V. S. Almeida, F. T. Delazari, C. Nick, W. L. Ara ú jo and D. J. H. Silva, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Brazil
Optimizing yields in tomato cultivation: maximizing tomato plant use of resources
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The operation of leaf stomata affects a plant’s photosynthesis, transpiration and respiration, and allows vegetable dry matter to be produced, which is required for production of the tomato fruit. The opening and closing of the stomata can be affected by various factors, and this in turn can have an effect on crop yield. After reviewing the role and functioning of the stomata, this chapter considers the main factors that affect stomata opening and closure, namely, soil water availability, light, CO2, relative air moisture, air temperature and wind. It then considers how these and other factors may interact, reviews the cultivational practices which can promote stomatal opening and briefly cover methods for determining the water status and transpiration rate of plants. The aim of the chapter is to provide novel insights into improving tomato yield by ensuring stomatal pores stay open for longer at appropriate times.
Bob Hartzler, Iowa State University, USA
Integrated weed management in soybean cultivation
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Almost all soybean fields have weed infestations that must be managed by farmers to sustain economic viability. This chapter reviews the integrated weed-management approach, which utilizes the contributions of plant breeding, cultural, mechanical and chemical practices in suppressing weed populations and minimizing the impacts of weeds on yield. After establishing the importance of a diverse weed-management strategy, we discuss how farmers set goals for weed management and the importance of focussing on managing the weed seed bank. Sections 3 and 4 review the wide range of management tactics available, while Section 5 considers interactions between weeds and other pests. Section 6 then discusses the factors that limit the adoption of the integrated weed-management approach.
Nalini C. Gnanapragasam, Former Deputy Director (Research), Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka; currently Agricultural Tea Consultant - Malwatte Valley Plantations PLC, Sri Lanka
Integrated pest management of insect, nematode and mite pests of tea
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This chapter describes the various strategies that are being implemented in different countries to manage pests of tea using integrated pest management (IPM) programmes to ensure they do not reach economic injury levels. The chapter explores methods of mechanical, biological, cultural and chemical control of insect and nematode pests of tea, and includes a number of detailed case studies describing the application of these methods in IPM programmes.
Phung Lê Đình, Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry, Hue University, Vietnam; and André J. A. Aarnink, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands
Nutritional strategies to reduce emissions from waste in pig production
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Emissions of ammonia, odour and greenhouse gases (GHGs) from livestock housing and storage and application of manure are major concerns in the environmental sustainability of pig production. This chapter addresses dietary strategies to reduce these emissions. It examines in detail the relationship between nutrition and ammonia, odour, and GHG emissions. The effectiveness of dietary solutions for reducing gaseous emissions and its relation with animal performance are discussed. Finally, the chapter examines future research trends in this area and provides detailed suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Deirdre Hennessy, Teagasc, Ireland
Managing grassland for forage production: an overview
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In temperate agriculture, grasslands play an important role in the provision of forage for livestock. Management of these grasslands is vital in order to ensure that high-quality feed is available. This chapter reviews the short-, medium- and long-term management of grasslands, including stocking rates, the day-to-day management of grazing and harvesting, planning for rotations and silage harvesting, renovation, drainage, reseeding and soil fertility improvement.
Thea van Niekerk, Wageningen Livestock Research, The Netherlands
Managing laying hen flocks with intact beaks
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Worldwide, the majority of laying hens are beak trimmed to prevent injurious pecking. However, a ban on beak treatments has come into force in some countries, while others are discussing instituting such a ban. European legislation also prohibits beak treatment of organic flocks. When beak trimming is not practiced, farmers face the challenge of preventing injurious pecking behaviour in their flocks. Many environmental factors have been identified as affecting the onset and severity of feather pecking, and good management of these factors can prevent the onset of feather pecking or help to prevent escalation once feather pecking starts. In this chapter we review types of feather pecking and consider the origins of the behaviour. We then offer detailed discussion of management techniques for the prevention of feather pecking, during both rearing and the laying period.
Stefano De Faveri, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Australia
Integrated pest management and biological pest control strategies in mango cultivation
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Integrated pest management (IPM) is the compatible use of various methods to control pests; methods include biological control, cultural control and chemical control. Chemical control should be used as a last resort and should be restricted to selective and less disruptive insecticides. This chapter provides an overview of IPM and addresses the problems associated with overreliance on chemical insecticides. The chapter explores pests of mango and the options for IPM. The chapter then includes four case studies drawn from Queensland, Australia, covering mango-scale monitoring and biological control, beneficial insects associated with mango planthopper, evaluation of pasture species for shelter and food for beneficial insects and fruit fly control. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and recommends further reading on the subject.
Steven A. Oosthuyse, HortResearch SA, South Africa
Management of an ultra-high-density mango orchard and benefits of the small-tree system
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There are many advantages in establishing mango hedgerows in such a way that their height for optimal light utilization does not exceed 2m and their width 1m. The terminal shoots, inflorescences and fruits on such trees are within easy reach of farm workers. The fruits, as opposed to branches and new shoots, can specifically be targeted for fungicide or pesticide application. This chapter describes the stages of a 3 x 1m Tommy Atkins mango orchard, from the time of its establishment to the time the trees had filled their space in the orchard row and were fully bearing. It gives an account of management actions required for sustained maximal production, describing the benefits of the reduced time from planting until the trees attain optimal canopy cover and maximum fruit production. The chapter assesses the extent of small-tree growing systems to date.
