and the presumptive factors affecting pork flavour. Despite large differences among animal species, genetics, and methods used in processing and cooking, this chapter will attempt to focus on consensus odorants that have been studied by at least two independent groups, and will emphasize the heat-induced formation of pork odorants’ pathways.
W. Tadesse, A. Amri, M. Sanchez-Garcia, M. El-Bouhssini, M. Karrou, S. Patil, F. Bassi and M. Baum, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Morocco; and T. Oweis, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Jo
Improving wheat production in the Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) region
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Wheat is the principal staple food in most countries of the Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) region, accounting for 45% of the region’s per capita calorie intake with an average wheat consumption of about 200 kg/capita/year. Wheat production in the region has increased both horizontally and vertically from 1961 through 2013. However, most of the countries in the region are still unable to meet their national demand. This chapter reviews the major challenges of wheat production, the available wheat production technologies and the ways forward to improve wheat production while conserving the natural base in the region.
Dr Dr Ignace Godonou
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: vegetables
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In many West African countries, vegetable production is a key sector of urban and peri-urban agriculture. However, production is undermined by biotic constraints, mainly arthropod pests, disease-causing organisms and plant parasitic nematodes. In an attempt to combat this, farmers frequently use broad-spectrum and highly toxic pesticides. However, farmers’ coping strategies against pests and production constraints remain largely ineffective. This chapter reviews some key biotic constraints and presents a number of alternative management strategies. For instance, IITA identified and developed biopesticide Bba5653 to control Plutella xylostella on cabbage. Attempts were made to develop botanical pesticides such as cassava peels against root knot nematodes. In Benin, natural enemies of aphids were recorded, with Lysiphlebus testaceipes emerging as a promising element in aphid management strategies. We conclude that there is a need to increase farmers’ awareness of the side effects of highly toxic pesticide use and to offer training on the use of biopesticides and botanicals and the preservation of pests’ natural enemies.
Jeffrey Rushen, University of British Columbia, Canada
Housing and the welfare of dairy cattle
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In modern dairy farming, lactating cows and un-weaned calves are often housed indoors, in a restricted space, at high density, and/or separate from other animals. Such housing conditions affect the welfare of the animals by creating risks of illness and injuries and placing restrictions on behaviour. This chapter will examine issues arising from the physical and social aspects of dairy cattle housing, with a focus on the most current and controversial issues in the area. Sections 2–5 focus on the different housing systems available for lactating cows and on the advantages and disadvantages of these alternatives. Sections 6–8 then review the issue of housing for un-weaned calves.
Ben Tyson
Ensuring biodiversity in dairy farming
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Dairy farming may affect the biodiversity of microbial species, grass or pasture species, soil, native vegetation, and other flora and fauna on the farm itself. It can also affect aquatic, downstream estuarine and coastal biodiversity because of the nutrients, pesticides and sediments transported away from the farm through surface runoff and groundwater. This chapter will address the impacts of dairy farming on biodiversity, approaches to biodiversity enhancement, measures for enhancing biodiversity and strategies for engaging farmers in biodiversity enhancement. It then reviews a number of case studies to illustrate these issues.
Lilian Elgalise Techio Pereira and Sila Carneiro da Silva, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil; Cory Matthew and Ignacio F. López, Massey University, New Zealand; and André Fischer Sbrissia, Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, Brazil
Grazing management for sustainable grazing systems
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Grasslands play a key role in soil, water and biodiversity conservation and deliver numerous other ecosystem and cultural services. This chapter defines key terms associated with grassland grazing systems, with a particular emphasis on the meaning of grazing management and sustainable intensification. The chapter outlines current knowledge regarding major effects of grazing management on above- and belowground plant responses. The chapter then discusses how the mass flow of herbage can be manipulated through grazing management targets. Selected major effects of grazing on soil C and N stocks are then presented in the fourth section, and the chapter highlights how grazing strategies that maximise animal performance also have the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to potential future research aimed at sustainable improvement of grassland and animal productivity within a context of global climate change.
V. Pérez and J. I. Hormaza, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea La Mayora (IHSM La Mayora – CSIC – UMA), Spain
Exploiting the mango genome: molecular markers
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As in other crops, the development of molecular tools is allowing significant progress in understanding different aspects of mango biology. This chapter reviews advances made in the use of different molecular tools in mango in the last decades, including biochemical markers and DNA research. The chapter looks ahead to current and future developments in the field, including next-generation sequencing and localization of genes of interest for breeding purposes. The chapter offers suggestions for further reading on the subject.
J. Bell
Improving water management in sorghum cultivation
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Grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) is a drought tolerant crop that has been grown across the American Great Plains since the early twentieth century, primarily as a feed crop. Sorghum’s deep, fibrous root system provides greater root volume and therefore potential access to a greater soil water volume enabling sorghum to withstand greater periods of water stress if there is ample stored soil water. This chapter examines dryland production of sorghum and sorghum irrigation methods, including deficit irrigation. The chapter also addresses the relationship between soils and irrigation management.
Peter J. Gregory and Christina K. Clarke, University of Reading, UK
Establishment and root development in wheat crops
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Good establishment lays the foundations for wheat yield. Here, we have used the term ‘establishment’ to encompass development and growth prior to the elongation of the main stem. We describe how the seedling root system establishes and then outline how four agronomic practices (time and depth of sowing, seeding rate and soil moisture conditions) affect the initial growth of the plant. We present a case study from Australia on how embryo size and seed mass affects early growth, and conclude with some recent ideas as to how root systems might be optimized in different soils to increase production.
