Assessing the environmental impact of ruminant production systems
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One of the most common methods to evaluate environmental footprints of farming systems is life cycle assessment (LCA). Although LCA itself is suitable for and adopted by a wide range of industries far beyond agriculture, what separates agriculture, and in particular pasture-based ruminant production systems, is the high degree of uncertainties associated with physical, chemical and biological processes that underpin production. Through a review of recent literature and a quantitative case study, this chapter explores how the practical trade-off between feasibility and scientific rigour should be addressed in the field of ruminant production systems. Finally, the chapter provides detailed guidance on where to look for further information in the field.
Marcos Kogan, Oregon State University, USA
The synergism of biocontrol and plant resistance: a path to advance IPM to higher levels of integration
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This chapter reviews the future evolution of integrated pest management (IPM). It identifies the ways modern agriculture has disrupted plant defences and the control of pests by their natural enemies. The chapter discusses ways of restoring and enhancing these controls both through breeding and the use of biological methods. It demonstrates how IPM can be taken to the next level with a case study of a pome fruit IPM program in the Pacific Northwest of the United States.
Evelyne A. Groen, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Key challenges in modelling of agricultural activities and their environmental impact
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Modelling agricultural activities gives insight into the environmental impact of current practices. Furthermore, modelling allows testing the effect of mitigation strategies or management changes and supports decision making towards environmentally friendlier products. Model quality depends on accuracy of modelling decisions and quality of the obtained data. This chapter discusses several tools to assess model quality. The chapter categorizes agricultural models based on certain characteristics, such as linearity and time-dependence. The chapter includes two detailed case studies that show the benefits of including uncertainty propagation and sensitivity analysis. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in research and suggests further reading in this area.
Dr Dr Jerry L. Hatfield
Agroecosystem models for delivering ecosystem services
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Agroecosystems are complex representations of the interactions occurring among multiple biological systems at the field and landscape scale. Models simulating these interactions across time and space are not very mature and expanding our current knowledge on crop, pest, and soils models provides a framework for how we use agroecological models to quantify a range of ecosystem services. This chapter examines the need for an agroecosystem approach, outlining the importance of plants, soils, pests, diseases, weeds and pollinators as part of the agroecosystem. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Ivan Milosavljević
Advances in classical biological control to support IPM of perennial agricultural crops
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Scientific advances in classical biological control and supporting disciplines have provided ‘tools’ that could enable permanent suppression of some seemingly intractable invasive pest problems that limit the effectiveness of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programmes in perennial crops. This chapter examines the steps required in the development of a classical biological control programme for managing invasive insect pests. The chapter includes a detailed case study of Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, an invasive pest of California citrus, to demonstrate the potential of ‘tools’ to support development of a classical biological control programme targeting this pest. The chapter explores the benefits of classical biological control for IPM of insect pests in perennial crops before looking ahead to future research trends in this area. The chapter provides detailed guidance on further reading on the topic.
Prof. Prof. Gabriele Beccaro
Tree nut cultivation, ecosystem services, biodiversity and conservation
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There is growing concern about the impact of overuse of agricultural inputs on the environment which in turn has created a challenge for food production systems that should sustain acceptable production levels while preserving natural resources. It is now well-accepted that a holistic approach is needed to improve management techniques that ensure both nature conservation and stable production levels. In nut crop production the complex interconnections among physical and biological structures, agricultural practices, functions and services strongly influence, and may be influenced by, several aspects such as orchard design, ground cover management and different biological components. This chapter will address biodiversity and conservation issues concerning tree nut cultivation, through an analysis of the ecosystem services and dis-services that may affect, and can in turn be affected by, agricultural practices. It also features sections on tree nut cultivation and biodiversity, and pest management and animal diversity in tree nut orchards.
Shireen Davies, Rob Liskamp and Julian Dow, University of Glasgow, UK
Peptide-based biopesticides
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There is a growing gap in the market for environmentally friendly, selective insecticides and biocides for use in the production of food crops. This has been driven by tightening regulations on chemical products, as well as customer demand for no-chemical residue food products. As insect hormone neuropeptides govern almost all aspects of insect physiology and survival, neuropeptide-based insecticides may thus provide selective and rational bioinsecticides for plant protection, including additional routes for IPM. This chapter sets out to first address the issues involved with the control of insect pests, and then goes on to fully review the potential of peptide-based biopesticides. Neuropeptide profiling, neuropeptide families, peptide modifications and synthetic chemistry and validation approaches are covered, and the assessment of peptide effects on insects is also included. The chapter summary looks at how such research can contribute to sustainable agriculture.
Prof. Prof. B. W. Alsanius
Sustainable systems for integrated fish and vegetable production: new perspectives on aquaponics
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Aquaponics integrates fish and seafood rearing (aquaculture) with soilless production of horticultural produce (hydroponics). Engineered systems of this kind meet the challenges posed by global population growth, urbanization, global climate change, limited access to resources for agricultural activities and sustainability. This chapter reviews and analyses three distinct habitats in the aquaponics system: the fish rearing unit, the water treatment unit and the crop production unit. The chapter describes processes and mechanisms relevant to aquaponics, separating loops and flows within the culture system (water, trophic levels, microorganisms) and impacts on global cycles (food safety, sustainability). Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this field.
Hans Pretzsch, Technical University of Munich, Germany
Transitioning monocultures to complex forest stands in Central Europe: principles and practice
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The high expectations placed on forests in Europe require an integrative approach to forest management. Heterogeneous mixed-species stands are of special interest as they fulfil many ecosystem services better than monocultures, and consequently homogenous forest stands are now often transformed into more heterogeneous stands. This chapter contrasts even-aged monoculture forests and selection forests, describing the transition from monocultures to more complex forest stands. The chapter presents practical examples of transformation and models for scenario analysis, as well as explaining the principles of selection forest management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Jürgen Köhl, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands
Use of biocontrol agents in fruit tree disease management
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Increasing demands for residue-free fruits, changes in regulation and a decreasing number of available synthetic fungicides favour growth of the biocontrol products market. These products include naturally occurring beneficial microorganisms which are used to control plant diseases. This chapter assesses the current status of biocontrol techniques and their practical application. As the chapter shows, their main modes of action are competition, induced resistance, hyperparasitism and antibiosis. The chapter reviews the use of biocontrol agents for control of major fruit tree diseases such as fireblight, post-harvest fruit rots, brown rot, apple scab, European canker and pear brown spot. Commercial biocontrol products are registered mainly for control of fireblight in pome fruit and of post-harvest fruit rots in pome fruit and stone fruit. The chapter concludes by looking at future developments in the subject.
Dr Dr Christophe Orazio
Species choice, planting and establishment in temperate and boreal forests: meeting the challenge of global change
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Due to global change, there is a need to question most of the practices used to establish forests. This chapter provides discussion of the current issues for most of the key processes of forest establishment and highlights the importance of the choice of genetic material in the establishment of plantation forests. It confirms that more knowledge and accurate decision support will be needed in the near future and that new resilience strategies are required.
Michael E. Irwin, University of Illinois, USA; and Wendy Moore, University of Arizona, USA
Foundations of an IPM program: detection, identification, and quantification
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Integration of pest management efforts based on advanced technologies and multiple pest assessments in multi-field and areawide venues has led to a host of sophisticated approaches that continue to shape the discipline of integrated pest management (IPM). From the initial efforts, the concept of pest control has evolved into an established ecological, economic, and sociological paradigm. This chapter describes the bedrock components of IPM, pertinent to managing annual and perennial fruit, grain, vegetable, and greenhouse crops, as well as ornamentals. Although emphasis is placed on recently formulated and emerging technologies and their current and future impacts on the two foundational IPM components, the chapter also examines the status quo and provides insight into the constraints imposed by the state of technology and by society at large. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Andrea Vannini and Carmen Morales-Rodríguez, Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems (DIBAF) – University of Tuscia, Italy
Integrated disease management in tree nut cultivation
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Integrated disease management and use of protocols and products that minimize the environmental impact are paramount needs in the cultivation of tree nuts. In this chapter, such approaches are proposed for chestnut cultivation and, specifically, for the management and mitigation of damage caused by one of the most threatening diseases affecting chestnuts worldwide – ink disease caused by Phytophthora spp. The chapter starts by introducing the concept of area-wide integrated ink disease management, followed by sections on monitoring and GIS mapping of the disease, and landscape features of the disease – Phytophthora being easily dispersed via water and infected soil. Also covered are tree and soil treatments used to treat the disease, and a review of the varieties resistant to the disease (breeding of interspecific hybrids has led to resistant rootstocks). The chapter concludes with a discussion on the importance of quality and certification of material for propagation.
Neil Audsley, Fera Science Ltd, UK; and Lorenzo Tonina and Nicola Mori, University of Padova, Italy
Integrated management of tree fruit insect pests: Drosophila suzukii (Spotted Wing Drosophila)
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The vinegar fly Drosophila suzukii Matsumura (Diptera: Drosophilidae), commonly known as spotted winged drosophila (Fig. 1a) is a highly polyphagous invasive pest, native to Asia, which causes significant damage to a wide variety of berry and stone fruit crops. The chapter reviews the significant progress that has since been made in understanding the biology of the fly, providing key information required for the development of sustainable and integrated control methods. The chapter assesses the fly’s impact on crops and describes its biology and ecology, host range and host susceptibility, detection methods and management and control strategies.