Jack C. Comstock and Sushma G. Sood, USDA-ARS, USA
Integrated disease management strategies in sugarcane cultivation
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Sugarcane diseases cause severe losses to sugar production around the world. More than 100 bacterial, fungal, phytoplasma and viral diseases are present in sugarcane-growing areas worldwide. Some diseases are present in most sugarcane-growing regions while others are confined to specific countries. This chapter outlines and explores the various disease management strategies used in sugarcane cropping systems around the world and the potential for Integrated Disease Management to minimize losses and maximize profitability. The chapter covers management of diseases by controlling the pathogens, management of diseases through the host and management of diseases by controlling the environment, before looking ahead to future research trends in this field.
J. R. Roche, DairyNZ, New Zealand
Nutrition management of grazing dairy cows in temperate environments
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Temperate grass-legume mixes (i.e. pasture) are nutritionally well-balanced and can sustain moderate levels of milk production in dairy cattle. However, pasture is perishable, and if not consumed by cow, it is wasted and the feed quality of the re-growth declines. Moreover, increased use of supplementary feed also increases production costs. This means that cows should only be fed non-pasture feeds when there is insufficient pasture and supplements will have a significant effect on milk production. For good nutrition management in grazing systems, it is therefore essential to identify genuine feed deficits, so as to ensure that the marginal milk production response to providing a supplementary feed is sufficiently large to return a profit to the farmer. This chapter offers a review of the considerations that must be taken into account when deciding whether and how to supplement pasture with additional feed.
Ting Zhang, China University of Geosciences and Huanggang Normal University, China; Xiaojian Lv, Yin Xu, Lanying Xu and Tao Long, Huanggang Normal University, China; Chi-Tang Ho, Rutgers University, USA; and Shiming Li, Huanggang Normal University, China
Instrumentation and methodology for the quantification of phytochemicals in tea
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Tea contains many phytochemicals, such as polyphenols, amino acids, vitamins, carbohydrates and purine alkaloids that possess important physiological properties and health-promoting benefits. Tea components are closely associated with tea variety, the growing conditions and regions of tea plants and the approach used for plucking and processing of tea leaves. This chapter will review the main chemical components present in tea and the instrumental techniques used to identify them.
G. Raj Murugesan and Chasity M. Pender, BIOMIN America Inc., USA
Maintaining the safety of poultry feed
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Natural and artificial contaminants in poultry feed may result in deteriorated feed quality, reduced performance and increased incidence of disease in poultry, ultimately leading to a significant economic loss for producers. Moreover, since poultry are raised to produce meat and eggs for human consumption, contaminants in poultry feed may also pose risks to human health. This chapter focuses on those contaminants considered to pose the most significant risk to poultry and human health: mycotoxins, dioxins and bacterial pathogens. Each section will discuss the negative effects of these factors as well as possible control measures that may be implemented to reduce feed contamination and secure feed and food safety.
H. Czosnek, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel; A. Koren, Hishtil Nursery, Israel; and F. Vidavski, Tomatech R&D, Israel
Many viruses transmitted by insects cause great damage to tomato crops in the field and in the greenhouse, seriously damaging tomato production in many regions of the globe. Management of insect transmitted tomato viruses is a race between the emergence of new viruses coupled with the proliferation of quickly adapting vectors and strategies that include physical and chemical protection from insects and development of virus-tolerant crops. The major insect-transmitted viruses infecting tomato are described in detail in this chapter, including viruses transmitted by aphids, thrips, whitefly and leafhoppers. The chapter explores the potential of technologies such as genetic engineering to combat insect-transmitted viruses and suggests future trends for research in this area.
Thierry Astruc and Annie Vénien, INRA, France
Muscle fibre types and beef quality
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The quality of bovine meat is related to the composition of the source muscles. Bovine skeletal muscle is mainly composed of three types of muscle fibres that are found in varying proportions in different muscles. The proportion of these different fibre types varies with biological and environmental factors (breed, age, sex, rearing conditions), resulting in variability of carcass and meat qualities. This study focuses on the factors of variation in carcass and muscle composition and on the relationship between muscle fibre type composition and overall meat quality.
Randall Nelson, USDA-ARS and University of Illinois, USA
Maintaining and utilizing the genetic diversity of soybeans
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The aim of plant breeding is to create genetically diverse gene pools and then devise strategies to consolidate the favourable alleles and eliminate those that are adverse to the grower’s objectives. Genetic diversity is the fuel that powers plant breeding but it is also the largest impediment to progress. Historically, most cultivar development programmes seem to operate with the assumption that the latter is more important than the former. This chapter describes the major soybean germplasm collections of the world which are the sources of available genetic diversity, then reviews the formation of the current commercially used gene pool for soybean breeding in North America. It then considers how adding new genetic diversity can improve the rate of gain for seed yield and how the various sources of exotic germplasm can be utilized within different segments of a national soybean programme.