Grant Dewell, Iowa State University, USA
Ensuring the safety of feed for beef cattle
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The unique ruminant digestive system of beef cattle enables them to eat and digest a wide range of feed products, including by-product or alternative feeds not utilized in other livestock production systems. It is important to ensure that the various feed products provided to cattle will not pose a food safety risk to the people who consume beef products. This chapter will provide an overview of the three major areas where food safety risks can be introduced via feed material: purchase of contaminated feed products, contamination during storage and contamination of feed due to mixing or delivery errors. In each case, measures to prevent unacceptable risk are also briefly considered.
Dr Dr Stefan Hauser
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: banana and plantain
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Many smallholder farmers in humid sub-Saharan Africa rely on bananas and plantains (Musa spp.) as major staple food and income generating crops, with only a negligible portion traded internationally. Banana and plantain production is mainly threatened by various pathogens and pests. This chapter describes the major diseases including fungal diseases (Fusarium wilt, black sigatoka), viral diseases (banana bunchy top and banana streak virus), bacterial disease (banana Xanthomonas wilt) and pests such as nematodes and weevil, affecting bananas and plantains.. The chapter also describes measures used to manage and control these diseases and pests.
Moshe Lapidot and Ilan Levin, Institute of Plant Sciences – Volcani Center, ARO, Israel
Genetic resistance to viruses in tomato
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The cultivated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) constitutes a major agricultural industry: it is grown worldwide and, in terms of vegetable crop production, is only second to potato. Tomato plants show a wide climatic tolerance and are grown in both tropical and temperate regions around the world. Viral diseases are responsible for heavy yield losses and are one of the reasons that in many locations tomato production has shifted from open-field to protected production. The three most important tomato viruses in terms of production losses are Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV), Tomato mosaic virus (ToMV) and Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV). This chapter describes the development of genetic resistances to these three viruses in tomato.
A. S. Ross, Oregon State University, USA
Genetic and other factors affecting wheat quality
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Wheat quality derives from interactions between the components of the kernel. In turn these components are themselves collections of multiple sub-components. Many components are under genetic control and are modulated, if not profoundly influenced, by growing conditions. This chapter focuses on the three main polymeric components of wheat grain: protein, starch, and fibre, as these are arguably the primary contributors to wheat flour functionality. It explores the relationship between sustainable wheat production and wheat grain quality and milling performance as well as analysing in detail the protein, starch and fibre composition of wheat grain.
Dr Andreas W. Ebert
Ensuring the genetic diversity of tomatoes
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This book chapter describes key issues regarding genetic diversity of tomatoes, including taxonomy and mating system. Figures on global ex situ conservation of tomato germplasm are provided and the world’s largest collection in the public domain, held by AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center, is described in some detail. This chapter also deals with the policy framework for the conservation, access and benefit-sharing mechanisms of plant genetic resources (PGR). It describes how the policy framework and stricter phytosanitary requirements affect the exchange and use of PGR. Ways to strengthen sharing of PGR for food and nutrition security and climate change adaptation are discussed.
Alma Delia Alarcon-Rojo and Ana Luisa Renteria-Monterrubio, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Mexico
Ensuring safety in chilling and freezing of poultry meat
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Poultry is the most traded meat worldwide, and its consumption has increased almost continuously since 1965. In order to achieve sustainable production, the poultry industry must continue to develop its methods and technologies, and in doing so must take into account the standards of safety required by consumers. This chapter presents a review of safety practices and potential risks associated with chilling and freezing of poultry meat. It covers relevant research on the improvement of poultry safety during chill processing, post-slaughter handling risks and procedures, and the most important poultry pathogens and their control.
David Mengel, Kansas State University, USA
Improving soil and crop nutrition management in sorghum cultivation
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This chapter provides an overview of the nutrients needed, quantities of nutrients used and concepts of nutrient management commonly utilized in commercial grain sorghum production. The chapter describes how these concepts can also be applied to subsistence production as practised in much of the developing world where sorghum is grown. The chapter focuses on the management practices and techniques utilized for the essential mineral nutrients commonly observed to be deficient in sorghum production. These include: N, P, K, S, Fe, Mn, Zn and Cl. The chapter will discuss soil and other conditions under which deficiencies may occur; methods to assess nutrient availability and nutrient sources, both chemical fertilizers and also common by-products which can be used as nutrient sources; and preferred methods and time of applications.
Dr Dr Peter Neuenschwander
Improving plant health in sub-Saharan Africa: conclusions and future challenges
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This chapter provides concluding comments for ‘Critical Issues in Plant Health: 50 Years of Research in African Agriculture’, a book focussing on research carried out by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) to improve the health of crops in Africa. In addition, it also outlines future challenges faced in improving plant health in sub-Saharan Africa for IITA. IITA projects and their impacts are discussed in relation to issues such as biological control, resistant varieties, cultural and environmental control, biorational control (including use of botanicals and entomopathogens) and chemical control. The impact of IITA projects on combining techniques in integrated pest management (IPM) is also covered. Lastly, an overall assessment of projects is made, and IITA’s plans for the future are included, as are recommendations for the future.