Pablo Hernández-Alonso, Mònica Bulló and Jordi Salas-Salvadó, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Spain
Advances in understanding health benefits of pistachio
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The health benefits of nuts, mainly in relation to cardiovascular disease (CVD) but also for other chronic conditions, have been widely demonstrated in epidemiological studies and clinical trials. Among nuts, pistachio is a nut with a moderate amount of macronutrients and micronutrients. It is specifically rich in vegetable protein, fibre and bioactive compounds such as lutein-zeaxanthin and beta-carotene, all of them linked to potential health benefits. This chapter explains the nutritional composition of pistachio nuts and summarizes their potential health benefits and the current human, animal and in vitro research exploring the beneficial role of pistachios on health.
Ümit Serdar, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey; Toshihiro Saito, Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, Japan; Beatriz Cuenca, Empresa de Transformacion Agraria S.A (TRAGSA) Maceda, Spain; Burak Akyüz, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey; José Gomes La
Advances in cultivation of chestnuts
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Chestnut (Castanea), within the family Fagaceae, is a multipurpose tree that produces nuts and timber, as well as holds an important place in landscape and culture. The aim of this chapter is to present the current state of global cultivation of the Castanea species, in terms of its ecological characterization, propagation methods and multifunctionality. The chapter will examine chestnut’s economic profitability and the importance of wood and fruit production for promoting the resilience and sustainability of chestnut cultivation. The chapter describes specific regional characteristics of chestnut cultivation around the world. The authors include sections on the ecological conditions affecting the growth of chestnuts, chestnut management as coppice forest or orchards, propagation methods (including grafting, layering, cutting and micropropagation) and orchard establishment and management (including training, pruning, fertilization and irrigation). The harvest and storage of chestnuts and pest management in chestnut orchards are also covered.
Prof Prof Tim Belien
Improving monitoring and forecasting in integrated management of fruit arthropod pests
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The efficient and accurate monitoring of insects and mites is a cornerstone of integrated pest management (IPM). Pheromone-baited traps are probably the best known, most convenient and specific method used for monitoring in orchards. However, mating disruption strategies have complicated the interpretation of monitoring via pheromone traps, leading to the development of alternative (bisexual/food-based) baits. This chapter describes both manual and automated monitoring systems (sensor and camera-based), models for forecasting the phenological dynamics and spatial distribution of insects and the challenge of understanding the relationships between monitoring data, absolute pest densities and economic threshold values. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading on the subject.
David Shapiro-Ilan, USDA-ARS, USA; Selcuk Hazir, Adnan Menderes University, Turkey; and Itamar Glazer, Volcani Center, Israel
Advances in use of entomopathogenic nematodes in integrated pest management
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Entomopathogenic nematodes in the genera Heterorhabditis and Steinernema are potent biological control agents that have been commercialized widely for control of economically important insect pests. This chapter describes the foraging and infection behavior of nematodes and the production technology, formulation, application technology, and commercialization of entomopathogenic nematodes. The chapter considers the factors affecting the efficacy of nematodes in integrated pest management and methods to improve their efficacy. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Prof. Prof. Stef J. Koppelman
Advances in detecting tree nut allergens
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Food allergy remains a major problem affecting consumers. Together with peanut, tree nuts belong to a small group of allergens responsible for the great majority of food allergies. This chapter begins by providing an overview of tree nut allergies and their prevalence. It then discusses allergenic proteins and thresholds, as well as the required sensitivity of detection methods. Finally, the chapter reviews both general issues in developing effective detection methods as well as the range of techniques available for particular tree nuts, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Travis Glare and Aimee McKinnon, Lincoln University, New Zealand; Roma Gwynn, Rationale, UK; and Michael Brownbridge, Vineland Research and Innovation Centre, Canada
Advances in microbial control in integrated pest management: entomopathogenic fungi
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The use of entomopathogenic fungi to control insect pests has been expanding in recent years, with improvements in formulation and more extensive commercialization. However, there are still limitations on their effectiveness in some situations. Combining entomopathogenic fungi with other control options has been investigated for control of a range of insects. This chapter discusses the use of entomopathogenic fungi in integrated pest management. For the bulk of this chapter, the authors provide examples of successes and explore the wider potential for entomopathogenic fungi if certain obstacles are overcome. Use in combination with conventional chemicals, other natural enemies and botanical extracts are covered, as are habitat manipulation, attraction and deterrence. Not all combinations of entomopathogenic fungi with other agents lead to improved control, and true synergy between agents is rare. However, there are many examples of improved control of target insects and mites through combinations of entomopathogenic fungi and other agents. Several case studies are provided.
Tatjana Stevanovic, Laval University, Canada
Emerging technologies to develop new forest products
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Forest trees occupy a central place among lignocellulosic plants, in terms of both abundance of wood they produce each year and also generating a variety of other biological tissues. This chapter focusses on new processes and new applications of wood polymers, notably uses of lignins. The chapter considers the three major biopolymers: celluloses, hemicelluloses and lignins. The chapter focusses particularly on polymers, notably lignins, as the wood constituents are the richest carbon sources of all lignocellulosic polymers and the most important aromatic polymers on earth. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Angela Berrie, NIAB EMR, UK
Disease monitoring and decision making in integrated fruit disease management
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Regular inspection of fruit crops for diseases is a vital part of integrated disease management. Combining this information with that generated from disease warning systems can play a significant role in achieving perfect fruit with minimal use of fungicides. This chapter includes general discussions on fruit disease monitoring, disease warning systems and decision making; it then uses examples of specific diseases in apple and pear to illustrate the role of both orchard monitoring and disease warning systems in integrated disease management. The following diseases are covered: apple scab, apple powdery mildew, European apple canker, sooty blotch, fly speck, fire blight and storage rots. The examples given demonstrate how in current ‘best practice’ orchard monitoring and, where appropriate, disease warning systems can be integrated to make decisions on treatment to control the diseases to produce quality fruit with minimum input of fungicides. The use of future technologies such as smart spore traps, drones and orchard scanners are also discussed.
Ali Islam, University of Ordu, Turkey
Advances in breeding of hazelnuts
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Hazelnut (Corylus spp.) is a member of the Betulaceae family, and is widely distributed in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. Cultivated varieties differ from each other in such characteristics as nut size, shape, kernel ratio, shell thickness, etc. Key target characteristics for breeding not only include high yield but also good morphological and vegetative traits as well as resistance to pests and diseases. This chapter discusses advances in the breeding of hazelnuts. Following an introduction, the author first presents a section on floral biology, pollination and compatibility in hazelnut. The chapter then includes information on the development of hazelnut varieties mainly relating to hazelnut breeding programmes in Turkey, Europe and also the United States (where the focus has been for breeding for resistance to Easter filbert blight). Then follows a section on the breeding of rootstocks referring to programmes in the United States, Turkey, Italy and Iran. A number of new key cultivars of hazelnut are then described.
Matthew Reynolds and Francisco Pinto, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), Mexico
Theory and application of phenotyping in wheat for different target environments
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Phenotyping serves both research and breeding purposes. For research, precise and often costly procedures are employed to phenotype strategic traits in order to gain a better understanding of how genotypes adapt to different environments. For breeding, both strategic and screening traits are considered, the latter typically being measured at high throughput. This chapter describes phenotyping for key traits and environments, as well as the challenges facing reliable phenotyping. The chapter explains applications of phenotyping in breeding, offering a detailed case study of physiological breeding for yield potential and climate change. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and suggests further reading in this area.
Joop C. van Lenteren, Wageningen University, The Netherlands; and Vanda H. P. Bueno, Federal University of Lavras, Brazil
Advances in augmentative biological control in integrated pest management
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Augmentative biological control uses mass-reared natural enemies for releases in large numbers to reduce pest populations. Augmentative biocontrol is increasingly applied worldwide in many different crops. It is a cornerstone of integrated pest management (IPM) programmes and plays a key sustainability-determining role in IPM. This chapter describes the scale of augmentative biological control and where this type of biocontrol is applied. The chapter describes the natural enemies commercially available and gives information on their mass production. The chapter discusses the important role of biocontrol in IPM programmes, and its practical use in very different agricultural production systems. Finally, the chapter presents the advantages and disadvantages of this control method, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Zhiquan Mao and Yanfang Wang, Shandong Agricultural University, China
Apple replant disease: causes and management
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Apple replant disease (ARD) is an important factor that restricts the sustainable development of the apple industry worldwide. There are many complex pathogenic factors that may cause ARD, and as a result ARD is difficult to manage in the absence of broad-spectrum soil fumigants with limited virgin land. This chapter summarizes the main causes of ARD and the main methods to control ARD with specific reference to China, based on recent developments in understanding of the physical and chemical properties of soil deterioration, allelopathic effects (phenolic acids) and microbial community structure in apple orchards. The chapter discusses methods to manage ARD, including cultural practice, soil disinfection, resistance breeding and biological control. Finally, the chapter briefly discusses future research and development in relation to ARD management.
Dr Dr Anne Oxbrough
Advances in understanding forest ecosystem services: conserving biodiversity
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Forest biodiversity is fundamental to ecosystem functioning, facilitating processes such as nutrient cycling, pollination and seed dispersal. A healthy forest provides a range of economic, societal and cultural values and services beyond timber production, including recreation, carbon sequestration, ecotourism, landscape aesthetics and the intrinsic value of biodiversity to society. Despite this, forest biodiversity remains under increasing pressure from agricultural conversion and intensive, large-scale, yield-driven forest management approaches. In this chapter, the authors explore how these approaches alter forest biodiversity and, in particular, species of conservation concern. The authors outline how sustainable forest management can be used to maintain or enhance biodiversity. Two case studies are provided that illustrate these concepts in contrasting biomes: managing forest biodiversity in landscapes of low forest cover, a case study from temperate plantation forestry in Ireland; and, managing forest biodiversity by emulating natural ecosystem dynamics, a case study from boreal mixedwood forests in Canada.