C. Watson, Scotland’s Rural College (SRUC), UK and Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden; and E. A. Stockdale, Head of Farming Systems Research, NIAB, UK
Maintaining soil fertility and health in organic crop cultivation
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Maintaining the health and fertility of our soils is central to the productivity of farming systems because of the key role that both health and fertility play in crop production. The links between soil health and the health consumers (both animal and human) and the wider ecosystem are important underlying themes of organic agriculture. Organic farming relies primarily on the use of crop rotations together with manures and crop residues produced on farm and limited allowable off-farm inputs to maintain soil fertility and health. Organic farming requires a long-term perspective on how crop rotations and organic inputs can be used to provide nutrients in synchrony, with crop demand allowing crop nutrition to be optimised while nutrient losses are minimised. Our understanding of the form and function of soil biota has increased rapidly in recent years, but the practical application of this knowledge remains a major challenge.
Bonnie B. Pendleton, West Texas A&M University, USA
Insect pests and their management in sorghum cultivation
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Integrated pest management (IPM) is a practical approach that uses a combination of methods, including cultural, biological and chemical controls, to keep pest abundance or damage below economic loss. This chapter describes ways to prevent damaging infestations, as well as evaluate pest abundance and damage to determine when remedial action with insecticide is justified. The chapter describes key insect pests, their life cycles and impact on sorghum crops.
L. S. Pereira and P. Paredes, University of Lisbon, Portugal
Modelling water use on farms
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This chapter presents computation and modelling approaches of crop water use and irrigation water requirements and discusses concepts of water use performance and productivity. The chapter also describes the main features of soil water balance and irrigation scheduling models. It focuses on the SIMDualKc model which accurately partitions evapotranspiration into actual crop transpiration and soil evaporation. The chapter includes examples of the application of modelling in horticulture, field crops, olive orchards and vineyards as well as intercropped wheat and sunflower. It also includes an example of modelling when saline water is used, thus with identification of impacts on actual transpiration.
A. Muller, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and Institute for Environmental Decisions, Department of Environmental Systems Science, Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Switzerland; M. Meier and C. Schader, Research Institute of Organic
Measuring and improving the environmental performance of organic farming
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There is a large and growing body of literature comparing the environmental performance of organic and conventional farming in specific settings, either on farm or product level. However, how one assesses ‘environmental performance’ is a complex and multifaceted question, and one-dimensional indicators tend to neglect key aspects of production systems. This chapter evaluates a number of multidimensional methods of assessment, including Life Cycle Assessment, Productivity Analysis, multi-criteria assessment approaches and food systems modelling. It is concluded that the assessment of environmental performance must go beyond the level of production, and address consistency and sufficiency aspects that emerge at the consumption stage. The organic sector has a vital role to play in defining how performance of agro-systems and food systems should be assessed.
Wayne S. Meyer, University of Adelaide, Australia
Increasing water productivity in agriculture: an overview
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There is good evidence that improvements in crop productively have come from increases in yield rather than from decreases in total water use. In irrigated agriculture, there are increasing attempts to decrease the unproductive losses of water from storage, through distribution systems and onto fields. This chapter defines the meaning and implications of increased water productivity, and then systematically considers the limits and opportunities for improvement. Water productivity is considered in the context of both rain-dependent (often called ‘dryland’) and irrigated agricultural production. The chapter acknowledges that many agricultural systems have animals as part of food and fibre production, and argues that efforts to increase water productivity need to consider whole agricultural systems.
Robert F. Wideman, Jr., University of Arkansas, USA
Leg disorders in poultry: bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO)
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Bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO) is widely recognized as one of the most common causes of lameness in broilers. This chapter starts by summarizing the pathogenesis of BCO. Experimental models that successfully trigger BCO are then reviewed. Sources of bacteria that infect the bones are discussed, with the primary emphasis on bacterial translocation across the gastrointestinal epithelium. Finally, we review the efficacy of probiotics as a prophylactic treatment for BCO.
Suhas P. Wani, Kaushal K. Garg, Girish Chander and K. H. Anantha, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India
Improving water use in tropical rain-fed systems: the situation in India
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The quantity of available water and land has not increased since 1950, but the availability of water and land per capita has declined significantly due to an increased global human population. Global food security for this growing population requires careful management of water resources. In this chapter, we analyse the status of agricultural water use in tropical rain-fed areas, assess the potential for improvement and then propose a new paradigm to manage agricultural water efficiently by adopting various land, water, nutrient and crop management technologies.
Y. Nys, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), France
Laying hen nutrition: optimising hen performance and health, bone and eggshell quality
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Hen nutrition must address a number of different goals including maximising egg production, maintaining egg quality, extending the laying cycle and ensuring hen health and welfare. This chapter focuses on the dietary influences on eggshell quality and bone health. It looks first at the role of phosphorus and calcium in the diet. It then goes on to review other nutritional factors such as fatty acids, vitamins, magnesium and trace elements. After a review of dietary influences on egg yolk coloration, the chapter concludes by discussing the ways nutrition can promote hen health in such areas as the prevention of hepatic steatosis, osteoporosis, keel bone disorders and feather picking.