Prof. Robert Pym
Helping smallholders to improve poultry production
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Small-scale family poultry farming is practised by a large proportion of smallholder families in the rural and peri-urban areas of most of the world’s developing countries. By enabling improvements in disease control, breeding and genetics, and management and nutrition through smallholder poultry development projects which incorporate a participatory farming approach, value chain assessment and appropriately focused training and extension programmes, such projects have the potential to impact very meaningfully on poverty alleviation, household nutrition and food security, the health and education of children and the empowerment of women as the principal poultry keepers. These outcomes constitute a number of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.
Michael S. Lilburn, Ohio State University, USA
Enhancing the nutritional quality of poultry meat
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The pattern of poultry meat consumption has changed considerably, and these days, there has been a significant increase in the consumption of poultry meat products that are easily purchased and/or prepared. Genetic selection has largely helped to meet the market demand for increased poultry meat for achieving growth rate and improved protein accretion, particularly with respect to the breast muscle or white meat portions of the carcass. The objective of this chapter is to review the basics of poultry carcass growth and development and the fundamentals of lipid metabolism. The aim is also to discuss new research developments in the matter of enhancing the nutritional quality of poultry meat.
Stevan Z. Knezevic, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
Flame weeding techniques
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Flaming as a vegetation control method began in the mid-1800s. It is based on utilizing heat for plant control, and has the potential to be used effectively for at least six agronomic crops (field corn, sweet corn, popcorn, sorghum, soybean and sunflower) when conducted properly at the most tolerant crop growth stage. There has been increasing interest in integrating flame weeding with conventional cropping systems, and where herbicide use is undesirable, such as in cities, parks and other urban areas. In this chapter, we review flame weeding requirements, the mechanism by which it reduces weeds and the potential uses of the technique. We also consider its advantages and disadvantages, including its potential environmental impacts.
Dinesh D. Jayasena, Uva Wellassa University, Sri Lanka; and Cheorun Jo, Seoul National University, Republic of Korea
Enhancing the flavour of poultry meat
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Understanding the chemistry of poultry meat flavour and factors affecting poultry meat flavour is vital in order to produce the most flavourful and consistent product possible by preserving and/or enhancing the flavour of poultry meat. This chapter describes different mechanisms and chemical compounds responsible for poultry meat flavour and off-flavour development and explain the main factors affecting poultry meat flavour, which can be manipulated to enhance the flavour of poultry meat.
Margaret Sexton, Primary Industries and Regions, South Australia (PIRSA), Australia
Egg washing to ensure product safety
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The structure of eggs poses specific problems for washing, especially in large commercial operations. However, washing is a valuable process, both to make eggs look clean and to reduce the bacterial load on the shell. This chapter reviews those properties of eggs that are relevant to the washing process and then shows how important cleaning principles can be applied to the special case of washing of eggs to improve product safety.
Xinguo Mao, Institute of Crop Science , Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China; Delong Yang, Gansu Agricultural University, China; and Ruilian Jing, Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China
Improving drought and heat tolerance in wheat
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Changes in global climate have increased the variability of precipitation, and have made episodes of drought and/or high temperature more common. These stresses, often occurring in combination during grain filling in arid or semiarid areas, are considered the two most common environmental limitations to wheat growth and yield potential. Therefore, the improvement of drought and heat tolerance, as well as grain yield, is of great importance in selecting wheat cultivars. This chapter aims to assess the genes involved in drought and heat tolerances, and the promising physiological traits that may assist in traditional genetic improvement for increased tolerance to drought and heat stress in wheat. It focuses on advances in our understanding of the molecular markers associated with physiological traits, and the roles of various important genes in determining a wheat plant’s response to heat and drought stresses.
John M. Gonzalez, Sara M. Ebarb, Kelsey J. Phelps and Michael E. Dikeman, Kansas State University, USA
Effects of metabolic modifiers on beef carcass composition and meat quality
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Metabolic modifiers are compounds that are either fed to animals or implanted to improve rate of gain, feed efficiency, dressing percent, carcass meat yield, visual meat quality, shelf life or meat palatability. This chapter presents a general review of the effects of metabolic modifiers on carcass composition, fresh meat quality and cooked meat palatability. Emphasis will be on those metabolic modifiers that are approved for use in cattle in the United States and other developed countries. The main types of modifier discussed are anabolic steroid implants, beta-adrenergic agonists, vitamins D3, E and A, and somatotropin.
M. L. W. J. Broekhuijse, Topigs Norsvin Research Center B.V., The Netherlands
Factors affecting the reproductive efficiency of boars
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Efficient artificial insemination (AI) is essential for future challenges in the pig industry. Core business for AI companies worldwide is diluting semen from high fertile breeding boars, and by that inseminating many sows. Efficient use of AI boars with high genetic merit is important to maximise dissemination of the genetic progress made in the breeding nucleus. An overview of factors affecting the reproductive efficiency of boars is presented. Boar semen is the most important carrier of genetic progress.