Thomas Miedaner, University of Hohenheim, Germany; and Peer Wilde, KWS Lochow GmbH, Germany
Selection strategies in hybrid rye with special consideration of fungal disease resistances
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Although winter rye is known for its high tolerance to biotic stress factors, several diseases are occurring in most rye-growing countries: snow mold, brown foot rot, powdery mildew, leaf rust, stem rust, Fusarium head blight, and ergot. For hybrid breeding, resistance selection is important due to the restricted genetic variation within a cultivar. For powdery mildew and the two rusts, race-specific qualitative resistances based on single resistance (R) genes and quantitative resistances have been described. For the other diseases only quantitative resistances can be selected. This chapter describes the features of snow mold, foot rot, powdery mildew, leaf rust, stem rust, Fusarium head blight and ergot. The chapter examines and assesses strategies for resistance selection and looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Andreas Hund, Lukas Kronenberg and Jonas Anderegg, ETH Zurich, Switzerland; Kang Yu, KU Leuven, Belgium; and Achim Walter, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
Non-invasive field phenotyping of cereal development
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High throughput field phenotyping (HTFP) allows the selection of crops with unprecedented precision, and plays an important role to understand genotype-by-environment interaction. This chapter describes carrier systems for non-invasive field phenotyping, outlines the principles of envirotyping, and examines the challenge of physiological breeding by means of high-throughput phenotyping of plant development. The chapter describes the importance of the different phases of cereal development and how to phenotype them, and analyses genetic crop models. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Manuel Rubio, Federico Dicenta and Pedro Martínez-Gómez, CEBAS-CSIC, Spain
Plum pox virus: detection and management
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Sharka disease, caused by Plum pox virus (PPV), is the most important virus inducing extended yield losses in plums, on account of reduced fruit quality, premature fruit drop and rapid natural virus spread by aphid vectors. This chapter provides general information on the status of this disease around the world, with emphasis on strains, detection methods, orchard management and breeding for resistance. The chapter examines the challenge of PPV control for sustainable cultivation of plums and looks at the genetic and molecular basis of PPV resistance in Prunus. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Assumpció Antón, Erica Montemayor and Nancy Peña, Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology (IRTA), Spain
Assessing the environmental impact of greenhouse cultivation
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This chapter aims to address the environmental aspects of greenhouse cultivation, it covers the methodology used to perform an environmental assessment and provides information regarding damaging and beneficial environmental aspects, as well as suggestions to improve environmental quantification methods for greenhouse production systems. The chapter explores the methodology used to account for environmental impacts using a life cycle perspective, including a brief summary of life cycle assessment (LCA) tools, and its application to greenhouse crop production. The chapter describes the different components involved in greenhouse cultivation (including structures, greenhouse management, fertilization, pesticides and waste management) and how to include them in the environmental quantification assessment. Finally, the chapter draws conclusions regarding not only the improvement of environmental aspects of greenhouse cultivation but also enhancement of environmental quantification tools.
Dr Dr Miguel Sanchez-Garcia
Marker-assisted trait introgression for wheat breeding and research
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Trait introgression, the incorporation of a specific character, is a cornerstone of both wheat breeding and research allowing a specific line or variety to be improved for the character. Varieties can be improved by introgressing the trait of interest into their genetic background through backcrossing techniques especially when the underlying genetic control is relatively simple. Moreover, the agronomic value of the variety can be easily and rapidly recovered or improved by combining backcross and double haploid (DH) approaches. This chapter describes the principles of backcross breeding and explains the use of marker assisted doubled haploids for trait introgression. The chapter describes the results of combining backcross and DH introgression and outlines the principles of marker assisted speed breeding.
Daniel G. Neary, USDA Forest Service, USA
Advances in nutrient and water management in forestry: monitoring, maintaining, and restoring soil health
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A number of important advances in nutrient and water management in forestry have been made since the middle of the 20th Century to maintain and improve soil health. Many concerns have been expressed about the sustainability of forestry operations with intensification of management and harvesting disturbances and the occurrence of natural disturbances. The most important of these advances is implementation of the concept of Best Management Practices (BMPs). The use of BMPs involves a continuous cycle of design, analysis, planning, implementation, review, monitoring, and modification. The core of the BMP concept is the Streamside Management Zone (SMZ). The focus of the SMZ is on forestry management activities on lands adjacent to streams and waterways, and how these activities can be conducted to maintain water quality and site productivity. Other advances include soil testing and monitoring to ensure maintenance of physical properties, water status, and nutrient conditions that are the foundations of site productivity.
Rebecca A. Schmidt-Jeffris, Clemson University, USA; Elizabeth H. Beers, Washington State University, USA; and Carlo Duso, University of Padua, Italy
Integrated management of mite pests of tree fruit
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Mites are a perennial pest of tree fruit crops worldwide. Foliar feeding by mites can lead to decreased photosynthetic activity, reducing plant vigour and yield. For some mite pests, fruit deformation or russeting can occur. Two main families of mites are found on tree fruits: tetranychids (spider mites) and eriophyids (rust, bud and blister mites). This chapter reviews cultural and biological control tactics for controlling spider mites, including choosing tolerant varieties, weed management and releasing predators into orchards to increase their numbers and/or using management practices that conserve existing predator populations. The chapter describes the thresholds to determine when a spray application should be made and argues for biological control as the cornerstone of integrated mite management. Finally, the chapter includes guidance on further reading in this subject area.
Patrick Thorwarth, University of Hohenheim, Germany
Genomic prediction in crops: advantages and drawbacks
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Genomic Selection evolved as a promising new method to support decision making for plant breeders. This chapter provides a short introduction to genomic prediction and its usefulness as a selection tool. In addition, the chapter highlights some of the most important factors to be considered when implementing and applying genomic selection in research and plant breeding. The chapter focuses on the application of genomic selection in plant breeding and the discussion of some of the advantages and drawbacks of this method. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and provides guidance on further reading in this area.
Chieri Kubota, The Ohio State University, USA
Understanding crop responses to controlled climates in greenhouses
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Understanding plant responses to environmental factors is crucial in controlled environment crop production. This chapter summarizes current understanding of interactions of key aerial environmental factors affecting plant growth and their strategic applications to improve the productivity, profitability and sustainability of greenhouse cultivation. It reviews the current body of knowledge regarding plant responses to environmental interactions. Environmental factors discussed include light intensity, temperature, air circulation, relative humidity and carbon dioxide concentration. Interactions of (1) light and temperature; (2) light and carbon dioxide; (3) light and plant canopy structure; (4) temperature and temperature integration time; and (5) humidity, air circulation and light are also presented (it must be noted there are many other combinations of factors, not only of aerial factors but also of root-zone factors). A case study is provided on tipburn management of strawberry using night-time humidity control. The chapter concludes with a look towards future trends in research.
Ernesto Igartua, Carlos P. Cantalapiedra and Ana M. Casas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Spain
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in barley
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In recent years, the limiting factors for Genome-wide Association Studies (GWAS) in barley have shifted from the number of markers to the number of individuals, and to the deepness of phenotyping, particularly in field experiments of required size. Recent advances in methodology provide an increasing number of models available for research. This chapter provides an up-to-date review of issues relevant to GWAS approaches, with a particular focus on barley. The chapter offers an overview of all GWAS studies performed on barley and a summary of the results achieved. The chapter describes such methodological challenges as linkage disequilibrium, ascertainment bias, genetic and physical distances, resolution to single genes and the impact of population structure on detecting major loci in wheat. Finally, the chapter briefly introduces several new developments that enrich the outcome of GWAS studies, like genotype-environmental association suitable for landrace and wild materials, the inclusion of environmental effects to explain QTL effects, and the analysis of gene regulatory networks.
Prof. Prof. Stefania De Pascale
Advances in irrigation management in greenhouse cultivation
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The advantages of greenhouse include the ability to secure better conditions than outdoor environment for crop growth and development, increased off-season production and autonomy from external weather conditions. This chapter provides an up-to-date critical overview of scientific advances in irrigation management for greenhouse vegetables and ornamentals. The chapter presents a technical design of a typical greenhouse irrigation system, before covering water balance and crop evapotranspiration techniques as well as the use of high-tech moisture sensors for irrigation scheduling. In the context of enhancing the water use efficiency of greenhouse crops, the chapter also discusses innovative management practices such as biostimulants and grafting. Finally, the chapter concludes by looking ahead to future prospects and research breakthroughs.
Dr Dr Carly Schramm
Development of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers for cereal breeding and crop research: current methods and future prospects
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Modern cereal breeding and research increasingly relies upon the application of molecular genetics. This chapter provides an overview of the development of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers for use in such breeding and research. Fluorescence detection methods are fully reviewed as this field is experiencing an explosion of interest among plant biologists and crop breeders. More than 20 modern fluorescence-based methods for SNP identification and discrimination are included and the specific advantages and disadvantages of each covered. This variety of approaches gives researchers and industry the freedom to adapt and improve upon existing methods and develop novel techniques to suit specific SNP analyses. The majority of the described SNP methods are already widely used in plant biology and crop breeding, whereas others are more popular in medical research yet have potential applications in plant research.