Kathy Hurly and Richard Nicholson, SA Canegrowers, South Africa; Carolyn Baker and Michelle Binedell, South African Sugarcane Research Institute, South Africa; Vaughan Koopman, WWF-SA, South Africa; Graeme Leslie, Consultant Entomologist, South Africa; Ge
Mitigating the impact of environmental, social and economic issues on sugarcane cultivation to achieve sustainability
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Mitigating the impact of sugarcane cultivation on the environment and ensuring both economic and social sustainability is key to successful and enduring sugar industries. This chapter focuses on the impact of agrochemical use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and how these may be mitigated. Persistent effects of agrochemical practices are described and strategies aimed at mitigating their impact are identified. Sources of GHG emissions are identified and some of the challenges associated with implementation of the practices required to mitigate their effects are provided. The chapter outlines arguments associated with the economic value of the practices that underpin adherence to improved environmental management, and includes a case study from South Africa to demonstrate an expansive learning approach to enhance adoption of a sound environmental management system, SUSFARMS®.
Xiaobo Wang, Anhui Agricultural University, China; Lijuan Qiu, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China
Mapping the soybean genome
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The soybean is one of the most important grain legumes, but genetic mapping had been less advanced than in other crops, which limited modern soybean molecular breeding. This chapter discusses the significant progress in mapping the soybean genome that has now been made. Also highlighted are the use of restriction fragment length polymorphism molecular markers, high-throughput genotyping markers, specific-locus amplified fragment sequencing mapping, whole-genome re-sequencing mapping and comparative genome mapping. This has allowed for the identification of quantitative trait loci or genes to improve yield, nutritional quality, as well as biotic and abiotic stress tolerances.
Q. Xue, J. Rudd, J. Bell, T. Marek and S. Liu, Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center at Amarillo, USA
Improving water management in winter wheat
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Globally, winter wheat is mainly grown in Eurasia, China, Iran and the United States. Some areas have high precipitation, while other areas require irrigation for high yield in winter wheat. Nevertheless, drought stress can significantly reduce winter wheat yields, even in high precipitation environments. Since water is the most important factor affecting crop production, development of crop management practices to conserve and optimize water use and improve crop water-use efficiency (WUE) becomes essential, particularly under changing climate conditions. This chapter reviews progress in winter wheat water management and WUE, drawing on long-term field experiments in the U.S. southern Great Plains (which has a long history of winter wheat research). The chapter discusses relationships between yield, evapotranspiration and WUE and best management practices based on case studies, from soil and water conservation to genetic improvement of drought tolerance to deficit irrigation practice.
Stephen N. Wegulo, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
Integrated wheat disease management
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Wheat is one the most economically important crops in the world. Diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes can significantly reduce wheat yields. All parts of the wheat plant can be affected by diseases. Integrated disease management (IDM) combines two or more tactics to prevent or reduce yield loss. IDM is based on the concept of integrated pest management (IPM) in which various tools are combined to manage pests in a way that minimizes economic, health and environmental risks. These tools or tactics include scouting, disease identification, variety selection, cultural practices, chemical control and biological control. This chapter reviews these tactics individually using selected research examples and emphasizes the integration of as many tactics as practically possible to maximize the effectiveness of managing wheat diseases.
Kenton Dashiell, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria
Key challenges in plant health in sub-Saharan Africa: stakeholder priorities
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This chapter comprises short summaries of research priorities from key stakeholders who have worked with the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) on plant health. Stakeholders were categorised into the following groups: international organisations (e.g. the FAO), universities, institutes working within national agricultural research systems (NARS) in sub-Saharan Africa, and donors/investors. Statements highlight such issues as: the importance of collaboration both at an institutional and individual level; the role of IITA in capacity building for example in training of NARS staff; the success of biocontrol techniques in IPM, many of them pioneered by IITA with its partners, particularly in managing major African crops such as cassava, maize and bananas; and the importance of effective monitoring/surveillance and robust phytosanitary arrangements to limit the spread of new diseases and insect pests.
C. J. Swanton and T. Valente, University of Guelph, Canada
Key issues and challenges of integrated weed management
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In order to intensify agricultural productivity while at the same time enhance ecosystem services, it is necessary to evaluate carefully how current weed-management technologies are deployed, including herbicides and herbicide-resistant crops. Herbicide chemistries and herbicide-resistant crops have provided excellent technologies that have resulted in significant changes to the way weeds can be controlled. This chapter highlights several key components that must form the basis for an effective integrated weed-management strategy, including tillage, the importance of understanding weed emergence relative to the crop, critical periods for weed control, crop morphology, row width, nutrient management and crop rotation.
E. Simonne, M. Ozores-Hampton, A. Simonne and A. Gazula, University of Florida, USA
Improving water and nutrient management in tomato cultivation
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Agricultural practices for tomato production need to (1) fulfil the water and nutritional requirements of the crop for optimal production, (2) consider the environmental impact of production and (3) offer nutritious and safe tomatoes to consumers. This chapter focuses on irrigation and fertilization practices for field production of conventionally grown round (‘fresh-market’) and processing (‘Roma’) tomatoes, presenting the main US environmental regulations, together with related food-safety issues. Finally, this chapter describes challenges and successes in improving water and nutrient management practices in commercial fields.
Paul White and Richard Johnson, USDA-ARS, USA
Improving soil management in sugarcane cultivation
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This chapter identifies the most important soil management practices for sugarcane cultivation and provides information on the practices used by important cane-producing countries in the world. The chapter focuses on field management of soil for optimum sugarcane production, and covers such areas as water management, tillage, minimizing compaction, cover cropping, soil fertility, and crop residue management.