Manuele Tamò, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Bénin; Léonard Afouda, Université de Parakou, Bénin; Ranajit Bandyopadhyay, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; Harry Bottenberg, United States Agency
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: legumes
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The yield potential of cowpea and soybean is severely constrained by several biotic stresses, negatively impacting on the livelihoods of farming communities. Resistant germplasm is often the first line of defence against plant pathogens inducing foliar diseases like Asian soybean rust, but needs to be accompanied by proper resistance management plans, including understanding and monitoring of pathotype formation. This chapter shows how combatting soil-borne pathogens, nematodes and particularly insect pests requires a truly integrated approach, which can vary in the assembly of its options depending on the nature of the organism. IITA scientists and collaborators have developed a range of interventions, often discovered only after thorough ecological and biodiversity studies, as in the case of flower thrips and pod borers in cowpea. Our research has resulted in a strategy using tolerant varieties, establishing and preserving natural enemies on wild host plant refugia, and intervening at the field level with biorational pesticide applications.
Bernard L. Schroeder, University of Southern Queensland, Australia; Andrew W. Wood, Tanglewood Agricultural Services, Australia; David V. Calcino and Danielle M. Skocaj, Sugar Research Australia Limited, Australia; Alan P. Hurney, Edmonton, Australia; and
Good planting and cultivation practices in sugarcane production
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Plant crop establishment provides an opportunity to ensure that best management practices (BMPs) are identified and implemented or continued on-farm. If it is not done well, the ensuing crop could be negatively affected. This chapter focusses on a philosophy of BMP associated with sugarcane farming systems and explores how this enables good decision-making when crop establishment practices and activities are being considered and implemented by a grower. The chapter addresses the need for best practice crop establishment planning for sugarcane crop cycles, implementation of crop establishment plans, residue management, rectification and soil amelioration activities, fallow and sugarcane planting strategies and sugarcane cultivation practices and weed control.
J. M. Clarke
Durum wheat: production, challenges and opportunities
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Durum wheat is principally used for the manufacture of pasta, couscous and, to a lesser extent, in the production of bulgur and bread. This chapter explores the challenges and opportunities of durum wheat production in the twenty-first century, addressing globally important production as well as describing approaches used to mitigate production constraints and the progress realized through these approaches in breeding in recent years. The chapter also examines future trends in this area in the form of emerging breeding technologies.
Stephen B. Smith, Texas A&M University, USA
Factors affecting fat content and distribution of fat in cattle and carcasses
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Beef cattle are highly efficient at depositing fat, and they deposit fats in a specific order: first abdominal, then seam (intermuscular), then subcutaneous and finally marbling (intramuscular, interfascicular) fat. The development and composition of these fat deposits are influenced by the diet of the cattle. This chapter addresses the origin of adipocytes, the ontogeny of fat development, factors influencing fat development and, finally, factors influencing fatty acid composition of fat depots.
Gregory B. Penner, University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Disorder of digestion and metabolism in dairy cattle: the case of subacute rumen acidosis
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Excessive fermentation in the rumen as a result of energy-rich diets decreases ruminal pH and leads to a digestive disorder called ruminal acidosis. This chapter examines one kind of acidosis, subacute rumen acidosis (SARA), and includes a detailed case study on SARA risk in the post-partum phase of the transition period. The chapter comprehensively analyses SARA and steps that can be taken to minimize it, and looks ahead to likely future trends of research in this area.
Susanne Støier, Leif Lykke and Lars O. Blaabjerg, Danish Meat Research Institute – Danish Technological Institute, Denmark
Humane slaughter techniques for pigs
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For pigs, the day of slaughter includes a variety of potentially stressful elements, and this leads to animal welfare concerns. This chapter reviews how recent research can be applied in the development of new technologies and procedures to ensure a high level of welfare for pigs, while also increasing production efficiency, product quality and operator working conditions. Areas addressed include electrical and CO2 stunning methods, correct sticking procedure, group-based handling and the surveillance and documentation of animal welfare levels on the day of slaughter.
Joel Ira Weller, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Israel
Genetic factors affecting fertility, growth, health and longevity in dairy cattle
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Inclusion of secondary or ‘functional’ traits in breeding objectives began in earnest only in the late 1990. By 2009, production traits accounted for less than 50% of the indices in most advanced countries. Breeding for fertility, health traits and herd life (HL) was hindered due to difficulty of measurement and analysis and generally low heritability. Statistical methods have been developed that overcome these problems. The advantages and limitations of breeding for disease traits and HL via selection on correlated traits and via cross-breeding are discussed. Methodologies for detection and analysis of the actual segregating genes that affect functional traits are presented.
B. Kaur
Genetic engineering of tomato to improve nutritional quality, resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses, and for non-food applications
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Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is an excellent plant model for unravelling physiological processes, fruit quality and shelf-life determinants, such as stress-responsive signalling, pathogenicity and ripening in climacteric fruits. Consumer awareness of tomato as a phytonutrient source of lycopene, β-carotene, flavonoids and vitamin C has intensified tomato research. The genome of inbred tomato Heinz 1706 cultivar has already been deciphered, genetic linkages for fruit quality have been characterized and tomatoes have been genetically engineered to enhance fruit quality and abiotic/biotic stress tolerance. Furthermore, tomato is a model for vaccine production. This chapter shows how genetic dissection using fruit-ripening mutants, new transgenic plants and molecular breeding has created a road map for the further unravelling of the regulation of genes governing fruit quality attributes as well as fundamental metabolic processes. Precision in engineering plant genomes has enabled development of novel tomatoes with marketable traits beneficial to human health.