Dr Dr Robert Saville
Fungal diseases of fruit: apple cankers in Europe
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The cultivated apple, Malus x domestica (syn. Malus pumila), is prone to a plethora of fungal diseases. In this chapter, the authors explore those that cause canker diseases of apple in Europe with particular focus on European apple canker caused by Neonectria ditissima. The authors discuss N. ditissima in the context of the tree production cycle, introducing the aetiology and epidemiology of the pathogen, reviewing the key control measures (covering cultural, chemical and biological control), and identifying a number of future research areas (including detection and diagnostics, and the use of endophytes). Although this chapter is largely focused on N. ditissima, the most widely spread and devastating of the canker-causing diseases in Europe, certain aspects are applicable across all canker diseases. The authors conclude that with changes in the plant protection products available and in the methods of tree production and varietal susceptibility, finding solutions for canker management remains an important research target.
Paul Iji, Fiji National University, Fiji Islands and University of New England, Australia; Apeh Omede, University of New England, Australia and Kogi State University, Nigeria; Medani Abdallh, University of New England, Australia and University of Khartoum
The role of specific cereal grain dietary components in poultry gut function
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Cereal grains constitute the greatest proportion of most practical poultry diets. As dietary components, cereal grains provide most of the dietary energy and help to support the development of the structural and functional integrity of the digestive tract. However, many cereal grains contain one or more deleterious factors, which may negatively affect the structural and functional development of the gut. Some of the key factors are carbohydrate in nature, but there are non-carbohydrate fractions which may actually not provide any nutrients but function mainly as anti-nutrients. This chapter broadly explores the normal structure and function of the digestive tract in poultry in the absence of dietary factors. It then highlights the nature of the key components of cereal grains, particularly the components that may influence the development of intestinal structure and function. Finally, the chapter examines the role of cereal grain components on poultry gut function and the possible mechanisms by which these interactions take place.
Wei Zhang and Xiwen Cai, North Dakota State University, USA
Alien introgression and breeding of synthetic wheat
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Wheat is a major food grain source of humans and genetic improvement has contributed significantly to its production. However, the genetic gain of wheat production has slowed in recent years due to its narrow genetic variability and draining of the gene pool in wheat breeding. This chapter elucidates both the contribution of wheat-related species to wheat improvement through alien introgression and breeding of synthetic wheat. The section on alien introgression from wheat-related species into wheat covers gene introgression from both annual and perennial wheat -related wild species as well as wheat-related crop species. This is followed by a comprehensive review of chromosome engineering technologies. The chapter concludes with a summary on the breeding of synthetic hexaploid wheat, and the issues of genome instability and homoeologous gene expression.
Imre Holb, University of Debrecen and Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Hungary
Brown rot: causes, detection and control of Monilinia spp. affecting tree fruit
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Monilinia spp. cause economically important fungal diseases of pome and stone fruits. This chapter focuses on the four main Monilinia/Monilia species that is Monilinia fructicola, M. laxa, M. fructigena and M. polystroma. The chapter concentrates on general and specific features of the four brown rot fungi in relation to their impact on fruit hosts and to the integrated disease management. The chapter covers brown rot-related yield loss and its impact on fruit crops, the characteristics of causal organisms and the disease’s major fruit hosts and host resistance. The chapter goes on to describe brown rot symptoms on specific plant parts, methods for rapid and reliable identification and detection of the disease, and disease cycles and spread. The chapter considers possibilities for brown rot disease warning, and discusses disease management options. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in brown rot research.
Charles E. Barrett, Lucas G. Paranhos, Kati W. Migliaccio, Gary K. England and Lincoln Zotarelli, University of Florida, USA
Sustainable production of cabbage on plasticulture
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Plasticulture with microirrigation enhances vegetable crop competitiveness in two ways: through sustainable production practices for water and nutrient management and increased production system resiliency to climate variability. This chapter introduces sustainable cultivation of cabbage on plasticulture. The chapter examines plant population studies, the importance of planting dates and irrigation scheduling strategies for cabbage grown using plastic mulch. The chapter addresses nitrogen management, explores the economic benefits of plasticulture and outlines extension efforts on the adoption of best management practices.
Mihai Botu, University of Craiova, Romania
Sustainable plum and apricot cultivation
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Sustainable fruit cultivation may depend on the combination of a number of factors; these include optimal growing conditions, correct selection of cultivars and rootstocks, and application of modern crop-cultivation techniques. Sustainability also implies promotion of biodiversity, improvement of microbiological processes in the soil, and protection of the environment (e.g., by avoiding pollution from fertilizers and pesticide runoff). It has been estimated that fruit production may need to increase two- to three-fold to meet future demand, but this needs to be achieved in a sustainable way. This chapter explores ways this might be achieved for plum and apricot production. Sections are included on the genetic resources available for cultivation of these fruits and the environmental factors affecting plum and apricot cultivation. Then follow separate sections on plum and apricot (also covering prune) cultivation. The authors conclude the chapter with a discussion on future trends in plum and apricot cultivation.
Ryan J. Arsenault, University of Delaware, USA
Understanding gut function in poultry: immunometabolism at the gut level
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In poultry production, a trade-off has been made between growth and efficiency on the one hand, and immune potential and disease resistance on the other. The emerging field of immunometabolism, brought to the fore by research into human metabolic syndrome and cancer, is an opportunity in poultry production to eliminate this trade-off and have both production efficiency and immune robustness. This chapter provides an overview of metabolism and immunometabolism, including the most important links between metabolic and immune pathways. The chapter describes methods of investigating metabolism and addresses the components of feed that lead to inflammation, and how to mitigate this effect. Finally, the chapter discusses the future of research in this field, using examples of how feeding the immune system is already enhancing growth and immune response in poultry.
Todd Einhorn, Michigan State University, USA
Challenges and opportunities in pear cultivation
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Excessive vigor of European pear varieties and a dearth of dwarfing rootstocks create significant challenges to the establishment and management of modern high-density orchards. The pronounced negative relationship between pear tree vigor and precocity requires considerable intensive horticultural intervention to expedite a return on investment and to achieve maximum yield potential. Plantings of low-to-moderate tree densities are no longer economically sustainable given their characteristically inconsistent fruit quality and suboptimal yields. Nascent technologies and novel horticultural strategies have potential to balance reproductive and vegetative development of pear trees and facilitate the cultural management of high-density orchards. This chapter presents the challenges and opportunities in pear cultivation. A review of pear floral biology and fruit setting habits and their complex interaction with environmental factors is presented along with practical horticultural strategies to promote balanced canopies. The physiological bases for applying these strategies and their implications on agronomic processes and whole plant performance are highlighted.
Julie Graham, Alison Karley, Alison Dolan, Dominic Williams and Nikki Jennings, James Hutton Institute, UK
Advances and challenges in sustainable raspberry/blackberry cultivation
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Rubus crops are important for human health and for employment in rural communities. As demand for these berry crops increases at a time of changing climate and consumer awareness of real and/or perceived risks associated with traditional growing practices including inputs, new breeding strategies and cultivation practices are needed. This chapter addresses some of the challenges and solutions to continued sustainable growth, including pest and disease stresses, environmental impacts, effects of climate change and environmental stresses. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Dr Dr Laura A. Chatham
Developments in breeding vegetables
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Breeding for quality and yield in vegetable crops is constrained by consumer preferences and expectations. Vegetable crops are grown primarily for human consumption and are therefore held to higher standards of quality than crops grown for animal feed or fuel. Measures of quality are complex and include taste and flavour, nutritional value, appearance and shelf life. Increasing yields to meet the demands of a growing population is vital. The chapter explores new techniques in vegetable breeding, offering an overview of the breeding process and examining the process of streamlining breeding with gene discovery. The chapter looks at expediting selections to shorten breeding cycles and circumventing introgression with genome editing and engineering, offering two detailed case studies based on tomatoes and Brassica oleracea vegetables.