Candido Pomar, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Canada; Ines Andretta, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; and Luciano Hauschild, Universidade Estadual Paulista, Brazil
Meeting individual nutrient requirements to improve nutrient efficiency and the sustainability of growing pig production systems
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Precision feeding involves the use of feeding techniques that provide individual animals with diets tailored daily to production objectives (e.g. maximum growth). A method of estimating energy and nutrient requirements by integrating current relevant knowledge on pig metabolism has been developed and incorporated into a mathematical model. This chapter reviews recent research projects which indicate that feeding pigs a diet tailored daily to their individual requirements is essential to maximize nutrient efficiency and ensure the sustainability of the pig industry by reducing the excretion of nutrients and nutrient constituents and lowering feeding costs. This new nutritional approach represents a paradigm shift in pig feeding, because the optimal dietary nutrient level is no longer considered a static population attribute, but rather a dynamic process that evolves independently for each animal. Precision feeding is a highly promising avenue for improving resource use efficiency in comparison with conventional group phase-feeding programmes.
A. L. Ridler and K. J. Griffiths, Massey University, New Zealand
Improving the welfare of ewes
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Ewes are often grazed in large flocks in extensive pastoral production systems, and it is relatively uncommon for ewes to be individually identified or tallied. Given the relatively low economic value of adult ewes, health or production problems may go unnoticed for some time. Health problems affecting ewes may therefore go unchecked in large flocks or small flocks that are part of larger farming enterprises, and non-evidence-based strategies sometimes used by producers to prevent disease may potentially be more detrimental to ewes than the disease itself. This chapter considers major welfare considerations affecting ewes, including longevity, mortality, undernutrition and body condition score, environment and housing, lambing management and dystocia, vaginal prolapse, lameness and footrot, ectoparasites and on-farm euthanasia. This is followed by a consideration of future trends in research for improving the welfare of ewes.
Peter Neuenschwander and Manuele Tamò, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Benin
Introduction: meeting challenges in plant health in sub-Saharan Africa
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This volume is a review of plant health research and its implementation by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and its collaborators worldwide to celebrate IITA’s fiftieth anniversary. It addresses plant health issues of global importance in sub-Saharan Africa, including hunger, poverty and threats to economic development and the environment. The volume addresses new and emerging plant health challenges in particular, including the effects of climate change, the significant increase in international trade which introduces invasive species, the rapid loss of biological diversity and new pest pathways. The volume’s overall goal is to encourage sustainable and productive agriculture in Africa, feeding into local value chains and improving the livelihood of Africans across the continent. This introduction to the individual chapters that describe specific plant health issues provides a historical context for plant health research and implementation and gives an overview of the structure of the text as a whole.
Istvan Rajcan and Jocelyne Letarte, University of Guelph, Canada
Improving the nutritional value of soybean
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Soybean is grown for its high oil and protein concentration and profile in the seed. Numerous studies have been carried out to determine the underlying genetics of soybean seed composition traits and develop molecular markers that can aid in the breeding of soybean cultivars with enhanced nutritional quality. This chapter considers genetics and breeding of soybean to improve the nutritional value of the seed as the end product. The chapter describes the protein content and profile of soybean seeds before considering breeding soybean for a modified fatty acids profile that could extend soybean oil’s shelf life or address various health or nutritional issues. Finally, the chapter explores how breeding could improve the contents of tocopherols, isoflavones and saponins in soybean seeds, which are known to have important health benefits for humans.
Paolo Bàrberi, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Italy
Integrated weed management in organic cropping systems
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Weed management is a key challenge for organic production. Integrated Weed Management (IWM), that is, the combination of different tactics within a long-term management strategy, can keep weed abundance low. However, successful IWM relies on maximum diversification of the cropping system, which is rarely accomplished. This chapter presents examples of successful integration between preventive, cultural and direct tactics in an IWM strategy. It reviews IWM approaches for difficult cases such as intra-row weed control, the presence of problematic weeds and reduced-tillage systems. Finally, future advances which could promote the adoption of IWM in organic systems are discussed.
J. M. K. Ojango, R. Mrode, A. M. Okeyo, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Kenya; J. E. O. Rege, Emerge-Africa, Kenya; M. G. G. Chagunda, Scotland’s Rural College (SRUC), UK; and D. R. Kugonza, Makerere University, Uganda
Improving smallholder dairy farming in Africa
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An estimated 80% of the milk produced in Africa is from smallholder farming systems where producers rear less than 10 head of cattle on land sizes that vary from 0.2 to 4 hectares. Smallholder farmers rear a wide variety of genotypes in a variety of mixed crop and livestock systems, reflecting the husbandry and management knowhow of farmers. Cattle feed resources, water, animal health, animal handling, breeding management and socio-economic factors limit productivity. Most countries in Africa rely on genetic improvement technologies realized in more developed countries, yet they lack national programmes geared to improve breeding and production efficiency. In addition to presenting a broad overview of the existing smallholder dairy production systems and management practices in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), this chapter highlights key challenges and opportunities in the systems, presents possible intervention options for sustainable change and the key regional organizations catalysing change in practices within existing systems.