T. B. Rodenburg, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Ensuring the welfare of broilers: an overview
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Genetic selection for highly efficient, fast-growing broilers has had negative effects on broiler welfare, and the high stocking densities used in some broiler production systems also have a negative impact on welfare. This chapter examines the welfare problems arising from these two factors, and reviews how both factors have been addressed within the European Union. Two case studies are then provided, examining the welfare effects of hatching environment and early feeding, and of alternative broiler production systems.
J. L. N. Maciel, Embrapa Wheat, Brazil
Diseases affecting wheat: wheat blast
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This chapter describes the characteristics, origin and spread of the causative agents of wheat blast, based on the experience of managing this disease in Brazil (where the first wheat blast epidemic was reported, in 1985, which still causes great losses). Although many aspects of the disease’s occurrence and control remain unknown, some advances have been made. It has been proposed that the origin of wheat blast was through the clonal propagation of an epidemic lineage of Pyricularia oryzae, derived from populations of the fungus growing on an unknown species within the family Poaceae. Recently, it was reported that wheat blast is caused two fungal species, Pyricularia oryzae, patothype Triticum, and a new species that has been described as Pyricularia graminis-tritici. Assays conducted under controlled conditions showed that Pyricularia graminis-tritici isolates were more virulent to Brachiaria (Urochloa sp., ex Brachiaria sp.; a pasture species common to Brazil) than many isolates of Pyricularia oryzae, pathotype Triticum. In addition, it has been determined that insensitivity to strobilurin fungicides is completely distributed in the Brazilian population of the causative agents of wheat blast.
S. B. Goodwin, USDA-ARS, USA
Diseases affecting wheat: Septoria tritici blotch
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Septoria tritici blotch (STB) is one of the most common and economically important diseases of wheat worldwide. This chapter evaluates various methods of disease management, considering the key developments of recent decades, the major challenges encountered and the future trajectory of this work. Fungicides have been the primary means of disease management since the 1980s, but resistance has rendered some compounds ineffective. Qualitative or quantitative resistance genes have now been found on all 21 wheat chromosomes, giving a rich but complex source of genes for plant improvement. Molecular markers are now available for many resistance genes making marker-assisted selection for increased resistance an achievable goal for the future. The first STB resistance gene has now been cloned, but the mechanism of resistance remains a mystery. Despite the huge progress made during the past twenty years, STB remains a destructive disease that is likely to require substantial future efforts for its control.
Edward C. Rojas, Hans J. L. Jørgensen, Birgit Jensen and David B. Collinge, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
Fusarium diseases: biology and management perspectives
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World cereal production faces the challenge of increasing productivity while reducing its environmental footprint. Diseases like Fusarium head blight that reduce yield and quality of the harvest are controlled mainly with agricultural practices and fungicides. These measures have been shown to be inefficient or unsustainable. After reviewing the current knowledge about Fusarium fungi–cereal interactions, this chapter describes how progress can be built over current agricultural practices in integrated pest management plans. The methods described include increasing genetic resistance by exploiting the full extent of the advantages of new technologies, as well as looking for new fungicide molecules that aim for specific fungal metabolic pathways during infection at an early stage. The chapter addresses the disease cycle of Fusarium head blight, host–pathogen interactions, genetic resistance, the role of mycotoxins, the impact of the disease on yields and loss of crop quality, and techniques of disease management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
M. Djanaguiraman
Growth, development and physiology of grain sorghum
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A thorough understanding of how grain sorghum develops is essential in determining how best to manage this crop. Grain sorghum has three predictable phases of growth: vegetative (planting to panicle initiation); reproductive (panicle initiation to flowering) and grain filling (after flowering to maturity). This chapter describes each of the phases in detail, observing how each stage is affected by factors such as genotype, temperature and photoperiod. Climatic conditions for optimal growth, as well as the effects and physiological basis of drought, high temperature and elevated carbon dioxide tolerance, are discussed. Due to climate change, sorghum-producing areas are facing increased exposure to water deficits and extreme temperatures, making comprehension of plant response to environmental stresses even more necessary. It is concluded that the use of high-yielding varieties and proper management practices will be essential to the future of this crop.
Hari D. Upadhyaya and Mani Vetriventhan, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India
Ensuring the genetic diversity of sorghum
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Sorghum is a staple food crop for millions of the poorest and most food-insecure people in the semi-arid tropics, and ensuring its diversity and conservation is therefore important for global food and nutritional security. This chapter discusses the taxonomy of sorghum, in situ and ex situ germplasm conservation and diversity, the factors shaping sorghum diversity, geographical distribution of sorghum germplasm, germplasm gap analysis, and the use of cultivated and wild genepool of sorghum to enhance crop yields and broaden the genetic base of sorghum cultivars.
Javier Sánchez-Martín, Salim Bourras and Beat Keller, University of Zürich, Switzerland
Diseases affecting wheat and barley: powdery mildew
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Powdery mildew pathogens are among the most important cereal disease-causing organisms, and can result in significant losses in yield and reductions in grain quality. They pose a significant challenge for barley and wheat agricultural production systems. This chapter aims to provide an overview of current knowledge on wheat and barley resistance to powdery mildew. First, we introduce basic biological concepts on disease epidemiology and management strategies which target mildew. We then present emerging trends and technologies used in mildew resistance breeding and research and discuss how these could be combined into effective disease management strategies in the near future. Finally, we propose additional directions for achieving durable resistance based on deep understanding of the basic molecular mechanisms of cereal-mildew interactions.