Youbin Zheng, University of Guelph, Canada
Developments in growing substrates for soilless cultivation
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Growing substrates are used to provide physical support, as reservoir for water and nutrients, for providing air space for free gas exchange, and also for providing a habitat for beneficial microorganisms. Peat- and coir-based substrates and rockwool are the most commonly used substrates in modern advanced greenhouse operations. This chapter examines the materials commonly used in forming growing substrates and addresses methods and technologies for assessing them. The chapter looks at the use of beneficial microorganisms to create a resilient rootzone and considers the implementation of integrated rootzone management (IRM). Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Frederik Börnke, Leibniz Institute of Vegetable and Ornamental Crops (IGZ) and University of Potsdam, Germany; and Dietmar Schwarz, Leibniz Institute of Vegetable and Ornamental Crops (IGZ), Germany
Advances in understanding and mitigating vegetable responses to abiotic stress
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Plants can suffer from either biotic or abiotic stress arising from a deficit in the physical or chemical environment of the plant. The damage imposed by abiotic stress may limit crop production by more than 70% and depends on the stressor. This chapter outlines the different types of abiotic stress, including flood, drought, heat, cold, nutrient deficiency, excess of salt, metalloids or toxic metals, and excess or insufficient light. The chapter then focuses on how water deficit, temperature, and salinity interfere with all kinds of physiological aspects of plant life. The chapter describes advances in horticultural practices to cope with abiotic stress, considering vegetable grafting, mulching, and the application of biostimulants and chemical or physical eustressors. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Pierre-Éric Lauri and Sylvaine Simon, INRA, France
Advances and challenges in sustainable apple cultivation
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Developing sustainable apple cultivation is based on both a better knowledge of tree architecture and physiology in relation to fruiting, and on how the tree interacts with its abiotic and biotic environments. Improving knowledge in these domains is crucial to take into account the societal demand towards less input-dependent orchards. This chapter provides an overview of apple tree growth and fruiting, exploring the bases for sustainable apple training and pruning management. The chapter also challenges the current apple production agroecosystem and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Gerben J. Messelink and H. Marjolein Kruidhof, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands
Advances in pest and disease management in greenhouse cultivation
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Greenhouse crops are continuously under pressure of infestations by a wide range of pests and diseases. This chapter describes the myriad practices that can contribute to managing pests and diseases, and how to integrate these practices in an ecologically based integrated pest management (IPM) approach. The chapter offers a historical perspective on the development of IPM, together with an explanation of its underlying rationale and main challenges. The chapter discusses the different components of IPM, including sanitation, cultural control, preventative and curative biological control. The chapter examines food web complexities, which inevitably result from integrating multiple biological control agents in a single crop, and offers a detailed case study on IPM implementation in tomato. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Dario J. Chavez and Rachel A. Itle, University of Georgia, USA; Daniel Mancero-Castillo, Universidad Agraria del Ecuador, Ecuador; Jose X. Chaparro, University of Florida, USA; and Thomas G. Beckman, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances and challenges in peach breeding
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Peaches are found in diverse climates and growing regions, plus its relatively short juvenile period, self-pollinated fruitfulness, small genome size and important identified Mendelian traits have made peach a model fruit for breeding and genetics research. This chapter reviews the moderate chill peach variety development programme that commenced in the United States in 1986 as a cooperative regional effort involving the USDA-ARS, the University of Georgia and the University of Florida, and is located at the University of Georgia Research and Education Center outside of Attapulgus, Georgia. The chapter reviews the identification of a locus for resistance to peach fungal gummosis (PFG) and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
E. David Peebles, Mississippi State University, USA
In ovo development of the chicken gut microbiome and its impact on later gut function
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Beneficial as well as pathogenic microorganisms, derived from external and maternal sources, can inhabit the gut of hatchlings. In an effort to optimize the enteric development of chicks and to assist in the establishment of intestinal bacteria populations that are conducive to their good health and for their subsequent protection against invading pathogens, the in ovo administration of various biologics has been explored in various laboratories. This chapter discusses the various biologics tested for their effects on the gut microbiome and examines competitive exclusion cultures, specifically identified probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics and nutrients. The chapter also looks at the prospects for the commercial in ovo use of these biologics during transfer, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Max Teplitski, NIFA-USDA, USA
Microbiological safety of vegetable produce: the impact of pre- and post-harvest practices
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Over the last decade, fresh fruits and vegetables have been linked to at least a dozen major outbreaks of foodborne illness in North America and Europe. It is becoming clear that sanitation alone will not alleviate the problem of human pathogens in produce, and a systems approach is needed to design comprehensive strategies for ensuring produce safety farm-to-fork. This chapter focuses on the impact of vegetable production practices on microbiological safety of produce. The chapter surveys potential sources of human pathogens in the vegetable production environment, from wild and domestic animals to soil amendments and irrigation water. The chapter then investigates the impact of soil properties, environmental factors, vegetable production and handling practices on microbiological quality of the product. Lastly, the chapter briefly surveys current approaches for controlling human pathogens on fruits and vegetables, using plant breeding, disinfectants and biological controls.
Martine Dorais, Centre de recherche en innovation sur les végétaux, Université Laval, Canada
Advances in greenhouses and other protected structures used for cultivation of vegetables
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Research work conducted during recent years (e.g. structure design, covering, climate control, energy use efficiency, water and nutrient management, supplemental lighting, new cultivars) has revolutionized greenhouse vegetable production. This chapter reviews the current situation of such protected vegetable production around the world, and presents recent advances related to this sector. Types of greenhouses and protected structures currently in use are discussed, and the effect of greenhouse location and the selection of the greenhouse covering material and how this impacts plant productivity are also reviewed. Both heating/cooling requirements and climate management (light, carbon dioxide, humidity etc.) are also covered. The use of both soil and soilless growing systems are included as are the impacts of cultivar and rootstock selection on protected vegetable production. The chapter concludes with sections on the use of fertilizers, water management and plant protection within protected systems. A review of the environmental impact of greenhouse and protected vegetable production is also included.
Susan McCallum, James Hutton Institute, UK
Advances and challenges in blueberry breeding
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Efforts have steadily increased towards understanding the biological processes underlying key physiological traits in blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum). Studies have shown high levels of genetic diversity are present within this species, much of which remains to be harnessed. This chapter introduces both the recent advances and current challenges in the breeding of blueberries, with particular focus on demand and production in the United Kingdom. Key cultivars currently used in the industry are listed and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. The genetic material available and its use in breeding programmes are also covered including crossing with other species within the genus Vaccinium to obtain desirable traits. Also included are sections on phenotyping and marker-assisted breeding. An extensive discussion on the improvement of flavour in blueberry is also provided. The chapter concludes with a summary and a look ahead to future trends in research.
Leo F. M. Marcelis, Wageningen University, The Netherlands; Joaquim Miguel Costa, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal; and Ep Heuvelink, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Greenhouse production systems have been introduced to improve growth conditions for plants to increase yield and quality. While initially greenhouses were mainly found in cool climates, water saving has become an important driver for the expansion of the greenhouse industry, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Over the past few decades, the level of control in greenhouses has increased rapidly due to an increased use of technology. During the last 30 years, the yield per unit land area has doubled for several crops. We expect that the application of new technologies will continue to expand in the coming years while at the same time biological and ecological principles will be increasingly applied. This chapter provides key figures on production in greenhouses, discusses the sustainability of greenhouse production and describes current and future trends in greenhouse production.
Stefano Musacchi, Washington State University and Tree Fruit Research and Extension Center, USA; and Davide Neri, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Italy
Optimizing production of quality nursery plants for fruit tree cultivation
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It is now possible to purchase specific nursery tree types that are more compatible with an intended training system, improving planting efficiency and encouraging early production. Although single axis, well-feathered scions suitable for high-density spindle training systems have dominated nursery production over the past two decades, recent nursery trends increasingly produce double axis scions for pear, apple and even stone fruits, to obtain uniform and early producing fruiting walls. This chapter summarizes current knowledge of the physiology of grafting and recent innovations in such fruit tree nursery techniques. New approaches to regulate nursery plant growth and development are reviewed. In vitro propagation is also included which is becoming more and more powerful for producing rootstocks and self-rooted varieties of several fruit species. Sections on scion grafting and budding techniques are covered and the biochemical and physiological aspects of graft incompatibility are discussed in detail. The chapter concludes with a section on tree production in the nursery.
Peter Fantke, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
Modelling the environmental impacts of pesticides in agriculture
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The active ingredients of pesticides, which are widely applied in agriculture worldwide, are important contributors to global human and ecological health burden. Modelling emissions and related human toxicity and ecotoxicity impacts of agricultural pesticides in environmental and life cycle assessment is therefore crucial, but also comes with challenges. This chapter provides an overview of how pesticides are currently addressed in emission inventory and impact assessment, along with a case study focusing on emission, exposure and toxicity quantification of four selected pesticides applied to potatoes in a real-life scenario, and details on remaining challenges and ways forward. The chapter discusses the relevance of spatiotemporal variability in modelling emissions and the toxicity and ecotoxicity impacts of pesticides, and how substitution scenarios can be used to identify more sustainable pesticides. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Jeferson M. Lourenço, Darren S. Seidel and Todd R. Callaway, University of Georgia, USA
Antibiotics and gut function: historical and current perspectives
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Antibiotics play a central role in human health, and the sensitivity of bacteria to these compounds is a natural resource that must be husbanded to keep from losing their effectiveness from increasing antibiotic resistance in the environment. This chapter places the use of antibiotics in poultry production in its historical context to understand the benefits that antibiotics have conferred on animal production to date. The chapter considers past, present and future use of antibiotics, focusing on the use of bacteriocins and phytochemicals.
Duane Greene, University of Massachusetts, USA
Optimizing plant growth, yield and fruit quality with plant bioregulators
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Plant bioregulators (PBRs) are used extensively in the tree fruit production industry. They influence many processes in a plant including shoot growth, branch angle, bud break, flower bud formation and fruit abscission, ripening, shape and finish, and as such can be used to optimize not only plant growth but also fruit yield and quality. The chapter starts with a classification of PBRs, followed by a detailed discussion on the application of PBRs and their use such as in the development and maintenance of tree structure, and also the control of vegetative growth. The use of PBRs in crop load management and their influence on flowering and fruit set is also presented concluding with sections on both the pre-harvest application of PBRs and their use in improving fruit shape and appearance.