Calvin Odero, University of Florida, USA
Integrated weed management in sugarcane cultivation
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Weeds reduce sugarcane yield by competing for water, nutrients and light. They may also act as alternative hosts for disease and insect pests and increase production costs and lower land value. Implementation of integrated weed management (IWM) in sugarcane is essential to reduce the negative impact of weeds to economically acceptable levels, and understanding of the critical period of weed control (CPWC) is important so that IWM strategies can be developed to maximize control measures. This chapter deals with an integrated approach involving different methods of effective weed management in sugarcane that can be adopted for sustainable production, involving cultural, mechanical and chemical weed control.
Robert L. Gilbertson, Marcela Vasquez-Mayorga and Mônica Macedo, University of California-Davis, USA; and R. Muniappan, Virginia Tech, USA
Integrated pest management in tomato cultivation
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Pests and diseases contribute to about 40% of tomato yield loss in the field worldwide. This chapter will focus on how to combat pests and diseases using integrated pest management (IPM). The development of an IPM package for tomato involves the combination of multiple management strategies to address various pests and diseases, and will vary with region, production system and environment. For this chapter, we divide production into three parts: before the growing season, during the growing season and after the growing season. We present the major management strategies that are used during these parts of production, as well as the ones that are used for different production systems and, where relevant, environmental conditions.
Ignazio Graziosi and Kris A.G. Wyckhuys, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Vietnam
Integrated management of arthropod pests of cassava: the case of Southeast Asia
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High-yielding varieties and improved agronomy have led to substantial increases in cassava crop productivity throughout Southeast Asia; however, in recent years, those advances are being jeopardized by recurrent outbreaks of several non-native arthropod pests and (insect-vectored) pathogens. In this chapter, we provide an up-to-date account of recently-arrived invasive pests that are impacting Asia’s cassava crops and are having substantial repercussion for cassava crop production in multiple Asian countries. We indicate how both invasive insects, secondary pest outbreaks and insect-vectored diseases are becoming of increasing importance in several of Asia’s prime cassava-growing areas. We describe country-specific and regional mitigation programs and responses of local farmers to escalating pest outbreaks, listing both curative and preventative management tactics. We outline future opportunities for Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and arthropod biological control, and lay the basis for multi-disciplinary efforts to safeguard the long-term productivity, sustainability and agro-ecosystem health of one of Asia’s primary agricultural commodities.
Aruna C., B. Dayakar Rao, Vilas A. Tonapi and T. G. Nageshwar Rao, Indian Institute of Millets Research, India
Improving production and utilization of sorghum in Asia
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Sorghum was once a major crop in dry regions. However, its production area has decreased drastically, especially in Asia. In order to revitalize sorghum production, we must reorient sorghum research in the contexts of present and future demands, and resolve specific production constraints, thereby improving productivity. This chapter analyses the sorghum production system in Asia, comparing it to the global situation and identifying important constraints. It then reviews potential measures to improve sorghum cultivation in Asia, including genetic improvement, improved processing technologies, marketing strategies and policy measures.
Victor Galán Saúco, Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (ICIA), Spain
Mango cultivation practices for the subtropics
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Mango is well adapted to hot, tropical climates. However, it can also be grown in the mild subtropics, where cooler winter temperatures improve flower induction and cause early bearing and lower annual growth rates, which help to control size and favour high-density plantings. There are also disadvantages to growing mango in the subtropics: cold spells and low temperatures can damage vulnerable young trees or areas of young growth, or can induce flowering of very young trees at the nursery, causing premature ageing of inadequately managed plants. This chapter reviews the differences between mango cultivation in tropical and subtropical climates and explores the factors necessary for successful subtropical cultivation.
A. G. Levin, Supplant Ltd, Israel
Improving fertilizer and water-use efficiency in mango cultivation
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The irrigation requirements of mango have not been adequately investigated, and very few studies have been conducted on regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) strategies at different phenological stages. The aim of this chapter is to suggest how research in the field of irrigation and fertilization can help solve the challenges faced by the mango industry and be translated into practical outcomes for farmers by making mango production more sustainable. In order to achieve this goal, based on an extensive and detailed review of the most relevant researches on these topics, the chapter identifies potential areas for applied research that can significantly contribute to more sustainable mango agriculture in small, medium and large mango farms in developed and developing countries. The chapter includes a detailed case study.
Victor Olowe, Institute of Food Security, Environmental Resources and Agricultural Research (IFSERAR), Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta (FUNAAB), Nigeria
Improving organic agriculture in the developing world: Africa
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The continent of Africa accounts for 25% of the world’s arable land and yet produces just 10% of the global agricultural output. Against the backdrop of the challenges to agriculture in Africa, the African heads of states took a decision in 2011 to integrate organic agriculture into the mainstream agricultural systems of all member states by the year 2020. This chapter describes the current status of organic agriculture in Africa and sets out steps that need to be followed to improve organic agriculture in the continent, from advocacy to improved agricultural techniques and greater government investment.
Brian L. Beres, Reem Aboukhaddour and Haley Catton, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Canada
Integrated crop management of wheat
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Integrated crop management (ICM) is the practice of using multiple agronomic and pest control methods to maximize yield and net returns and to minimize inputs while maintaining economic and environmental sustainability. This chapter describes the role of agronomists in developing ICM strategies and provides a detailed case study of ICM based on efforts to control the wheat pest wheat stem sawfly (WSS). The chapter looks ahead to the future prospects for ICM and suggests further reading on this topic.