Jennie E. Pryce, Agriculture Victoria and La Trobe University, Australia; and Yvette de Haas, Wageningen UR, The Netherlands
Genetic selection for dairy cow welfare and resilience to climate change
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Narrow breeding goals focused on milk production traits have been detrimental to the reproductive performance and health of dairy cattle. There is, therefore, a need to develop breeding strategies that balances both production and non-production traits. In this chapter, we discuss the principles behind breeding goals and multi-trait selection. We review practices of selecting for milk production, energy balance and fertility, and then consider newer breeding objectives such as health traits, reducing the environment impact of dairy cattle and ensuring that cattle will be able to endure a changing climate. Finally, we discuss the use of modern genomic selection and gene-editing techniques.
Alejandro Ramirez, Iowa State University, USA
Diseases affecting pigs: an overview of common bacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens of pigs
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Recent events such as the 2009 pandemic influenza outbreak, the continuous spread of African swine fever virus in Eastern Europe and the introduction of several new pathogens into the United States and their spread to Canada, Mexico, Central and South America have emphasized the ability of pig diseases to cross borders rapidly and the importance of global cooperation to improve the health and welfare of pigs. This chapter summarizes recent research on the causes and epidemiology of major bacteria, viruses and parasites found in pig production, focusing on those with a particular impact on safety and global production.
Dr Anna L. Hale
Ensuring and exploiting the genetic diversity of sugarcane
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The majority of cultivars in current commercial sugarcane breeding programmes trace back to a few key interspecific hybrids that were developed during the early 1900s. Sugarcane breeders have expressed concerns about the narrow sampling of ancestral clones in modern sugarcane breeding programmes, and this concern has prompted periodic attempts at so-called ‘base-broadening’ programmes. This chapter begins by providing an overview of sugarcane germplasm collections and then describes introgression-related research and breeding efforts focused on the use of Saccharum spontaneum, Erianthus and other species. It emphasizes the difficulties and challenges that need to be overcome in order to achieve successful outcomes from introgression breeding. Finally, a few possible future directions are considered.
Simon R. Ellwood, Curtin University, Australia; and Hugh Wallwork, South Australian Research and Development Institute, Australia
Diseases affecting barley: net blotches
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This chapter reviews the current knowledge of spot form and net form of net blotch of barley with an emphasis on recent genetic studies and their contribution to our understanding of the range of host-pathogen genetic interactions. Principal differences between the two forms of the disease are explained together with common cultural control methods. An example of a practical approach in breeding for durable resistance in South Australia is provided, and we discuss what such experience and genetic studies imply for successful breeding strategies for stable resistance.
Peter Groves, University of Sydney, Australia
Disease management in poultry flocks
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Diseases in intensive poultry flocks may occur due to viral, bacterial, fungal, protozoal, metazoan or arthropod infections or infestations. This chapter describes disease preventative measures, health monitoring and disease investigation techniques, and the management of sick meat chicken flocks. This chapter covers dealing with the emergency of an outbreak of disease in the flock, including hygiene procedures and methods of disposing of dead birds. The chapter examines the challenges inherent in poultry disease control and looks forward to future trends in this area.
C. Jamie Newbold, Aberystwyth University, UK
Feed supplements for dairy cattle
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The manipulation of rumen fermentation to maximize the efficiency of feed utilization and increase ruminant productivity is of great commercial interest. This chapter reviews the beneficial effects sought through manipulating rumen fermentation in dairy cattle. It then considers a wide variety of approaches, including the use of dietary buffers, antibiotics, fat supplements and plant extracts, and summarizes the potential benefits and limitations of each.
D. Luján-Rhenals
Energy and water use in poultry processing
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Increasing poultry production also means increasing energy and water use in poultry processing. Assessing these inputs is critical to develop more efficient systems and requires analysis of individual steps in processing. This chapter reviews way of measuring and reducing water and energy us at different stages in poultry processing.
Dr Dr Bernhard Speiser
Direct plant protection in organic farming
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In organic farming, plant health is maintained primarily through preventive management practices. Nevertheless, there are crops and situations where such measures alone do not provide sufficient protection, and direct plant protection is therefore necessary. This chapter focuses on the substances which may be used for plant protection, as well as underlines the importance of indirect plant protection measures for organic farming systems. The chapter describes current practices in organic plant protection, identifies currently authorised materials and discusses the process of authorisation of materials in the European Union. It finally examines efforts to find replacements for copper fungicides and looks ahead to future trends in this area of research.
Xiang Liu
Food safety control on poultry farms: effective control of Campylobacter
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The zoonotic pathogen, Campylobacter, is the leading cause of foodborne illness worldwide. It colonizes the intestinal tract of chickens, its primary host. In chickens, this pathogen is considered commensal and does not cause illness or have adverse impacts on production performance. A number of methods aim at controlling Campylobacter in the farm. This chapter discusses the general features and epidemiology of Campylobacter, improving biosecurity in the farm, antimicrobial therapy and increased host resistance, boosting the immune response, and DNA vaccines for preventing campylobacteriosis. It is concluded that, along with biosecurity, preventative treatments for the birds can act synergistically to significantly reduce the risk of contamination.