Sara M. Villani, North Carolina State University, USA; Kerik D. Cox, Cornell University, USA; and George W. Sundin, Michigan State University, USA
Optimizing disease management in fruit cultivation
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Sustainable management of plant diseases is a perennial challenge for pome fruit and stone fruit producers in humid regions throughout the world. Delayed orchard profitability, decreased orchard longevity, reduction in fruit quality and unsalable fruit caused by fungal and bacterial diseases of tree fruit result in devastating economic losses annually. Globally, tree fruit growers are increasingly relying on an integrated management approach through the incorporation of predictive modelling and biological, chemical and cultural control methods to mitigate disease-associated losses. This chapter provides an introduction of tree fruit production and general management paradigms, followed by a discussion of main pre-harvest fungal and bacterial diseases, methods of integrated disease management and a discussion of advances in technology for pathogen detection and disease management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future challenges of the tree fruit industry and provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Benoît Gabrielle, AgroParisTech and Université Paris-Saclay, France; and Pietro Goglio, Wageningen University, The Netherlands and Cranfield University, UK
Improvement options for agricultural crop production for food, feed and bioenergy
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Agriculture currently faces the dual challenges of both having to increase its overall biomass output while contributing to the mitigation of pressing global environmental changes. It is therefore urged to reconcile these challenges by drastically increasing its performance in the short term. This chapter reviews the agronomic options available at the crop production level to participate in this effort, from single practices to a more integrated systems approach. Strategies such as improved tillage, fertilizer management, the inclusion of legumes in crop rotations, irrigation management, intercropping, and disease and weed management are appraised using the life-cycle assessment framework, the use of which currently prevails to inform on sustainability. The chapter concludes with a summary of these options and suggests avenues for future research whether into a better estimation of performance or towards the implementation of low-impact crop production systems.
Keizi Kiritani, formerly National Institute of Agro-Environmental Sciences, Japan
Understanding agroecosystems and pest management: from chemical control to integrated biodiversity management
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Agroecology analyzes the different components that make up an ecosystem such as soils, climate, plants and animals, and their interactions within agricultural landscapes. Bringing together a wide range of disciplines, agroecology encompasses different scales from the individual field through to farms and landscapes and, even, complete food systems from farm to fork. There is a strong focus on protecting natural resources to ensure sustainable agricultural production. This chapter explores agroecology and pest management practices, using the example of a particular agroecosystem: rice paddies in Japan. It discusses how an understanding of agroecosystem dynamics explains the limitations of early attempts at chemical control of rice insect pests. It also shows how this understanding has informed the development of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies and is now leading to new concepts such as integrated biodiversity management (IBM). Finally, the chapter explores how agroecological concepts can help address challenges such as invasive species and climate change.
Ajay Nair, Iowa State University, USA
Advances in understanding soil health for vegetable cultivation
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Sustainability of our food systems depends on the maintenance of healthy soils. The links between soil quality, long-term soil productivity, and environmental quality are now widely acknowledged, as is the importance of conserving soil as a resource for future generations. Determining and predicting key management practices associated with enhanced soil and plant health remains an important goal of sustainable agriculture. The goals of this chapter are (1) to summarize the indicators, metrics, and assessment tools that are utilized to define and measure soil health; (2) review the literature on the links between soil and plant health; and (3) discuss future trends and needs to better understand soil quality and health, in the context of vegetable crop production. Sections are included on the importance of soil quality and health in vegetable cropping systems, and the attributes, indicators, and assessments of healthy soil. The chapter also includes a case study on conservation tillage in bell pepper (Capsicum annuum) production systems.
Mark Mazzola and Shashika S. Hewavitharana, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in understanding tree fruit-rhizosphere microbiome relationships for enhanced plant health
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Host–microbe interactions in the rhizosphere influence numerous processes that determine plant productivity and health. The rhizo-microbiome influences functions ranging from protection of the plant from pathogen attack to enhanced nutrient availability and uptake. This chapter examines the use of ‘omics’ technologies to address key issues in plant–microbe interactions including the effects of the rhizosphere microbiome in determining plant health and production when interacting with their environment. After examining the contribution of the microbiome in directing plant responses to their environment, the chapter provides two case studies focusing on manipulation of the rhizosphere microbiome to optimize crop production on orchard replant sites. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Eduardo Augusto dos Santos Rosa, Maria Cristina Seixas Martins Morais, Ivo Vaz Oliveira, Berta Maria de Carvalho Gonçalves Macedo and Ana Paula Calvão Moreira da Silva, Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences
Uses and health benefits of chestnuts
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Production and consumption of chestnut has shown a steady increase in recent years, driven by both increased consumer awareness about food composition and the health benefits of a nut-rich diet. This chapter provides an overview of the uses and health benefits of chestnuts (Castanea spp.). Starting with an overview of recent research on chestnuts, the chapter goes on to review the general uses of chestnuts in the Mediterranean and Europe. The specific nutritional features of chestnuts are discussed, as are the effects of cooking on the quality of chestnuts. The importance of good post-harvest handling and storage are considered – chestnuts are extremely susceptible to damage during storage. Uses, such as in growing media or skin care products, for chestnut co-products (bur, shell, leaves, curing wastewater etc.) left behind by processing are discussed. The chapter concludes with a comprehensive overview of the health benefits of eating chestnuts.
Dr Dr Ksenija Gasic
Advances in fruit genetics
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Sustainability of fruit production worldwide is heavily dependent on advances in fruit genetics. Changing environments, innovative production systems, increased pest and pathogen pressure and fluctuating consumer preferences are forcing fruit producers to adjust at a higher pace than ever before. This chapter provides an overview of the advances in fruit genetics as they pertain to discoveries in fruit quality and disease resistance, and their application to the improvement of fruit production and sustainability. The chapter looks at developments in genomic mapping, marker-assisted breeding and biotechnology. The chapter also examines the genetics of fruit quality and disease resistance, and includes a detailed case study on hot spot on chromosome 4 in Prunus. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Rosemary Collier, University of Warwick, UK
Advances in lettuce cultivation
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Modern lettuce production systems are dominated by the need to produce a high-quality product cost-effectively. However, environmental and human health considerations are increasingly important with regard to the use of water, fertilizer and pesticides and are driving particular developments in the lettuce production system. Some of these drivers are already, or will be, exacerbated by climate change. There is an important role for plant breeding in terms of responding to market requirements for novel salad products and to address the need to reduce inputs. This chapter looks at recent advances in lettuce cultivation. Sections are provided on crop nutrition, irrigation and crop protection. Pesticidal control, host-plant resistance and other methods of control are also discussed with each of these sections considering weeds, pests and diseases. The chapter concludes with an exploration of novel production systems for lettuce including hydroponic production systems, and precision farming and automation.
Prof Prof Oscar E. Liburd
Integrated pest management of mites
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Plant feeding mites are major pests of agricultural crops and ornamentals. They disrupt physiological processes, change the physical appearance of the plant, and transmit diseases to crops. This chapter takes a holistic approach to integrated mite management by reviewing the basics of mite taxonomy and morphology and then studying key plant mite families focusing on major plant feeding mite pests as well as natural predators that regulate these mite populations. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading on the subject.
Özlem Tokuşoğlu, Celal Bayar University, Turkey
Advances in understanding the nutritional profile and health benefits of almonds
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Almond (Prunus dulcis) is widely grown in countries with a Mediterranean climate and is considered a healthy source of many nutrients. This chapter discusses the nutritional composition of almonds and, in particular, those nutrients with nutraceutical properties, from phenolics and fatty acids to phytosterols. The author shows how this unique nutritional profile translates into health benefits related to almond consumption. Following an introduction, a section is provided on phenolics in almonds (including a breakdown on the compounds found in almond skins). Then follows a section on lipid and fatty acid content; here information is provided on the fatty acid composition of almonds from different cultivars, and also a comparison with other nut crops including hazelnut, peanut, pistachio, and walnut. Phytosterols and tocopherols are then discussed as almonds are considered a good source of both nutrients. The chapter concludes with a section on the health benefits of almonds.
Alasdair Sykes, Cairistiona Topp and Robert Rees, Scotland’s Rural College (SRUC), UK
The use of farm-level models to assess the environmental impact of livestock production
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In light of a changing climate, the international community is committed to taking action to reduce overall levels of greenhouse gas emissions. Agriculture will play an important role here given that agriculture and land use are responsible globally for around 24% of such greenhouse gas emissions. This chapter looks at the use of farm-level models to assess and mitigate the environmental impact of agriculture, with a focus on greenhouse gas emissions and livestock production. Sections are first included on the rationale for environmental modelling in agriculture and methodologies for accounting for agricultural emissions. The authors then describe a range of tools and critically assess their use for farm-level benchmarking and mitigation assessment. The chapter also discusses the technical aspects of modelling farm-level emissions and environmental impacts within the defined framework, in order to provide a synthesis of the current state of the art and a basis for the consideration of specific development objectives.