Janne Lundén, University of Helsinki, Finland
Inspection techniques for poultry slaughterhouse operations: the case of the European Union
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Poultry slaughter includes complex and challenging operations from a food safety point of view. The food business operator (FBO) is responsible for identifying food safety risks and ensuring that food safety legislation is followed. This chapter considers the goals and prerequisites of successful food safety inspections, and then offers a detailed review of inspection techniques used in official control of poultry slaughterhouses, with a focus on the on-site inspection of facilities and operations. Common non-compliance issues are described, followed by discussion of the efficacy of control actions used by official veterinarians.
D. Barker, The Ohio State University, USA
Managing soil health for grassland
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Soil health is a holistic concept that includes all the processes affecting the ability of soil to provide the ecosystem services we require from grassland. The primary ‘service’ provided by grassland is forage for livestock, but additional secondary ‘services’ can include benefits such as environmental protection, protection of valued fauna and flora, aesthetic qualities and improved soil health. We have no single parameter for measuring soil health, but we rely on a number of indicators that are still being refined and developed for practical use. Furthermore, we invariably do not control those indicators directly, but rely on indirect mechanisms to improve soil health. This chapter considers some of the major issues and strategies for managing grassland soil, with a specific focus on management of soil fertility and fertilizer input.
Babatima Djana Mignouna, IITA, Benin; P. Lava Kumar, IITA, Nigeria; Danny Coyne, IITA, Kenya; and Ranajit Bandyopadhyay, Alejandro Ortega-Beltran, Ranjana Bhattacharjee and David De Koeyer, IITA, Nigeria
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: yams and cocoyams
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A large proportion of the world’s yams, which are mostly indigenous to Africa, and the exotic taro and cocoyam are grown in West and Central Africa by resource-poor farmers. Surveys demonstrate recycling and build-up of pathogens and nematodes from one generation to the next because of their vegetative mode of propagation. Minisett techniques, organ culture, vine cuttings and so on, and the use of botanic seeds can alleviate these problems. The main pests are two types of nematodes, among which root-knot nematodes have increased recently, yam beetles, fungi and viruses, but many fungal pathosystems remain unexplored. Marker-assisted resistance breeding, particularly against yam mosaic virus, is using next-generation sequencing techniques and robust phenotypic screening. Virus-free material can be obtained by hot water treatment of seed tubers. There is a huge prospect of using genomics and transgenic approaches to accelerate the rate of improvement without affecting production and productivity.
Thom Huppertz and Inge Gazi, NIZO food research, The Netherlands
Ingredients from milk for use in food and non-food products: from commodity to value-added ingredients
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The use of milk in a wide range of products has resulted in the development of a wide range of dairy ingredients for use in dairy and non-dairy foods, as well as non-food products. These ingredients range from commodity ingredients, for example, milk powder and whey powder, to milk protein ingredients, such as caseins, caseinates, whey protein ingredients, milk protein concentrates (MCPs) and milk protein hydrolysates. Furthermore, lactose and lactose derivatives, for example, lactulose, lactobionic acid and the prebiotic galactooligosaccharides, and milk fat globule membrane material fractions, may also be produced. This chapter reviews the main dairy ingredients and their applications.
Muaka Toko and Peter Neuenschwander, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Benin; J. Steve Yaninek, Purdue University, USA; Alejandro Ortega-Beltran, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; André Fanou and Victo
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: cassava
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The long history of cassava as a hardy crop, relatively free from diseases and pests’ attacks, ended in the 1970s when the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti and the cassava green mite Mononychellus tanajoa invaded Africa and devastated the crop to the point of wiping it out as was the case with P. manihoti, while losses from cassava bacterial blight caused hunger in some regions. Before these invasions, a dozen arthropods and four common diseases, some causing significant yield losses, had been recorded on cassava. This chapter considers the cases of P. manihoti, M. tanajoa, Stictococcus vayssierei, Zonocerus variegatus and four main diseases: cassava bacterial blight, cassava anthracnose, cassava leaf spots and cassava root and stem rots (the viral diseases being treated in Chapter 5 of this book). This narrow selection is justified, as proven control methods – biological, cultural and resistance breeding – can be adapted to control other cassava pests.
Ranajit Bandyopadhyay, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; Kitty F. Cardwell, Oklahoma State University, USA; Alejandro Ortega-Beltran, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; Fritz Schulthess, Rheinst
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: maize
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A range of insect pests and diseases compromise the quantity, quality and safety of maize, with a negative impact on the food security, income generation and health of African people. This chapter highlights work conducted by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) on key insect pests and fungal diseases of maize, with the aim of reducing their burden on African agriculture. At first, diagnostic research focussed on identifying key insect pests and diseases. As invasive pests and diseases such as downy mildew and larger grain borer appeared, appropriate technologies to manage them were developed. Further attention has been given to reducing post-harvest losses, generating integrated pest management options for stemborers and investigating the impact of aflatoxins on child health and scaling out a biocontrol solution. With the recent spread of fall armyworm across Africa, a large amount of work has been initiated for its control.