Taffa Tulu, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia
Developments in surface irrigation techniques
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Surface irrigation has long been an important tool for farmers. This chapter will review the development of surface irrigation techniques. Section 2 provides a brief historical overview, and then Sections 3 and 4 consider the development of furrow, basin and border irrigation in detail. Sections 5 and 6 cover irrigation scheduling and efficiency, Section 7 reviews the many factors which play into the choice of an irrigation system and, finally, Section 8 discusses modelling of surface irrigation systems.
Nicola M. Schreurs and Paul R. Kenyon, Massey University, New Zealand
Factors affecting sheep carcass characteristics
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This chapter describes the characteristics of a sheep’s carcass and explains the principles of carcass composition (the weight or proportion of muscle, fat and bone in the carcass). Understanding carcass characteristics and finding techniques for altering the characteristics are important for maximising returns to the producer, since carcass traits can both inform breeding objectives and moderate meat quality. This chapter examines the factors that influence a carcass’ dressing-out percentage (the relative proportions of carcass and non-carcass components in an animal’s body), carcass composition, distribution and partitioning of tissues within the carcass and carcass shape. The chapter evaluates the contribution that understanding carcass characteristics can make to meat production and considers directions for future research.
Glen W. Almond and Emily Mahan-Riggs, North Carolina State University, USA
Factors affecting the reproductive efficiency of pigs
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Solving problems associated with reproductive failure in sow herds can be a challenge. It is critical to meet breeding targets on a routine basis, and to achieve the appropriate farrowing rates and litter sizes. Reproductive failure interferes with the consistent production of pigs, which ultimately results in the suboptimal number of pigs for market. This chapter will highlight some of the factors affecting reproductive efficiency, including gilt development, litter size, control of the weaning to oestrus interval and seasonal infertility. Attention is given to various management strategies which help producers to continue to be profitable.
Dr Charles Stark
Developments in feed technology to improve poultry nutrition
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Systematic evaluation of each stage of the feed manufacturing has the potential to identify opportunities for improvement in manufacturing efficiency and reduced nutrient variation in finished feed, ultimately resulting in lower cost sustainable poultry production. This chapter examines the role of automation technology in composing and delivering feed, and addresses the issues of batching, mixing and pelleting feed as well as means of assessing feed quality. The chapter suggests some future developments in the use of technology in poultry nutrition and directs the reader to further reading in this area.
M. Causse, E. Albert and C. Sauvage, INRA, France
Developing tomato varieties with improved flavour
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Tomato fruit quality is a complex trait involving a number of components, including appearance, flavour, aroma and texture. There is a large range of genetic diversity in tomato for fruit quality components. Although a few major mutations may have a huge effect on fruit quality (notably the rin mutation), most of the components have a quantitative inheritance. Several Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) mapping experiments have been performed, mostly on interspecific progeny. Many loci and QTL have thus been detected, revealing some QTL cluster regions. Tomato is a model plant for fruit development and composition, and knowledge about its physiology is rapidly increasing. This chapter examines the use of QTL to identify and determine favourable sensory characteristics, exploring current technologies and suggesting future trends for research in this area.
Dr K. Rajkai
Dynamics of water storage and retention in soil
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Water storage and retention is one of the most important ecological and agricultural properties of soil, since soil is the main water source for most plants. The present chapter discusses different ways of defining, measuring and modelling soil water retention capability, which varies according to the physical features of the soil. A detailed case study is presented, demonstrating how territorial patterns of soil water retention can be mapped and analysed. Given the time- and labour-consuming nature of such methods, we also show how readily available soil data can be used to estimate the water retention characteristics of large areas such as catchments. Finally, we review the main types of water loss and factors affecting water retention, with consideration of evapotranspiration, runoff and various soil properties.
C. R. Little and A. Y. Bandara, Kansas State University, USA; and R. Perumal, Agricultural Research Center – Hays, USA
Sorghum diseases and their management in cultivation: seedling, seed, panicle and foliar diseases
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As sorghum continues to grow in significance in large parts of the world, attention is given to the many different types of disease that can affect this crop, and how they might be successfully avoided or managed. All physical structures and tissues of the sorghum plant may become diseased with one pathogen or another, and different diseases can damage the plant at virtually every stage of growth. The present chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the main diseases affecting sorghum, describing the different conditions in which they proliferate, their common symptoms and their impact on crop yield. In each case, the potential for host resistance is discussed, and information is provided regarding effective disease management.
Tesfaye T. Tesso, Dereje D. Gobena, Dechassa O. Duressa, Kraig Roozeboom and Krishna Jagadish, Kansas State University, USA; Ramasamy Perumal, Agricultural Research Center – Hays, USA; and Desalegn D. Serba and Dilooshi Weerasooriya, Kansas State Univer
Harnessing genetic and genomic resources to transform the production and productivity of sorghum
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Despite sorghum’s inherent yield potential, its remarkable adaptation to marginal environments and its extensive use in various food applications by smallholders in developing countries, sorghum has never received the attention it deserves and thus its productivity has remained low. This chapter highlights the opportunities for sorghum as food, feed and industrial feedstock and discusses potential focus areas where investment and coordinated research may be needed to transform sorghum productivity. The chapter also examines the major hurdles undermining sorghum productivity including the chronic shortage of financial support to bring about technological breakthroughs, the mistaken public perception of the crop as inferior and the effect that poverty has on the ability of smallholder farmers to benefit from technology. The chapter also provides perspectives on bridging the gap in yield potential to maximize productivity.