Ron Berenstein, University of California-Berkeley, USA
The use of agricultural robots in crop spraying/fertilizer applications
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Spraying pesticides is a main element of agriculture worldwide, since 30% to 35% of crop losses can be prevented when harmful insects and diseases are eliminated by applying pesticides. A robotic sprayer can help reduce pesticide application while removing the human operator from the hazardous pesticide environment. This chapter provides an introduction to robotic sprayers and describes in detail a case study of the development of a smart robotic sprayer with its key components. The chapter also describes the operational framework developed for such a robot that supports human-robot collaboration. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Stefano Carpin, University of California-Merced, USA; Ken Goldberg, University of California- Berkeley, USA; Stavros Vougioukas, University of California-Davis, USA; Ron Berenstein, University of California-Berkeley, USA; and Josh Viers, University of Cal
The use of intelligent/autonomous systems in crop irrigation
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Climate change, combined with the need to feed an increasing population with decreasing arable land, requires to radically re-think the way water is delivered to crops to increase efficiency and minimize wasted water. This chapter examines how robotic and artificial intelligence can be used to improve precision irrigation in vineyards. The chapter pays particular attention to robot-assisted precision irrigation delivery (RAPID), a novel system currently being developed and tested at the University of California. The chapter presents preliminary results from RAPID testing and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Bekir Erol Ak, University of Harran, Turkey
Advances in cultivation of pistachio
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Pistachio is grown most intensively in Iran, Syria, Turkey and the USA. The other pistachio-producing regions are the Near East, North Africa and Southern Europe. The most important characteristics of pistachio nuts from a marketing viewpoint are large size, high percentage of shell splitting, low percentage of blank nuts, high oil and protein content, regular bearing and high percentage of green kernels (although this is a varietal characteristic, it is also related to altitude and time of harvest). This chapter discusses recent advances in the cultivation of pistachio. Following an introduction, a section on pistachio genetics is provided. Then follows information on the climatic requirements of pistachio, which requires a period of chilling as well as a hot, dry climate for fruiting. The flower and fruit characteristics of pistachio are then discussed with information provided on how to plan orchards as pistachio is a dioecious species. Both pistachio cultivars and rootstocks are listed. Propagating techniques (both by seed and budding) are then presented, followed by a discussion on establishing, planting and managing orchards. The chapter concludes with sections on pests and diseases and how to improve crop yield.
Dr Dr Linda J. Thomson
Ecological impacts of pesticides and their mitigation within IPM systems
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Chemicals, frequently the main method of pest control in agriculture, have negative effects on natural enemies that also control pests. Mitigation of pesticide impacts depends on increasing the role of natural enemies, reducing chemical application while still controlling pests and maintaining yields. This chapter outlines the ways in which pesticide use leads to increased pest problems and examines strategies for mitigating pesticide impacts. The chapter includes a detailed case study focussing on the diamondback moth (DBM). Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Seyyed Hassan Pishar-Komleh
Life cycle assessment methodology for agriculture: some considerations for best practices
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Life cycle assessment (LCA), a method that originates from the manufacturing industry, is increasingly applied to agricultural systems as a more holistic perspective and approach with respect to managing agricultural product life cycles. However, the practice of applying LCA to agricultural systems is far from being standardized. Key methodological issues remain unresolved, resulting in a plethora of ways in which LCA is applied in practice that sometimes provides conflicting results. This chapter discusses issues associated with LCA including delimitation of systems boundaries, defining the functional unit, handling co-production, and the choosing of impact assessment methods. This chapter addresses the methodology of agricultural LCA, supported by detailed case studies. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Jose Blasco
Advances in automated in-field grading of harvested crops
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Mechanical harvesting machines such as canopy and trunk shakers are widely used for yield collection from some crops; however, most fruits and vegetables produced for the fresh market have to be collected manually. This chapter reviews the current state of mechanized collection technology, such as the development of harvest-assist platforms, as well as the possibilities of these machines to incorporate artificial vision systems to perform an in-field pre-grading of the product. The main advantages of each system are discussed and the problems encountered in the field are described. A case study on the use of harvest-assist platforms in citrus orchards is presented describing prototypes that are capable of both inspecting collected fruits and separating them into categories using computer vision.
Yael Edan, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
Human–robot collaboration in agricultural robots
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Agricultural robots are being developed for many on-farm tasks; however, in practice, current working agricultural robotic systems are limited and fully robotized farms are not yet available. This chapter presents initial work carried out in the domain of human–robot collaboration in agriculture and provides directions about how it should be further adopted to enable successful robotization of agricultural operations. The chapter discusses the various interaction roles a human may have with a robot and also the levels of human–robot collaboration. Aspects of interface design are also included, and human–robot collaborative tasks such as detection, navigation, harvesting and spraying are discussed. The chapter concludes with a look on the future of agricultural robotics where the role of humans in agriculture will not be eliminated by introducing robotic systems, and should more autonomous systems become feasible, humans will still be needed for supervision and collaboration.
Leonard Coop and Brittany S. Barker, Oregon State University, USA
Advances in understanding species ecology: phenological and life cycle modeling of insect pests
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The modeling of insect phenology has been an important component of IPM decision support systems for several decades. This chapter describes general concepts and methods of the systems approach using applied phenology modeling as an example. The authors outline the steps of model construction from a systems perspective, and then discuss funding challenges, types of resources, and major sources of error in phenology model development and implementation. The chapter also compares some of the trade-offs and pitfalls of using linear and non-linear approaches to modeling temperature-development data. It provides an example of using the systems approach by presenting a life cycle systems model for the spotted wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii, a major fruit crop pest in the US and Europe. The model can serve as a way to summarize current knowledge and potential best management practices that can guide the development of IPM programs.
Bo P. Weidema, Aalborg University, Denmark
Assessing socio-economic impacts of agriculture
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Economic assessments remain the dominating form of socio-economic assessment in agriculture; yet practical implementation often suffers from severe limitations. However, much of the early criticism has slowly been adopted and integrated in the form of significant improvements in the consistency and completeness of the economic assessment techniques. What remains is a better integration with the qualitative understandings developed in the social impact assessment community. This chapter is dedicated to impacts that are related to social and economic pressures, such as underpayment of labour, illegitimate resource acquisition and control, and inadequate work conditions. The author describes the development and state of the art of cost–benefit assessment and social impact assessment in agriculture (Sections 2–6) and their integration into models and tools with an economy-wide supply chain perspective (Section 7). Socio-economic impacts of agricultural development are covered in Sections 8–11. The final section considers the role of certification and fair-trade schemes.
Matthew Haas, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Germany; and Martin Mascher, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK) and German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research, Germany
Use of the secondary gene pool of barley in breeding improved varieties
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Barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare L.) is an important crop species and breeding efforts over the past century have resulted in agronomically advanced cultivars. These efforts have also resulted in reduced genetic diversity of elite barley germplasm, hampering the ability of breeders to improve cultivars in the future, especially with respect to new diseases and a changing climate. This chapter describes in detail the use of H. bulbosum to improve cultivated barley. The chapter offers an account of doubled haploid production, introgressions, linkage mapping and next-generation sequencing before looking ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Prisila A. Mkenda
Advances in conservation biological control and habitat management for IPM
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Conservation biological control and habitat management are key components of integrated pest management (IPM). These related approaches suppress pests by promoting natural enemy survival and impact and by exploiting direct, suppressive effects on pests from vegetation structure. During this century, substantial progress has been made in research and practical use of these approaches. Chemical ecology, integration of molecular techniques and understanding of landscape and regional scale effects are areas where key developments have been made. This chapter focusses on advances in this field of study. It first discusses the terms ‘conservation biological control’ and ‘habitat management’, and differences between them. It goes on to put forward the rationale for conservation biological control and habitat management, and elucidate advances in these areas. The chapter concludes with a section on future directions – the primary challenge being to translate this body of research knowledge into practicable strategies and on-farm adoption.
M. Weih, P.-A. Hansson, J. A. Ohlsson, M. Sandgren, A. Schnürer and A.-C. Rönnberg- Wästljung, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden
Sustainable production of willow for biofuel use
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Intensively managed plantations of willow (Salix spp.) are gaining interest worldwide, mainly due to their efficient and sustainable land use along with an increasing demand for biofuel resources. Willows have traditionally been used as biofuel in the form of wood chips for direct combustion in heat and power plants, but there is an increasing interest in using willow biomass as raw material for other biofuel supply chains. This chapter provides an overview of the challenges and key issues in the sustainable production and use of willow as feedstock for biofuel production in northern temperate regions, including the issues of feedstock quality for biofuel use, feedstock productivity, cropping security, biodiversity, nutrient uptake and use, carbon accumulation and sequestration, and environmental impact. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides guidance on further reading.
Philipp H. G. Boeven and C. Friedrich H. Longin, University of Hohenheim, Germany
Prerequisites, procedures and potential of hybrid breeding in wheat
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Hybrid wheat breeding offers great potential to deal with increasing demands for food and feed of future generations. Wheat hybrids possess substantial heterosis for grain yield and can combine disease resistance and quality traits with higher grain yield compared to line cultivars. Moreover, hybrid wheat breeding offers the smart stacking of major dominant genes. Major challenges are the establishment of heterotic groups and the need to increase the cross-pollination capability of wheat for a more efficient hybrid seed production. The chapter describes heterosis in wheat and heterotic groups, before moving on to consider hybrid seed production. Finally, the chapter discusses the relative advantages of hybrid versus line breeding.
Roger R. B. Leakey, International Tree Foundation, UK
A holistic approach to sustainable agriculture: trees, science and global society
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Despite great advances in our understanding of the environmental, social and economic role of trees in farming systems, much remains to be done, especially regarding the wider adoption of agroforestry and its up- and out-scaling. This chapter explores the relationship between trees, science and global society. The chapter offers an overview of tree agroecology, tree domestication, commercialization of trees and the relevance of development studies to this field. The chapter assesses the potential for upscaling the exploitation of trees as a sustainable resource and examines relevant issues connected with policy and agribusiness.
Annarita Marrano and David Neale, University of California-Davis, USA
Towards sustainable production of walnut (Juglans regia L.)
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Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.) is the only species of the genus Juglans widely cultivated for nut production. Over the last 20 years, global walnut production has grown by almost 250%, with China, the United States and Iran as leading producing countries. This enormous growth is mainly attributed to an increase in regular consumption of walnut due to its high nutritional value and numerous benefits to human health. Walnut breeding programmes are facing the challenge of increasing production sustainably because of climate change and human population growth. This chapter reviews recent efforts and achievements in ecologically and economically friendly walnut cultivation. The chapter describes different practices that have been applied in this direction, such as the development of new cultivars with genetic resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, the identification of solutions for reducing input consumption, and the exploration and conservation of genetic diversity in walnut.