Chris R. Kerth, Texas A&M University, USA
Factors affecting flavour development in beef
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Many attributes of the eating quality, especially tenderness, of beef have received much attention in research over the years. However, it has been widely accepted that one of the major attributes that make beef unique is its flavour; in fact, recent research has shown that it is flavour that is the quality attribute that drives consumer demand for beef. This chapter will explain the basic science of assessing flavour along with the factors that impact the development of beef flavour. This will include animal nutrition and genetics, product storage and processing, cookery, and research methods commonly used to assess beef flavour.
C. Hamelin, CCPA, France and F. Cisneros, DSM, Switzerland
Determinants of egg appearance and colour
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It is essential for the consumer to select those types of eggs that are safe, nutritious and tasty. In this chapter, we begin by giving an overview of consumer decisions about whether to eat eggs and if so, which eggs to purchase. This includes reviewing regional differences in preferences and purchasing decisions, and the significance of packaging. Subsequent sections focus on the three key parts of the egg: the shell, the albumen and the yolk. We discuss consumer preferences for each, and then review the factors that determine the appearance and colour of these parts of the egg.
Dr Dr Delia Grace
Detecting and preventing contamination of dairy cattle feed
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Dairy feed has direct and indirect impacts on the safety of milk and milk products; feed also has implications for animal health and welfare, and the profitability of the dairy sector. This chapter starts with a brief outline of the role of feed in dairy cattle diets, emphasizing the common hazards associated with different feed ingredients. We outline the impacts, diagnosis, governance and management of feed contaminates in general. We then review identification, diagnosis and prevention of some of the most important dairy feed hazards, namely aflatoxins, Salmonella bacteria, persistent organic pollutants, veterinary drug residues and heavy metals.
Robert L. Zimdahl, Colorado State University, USA
Ethical issues in integrated weed management
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This chapter surveys the potential ethical issues and problems that surround weed science as a subdivision of agriculture. These include the implications of herbicide resistance, invasive species, the introduction of biotech/Genetically Modified Organisms and concerns about sustainability. This chapter focuses particularly on sustainability as an ethical goal of weed science, arguing that truly integrated weed management requires engagement with the broader ethical issues raised by the implementation of new technologies.
Dr Carmen Gallo
Ensuring the welfare of culled dairy cows during transport and slaughter
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Every year, some cows are culled from dairy herds and sold through livestock markets and livestock dealers or sent directly to a slaughterhouse. Most of these cows are culled due to sickness or lameness, meaning that they are likely to experience pain and distress during marketing, transport and slaughter. This chapter reviews strategies for ensuring the welfare of these cows before and during transport and slaughter. We review the legislation and codes of practice surrounding the transport and slaughter of cows, consider important pre-transport conditions which can affect the welfare of cows during transport and at the slaughterhouse, and discuss the causes and signs of distress as well as strategies to avoid welfare problems.
R. F. Park, University of Sydney, Australia
Diseases affecting wheat and barley: rusts
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Farmers using conventional fungicides for disease control face a number of challenges such as increased regulatory measures and the spread of fungicide resistance. This chapter sums up the wealth of research addressing this challenge, that has targeted understanding rust pathogens better, the deployment of conventional, genetically modified and gene-edited resistance, the use of agronomic factors and the management of fungicide resistance. The key to sustainable disease control appears to be the integrated use of all these methods.
D. Reynolds, Mississippi State University, USA
Defining and implementing best management practices in soybean production
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In order to optimize the profitability of soybean production while minimizing adverse effects on the environment, it is important to define and implement the most effective management, agronomic and technological practices. The present chapter considers the following components of soybean production: tillage systems, soil fertility, variety selection, agronomic practices and pest management. Such practices will, of course, vary between geographic regions; for instance, best tillage practice may be determined by soil type and environmental conditions. However, in each case, general practices that transcend geographic areas are described, with consideration given to how these practices might be adjusted to accommodate region-specific factors. The chapter concludes with recommendations for how these practices could be implemented within an overall management plan.
Jian-Qiang Ma
Ensuring the genetic diversity of tea plants
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Long-term cross-pollination has produced considerable heritable variation within and between populations of the tea plant and related species, resulting in a high level of genetic diversity. A good understanding and management of this pool of genetic resource diversity is of vital importance to tea plant improvement, since it directly affects the potential for genetic gain through selection. This chapter provides an overview of genetic diversity of tea plant, and its characterization and utilization. The chapter examines the origins and global distribution of tea cultivars, assessing the current status of tea genetic resources. The chapter explains the processes of tea germplasm evaluation and characterization and examines the exploitation and utilization of genetic diversity, looking ahead to future research trends in the area of ensuring tea’s genetic diversity.
Wolfgang Knogge, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Germany
Diseases affecting barley: scald
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Scald (leaf blotch), caused by the hemibiotrophic pathogen Rhynchosporium commune, is one of the major diseases of barley worldwide. Typical disease symptoms consist of necrotic areas on the leaf blades. Yield losses are manifested as reduced kernel quality, size and number per ear. This chapter reviews the origins, epidemiology and other characteristic features of scald, and considers the agricultural consequences of the pathogen’s biology. It then considers resistance breeding programmes in which more than a dozen major resistance genes as well as quantitative trait loci have been identified, and discusses strategies to minimize the damage caused by the disease comprising agricultural practices and different fungicides.