Rolando Cerda, CATIE (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza), Costa Rica; Luis Orozco-Aguilar, The University of Melbourne, Australia; Norvin Sepúlveda, CATIE (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza), Costa Rica;
Tropical agroforestry and ecosystem services: trade-off analysis for better design strategies
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A large body of research has documented a wide list of provisioning and regulating services from tropical agroforestry systems (AFS). This chapter offers an overview of ecosystem services delivered by tropical AFS and presents practical approaches for trade-off analysis between ecosystem services and plant biodiversity for better design (or redesign) and management of AFS. It is structured as follows: Section 2 highlights the main provisioning and regulating services provided by tropical AFS (covering pest and disease regulation, nutrient cycling and soil quality, carbon sequestration, and water regulation); Section 3 provides an overview of practical approaches to assess trade-offs; and Section 4 presents a case study of trade-off analysis. This last section uses data from a so-called Sentinel Landscape–El Tuma-La Dalia in Nicaragua, and is useful to derive recommendations to enhance the delivering of ecosystem services from five AFS (cocoa AFS, coffee AFS, pasture-silvopastoral, grain fields, and homegardens).
Dima Faour-Klingbeil, Plymouth University, UK and DFK for Safe Food Environment, Germany; and Ewen Todd, Ewen Todd Consulting, USA
The role of food safety in food waste and losses
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Food loss and waste from the initial stages of food production to consumption is causing a growing concern. As yet, no food safety issues have been linked to food loss and waste, but numerous incidences of failure to comply with regulatory criteria have resulted in outbreaks of foodborne disease and food recalls due to microbiological or chemical hazards in the food. Overly extensive food safety concerns through exacting regulatory standards and quality control also cause enormous losses worldwide. In this chapter, we review the food safety challenges and drawbacks at each stage of the food supply chain by discussing relevant cases and their contribution to food loss and waste. The disparities between developing and developed countries are addressed to underline the global effect of food safety policies on food production and waste. Recent food safety trends and initiatives are also discussed.
Dr Dr Penka Tsonkova
Managing hedgerows to optimise ecosystem services in agroforestry systems
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Hedgerows are composed of trees and/or shrubs and serve as natural fences, often between pastures and arable fields. This chapter discusses the importance of hedgerow management and maintenance to enhance multiple ecosystem services such as biomass production, wind and water protection, habitat provision and landscape aesthetics. It develops a categorisation of existing hedgerows, applicable to linear woody-features such as hedgerows, windbreaks and riparian buffer strips, and evaluates the condition of each category with respect to multiple ecosystem services. It considers different measures for improving hedgerow condition and provides guidelines for hedgerow restoration and management under consideration of potential conflicts between services. The chapter highlights key constraints to hedgerow management in Germany and applies the developed concept to an agricultural area in the federal state of Brandenburg. It estimates the biomass potential of hedgerows in this area and demonstrates the application of a restoration and management strategy to selected hedgerows under two different scenarios.
Loretta Bacchetta, Silvia Procacci and Barbara Benassi, ENEA-Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, Italy
Advances in understanding health benefits of hazelnuts
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Hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.) are rich in fats, protein, valuable fibre content, phytonutrients and antioxidants such as vitamin E. The health benefits of hazelnut consumption arise from the synergic action of unsaturated fat or bioactive compounds including plant sterols and dietary fibre. After introducing the key nutritional features of hazelnuts, the chapter describes advances in metabolomics and outlines the results of epidemiological and clinical studies on both healthy and unhealthy volunteers. The chapter considers molecular studies of both nutrigenomics and nutri-epigenomics before looking ahead to future trends in this area of research.
Prof. Prof. Roberto Tuberosa
Leveraging the QTLome to enhance climate change resilience in cereals
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Global food security relies on the release of cultivars more resilient to the negative effects of abiotic stress caused by climate change. Attaining this daunting goal will require a substantial increase in selection gain achieved so far with conventional breeding. To this end, the identification of molecular markers associated with major quantitative trait loci (QTL) for the adaptive response to abiotic stress enables marker-assisted selection, boosts gain from selection while promoting a better understanding of the functional basis of abiotic stress resilience. This chapter presents an update and partial synopsis of the vast literature on the dissection of the QTLome in cereals and how this information is being leveraged toward the release of climate-resilient cultivars. Among the literature available on the topic of this review, the authors have focused on both recent articles as well as a number of reviews thus providing a critical assessment and appreciation of the merits and shortcomings on the adoption of a QTL-centric approach.
Dr Dr Simona Marianna Sanzani
New techniques for managing postharvest diseases of fruit: physical, chemical and biological agents
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Chemical fungicides are traditionally used to preserve the quality of fruit and vegetables during storage or transportation. However, the global concern about pesticide use and the reduced efficacy of chemicals due to pathogen-resistant strains have gradually led producers to evaluate safer alternatives for controlling postharvest diseases. Several means, such as natural compounds of animal and plant origin, organic and inorganic salts, antagonistic microorganisms and physical means, are among the approaches that have been recently evaluated to manage fruit rots. This chapter reviews these new alternative means and the latest solutions for controlling postharvest diseases in order to provide effective yet eco-friendly solutions for disease management. The chapter is divided into sections on physical agents (UV light treatment, heat treatment, electrolysed water); chemical agents (organic/inorganic salts, chitosan); and biological agents (biocontrol, botanicals). Concluding comments are provided on the current status of alternatives, and the steps needed to favour their entry into the market.
Gary Wyatt, Amanda Sames, and Diomy S. Zamora, University of Minnesota, USA
Agroforestry practices: windbreaks
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Windbreaks, also known as vegetative environmental buffers (VEB) or shelterbelts, are a common feature of agricultural systems around the world. These strips of trees, shrubs, and other perennial or annual vegetation perform a number of functions, including providing protection from the wind for homesteads, livestock, and crops; reducing soil erosion; providing protection from drifting snow; providing wildlife habitat; and enhancing aesthetics in agricultural landscapes. This chapter offers an overview of the benefits of windbreaks and examines the process of tree and shrub selection and planting. The chapter looks at designing windbreaks to reduce wind speed and snow drift, as well as describing the use of windbreaks for particulate capture, odor mitigation, and wildlife conservation. Finally, the chapter looks at future research trends in this area and offers detailed suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Ioannis Tzanetakis, University of Arkansas, USA; and Robert Martin, USDA-ARS, USA
Improving plant propagation methods for fruit disease control
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The movement of plant propagation material across countries and continents allows for the exchange of high-quality planting material providing producers with superior germplasm, and enhancing farm sustainability and profits. However, this practice has hidden dangers, including the potential of moving infectious agents to areas where they are not endemic. This chapter takes a systems-based approach on the detection, elimination and safeguarding against systemic pathogens that affect clonally propagated fruit crops. The steps taken to improve propagation material are comprehensively discussed and a number of case studies are presented including blackberry yellow vein disease and raspberry crumbly fruit and decline. New technologies that allow for the rapid and accurate characterization of plant pathogens are discussed. These include tools such as high throughput sequencing which has proved invaluable in assessing the health status of high value plants and for the rapid identification and characterization of unknown viruses.
Kenneth Mudge, Cornell University, USA
Agroforestry practices: forest farming
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Forest farming is a relatively low-tech agroforestry practice for the cultivation of shade-tolerant non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as medicinal plants, mushrooms, fruits, nuts, tree syrups and/or nursery stock. It is an ecologically sustainable way for forest owners to generate income, while maintaining forest health (productive conservation). This chapter introduces the concept of forest farming with sections on both estimating yields and how to select sites for such practices. Products with the greatest potential for income generation are covered such as shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes) where logs begin yielding relatively soon after their inoculation, and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) which has greater income-generating potential, although requires many years before it begins to yield. Other NTFPs are also covered including medicinal plants, fruits, nuts and tree syrups. The chapter concludes with two case studies, one on the forest farming of tree nuts and the other on the production of wild leeks (Allium tricoccum).
Benjamin Wittkop, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany; László Csélènyi, Saatzucht W. von Borries-Eckendorf, Germany; and Wolfgang Friedt and Timm Bernhard, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany
Doubled haploid (DH) production for barley
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Current European barley breeding programs predominately rely on doubled haploid (DH) technology delivering several essential advantages, such as accelerated development of homozygous genotypes, early recognition of major recessive traits, enabling to select faster and much more robust, and facilitation of maintenance breeding starting directly from homozygotes. This chapter gives a general overview of the different methods involved in doubled haploid technology, focusing on their relevance the application in practical barley breeding programs. The chapter examines wide hybridization, anther culture (AC), isolated microspore culture (MC) and parthenogenesis.
Salih Kafkas, University of Çukurova, Turkey
Advances in breeding of pistachio
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Pistacia vera L. (pistachio) has the only commercially important edible nuts in the genus, and wild species are used for rootstock. Breeding in pistachio is very slow, time-consuming and expensive due to very long juvenile period and the plant’s dioecious character. This chapter describes the objectives of pistachio breeding, the genetic resources available and the importance of cytogenetics to this field. The chapter then examines the use of molecular markers, genome and transcriptome sequencing, and the role of micropropagation and breeding achievements in the area of pistachio cultivation. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading.