Kenneth Nordlund, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
Management of dairy cows in transition and at calving
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Most of the clinical disease events in a dairy cow’s life occur during the transition period, defined as the period three weeks before and after calving. It is believed that almost all cows experience some immune dysfunction during the peripartum period, and that this combined with nutritional disturbances or certain management practices leads to a variety of metabolic and infectious disease events. This chapter addresses the best way to monitor the health and management of cows during the transition period and discusses a number of factors that can affect herd transition health, including the intrinsic characteristics of the cows, limitations and challenges associated with the housing and environment in which cows are placed and interactions with caregivers. While this chapter does not focus on nutrition per se, many of the risk factors will manifest themselves as changes in the availability or need for nutrients.
Nalini C. Gnanapragasam, Former Deputy Director (Research), Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka; currently Agricultural Tea Consultant - Malwatte Valley Plantations PLC, Sri Lanka
Insect pests of tea: caterpillars and other seasonal, occasional and minor pests
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This chapter focuses on seasonal, occasional and minor pests of tea, which cause damage to tea plants largely through feeding processes. The chapter considers a variety of factors associated with each of these pests, including their geographical distribution, appearance, the damage caused and their respective biologies and ecologies. It also looks ahead to future research into these pests, including understanding their habits and habitats, their sensitivity to temperature, humidity and climate change in general.
J. P. C. Greyling, University of the Free State, South Africa
Improving the reproductive efficiency of sheep
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Sheep, in the form of mutton and lamb, fulfils, in large part, the world’s ever-increasing demand for animal protein. Large areas of the world are arid and semi-arid and are thus suitable for sheep farming, but there is only limited availability of pasture area. Therefore, sheep production must be increased for an efficient and a sustainable food supply. This chapter describes how sheep nutrition, animal diet and welfare, reproductive technologies and sheep production management techniques can all contribute towards achieving sustainable sheep production. The chapter concludes that, provided adequate nutrition is given and a strict animal health and reproduction programme is adhered to with a breed adapted to the specific environment, a lambing rate of 130–150% is achievable.
H. Spieß, B. Schmehe and C. Vollenweider, LBS Dottenfelderhof, Germany
Key issues in breeding and trialling robust cereal cultivars for organic farming
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This chapter provides an overview of key issues in organic crop breeding and presents objectives, activities and results of concrete organic cereal breeding projects. Organic crop breeding is a small but rapidly growing branch of organic agriculture. Its primary objective is to develop cultivars suitable for the conditions of organic farming systems, which include a limited and generally more diverse plant nutrient availability, higher pressures of weeds, diseases and pests as well as special product quality requirements. This chapter provides an insight into concrete organic crop breeding projects with a special focus on resistance breeding programmes and cultivar triallings for cereal crop diseases such as common and dwarf bunt of wheat (Tilletia caries, T. controversa), Fusarium head blight (Fusarium spp.), yellow stripe rust of wheat (Puccinia striiformis), loose smut of oats (Ustilago avenae) and barley leaf stripe (Pyrenophora graminea). The chapter also outlines future needs and strategies.
Richard M. Fulton, Michigan State University, USA
Maintaining the health of laying hens:
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Biosecurity plays a pivotal role in maintaining the health of poultry. Biosecurity is the protection of birds from disease-causing agents. This chapter reviews the range of biosecurity measures required to maintain the health of laying hens. It talks about separation of birds which is an important measure. It reviews disease identification and detection, including the identification of specific diseases and vaccination regimes for prevention or treatment. Finally, this chapter discusses in detail the common diseases of egg-laying chickens, some of them being respiratory diseases, diseases related to the nervous system, the intestinal system, etc.
John Gowing, University of Newcastle, UK
Improving water productivity in rainfed agriculture: challenges and opportunities for small-scale farmers in dry lands
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There is growing global recognition of the need to improve agricultural water management if we are to achieve sustainable food production systems which ensure future food security whilst maintaining ecosystem services, strengthening capacity for adaptation to climate change and averting degradation of land and soil quality. This chapter reviews state-of-the-art knowledge on how to increase water productivity in rainfed agriculture. It examines concepts, methods, constraints and examples drawn from both developing and developed countries, with a particular emphasis on small-scale farmers in the dry lands of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), and West Asia and North Africa (WANA).
Rajiv Kumar Sharma , Global Wheat Improvement Program – CIMMYT, India
Improving wheat cultivation in Asia
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It has been estimated that wheat production in South Asia needs to grow at the rate of 2-2.5% annually until the middle of 21st century to feed its population. This chapter reviews some of the key issues which must be addressed in order to improve wheat cultivation in Asia. We begin by considering how the genetic diversity of wheat crops can be both improved and exploited, then review the improvement of breeding techniques. Strategies for dealing with biotic and abiotic stresses, improving quality, and improving cultivation practices are also covered. Finally, we offer a case study on improving wheat cultivation in India.
P. H. Hemsworth and E. C. Jongman, University of Melbourne, Australia
Humane transport, lairage and slaughter of sheep
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Contemporary public concerns about and policy debates on animal production focus on conditions that guarantee food security, public health, environmental quality and animal welfare. This chapter reviews the main welfare issues associated with management of sheep post-farm gate, including transport by road and by sea, and holding facilities, handling and stunning of sheep at abattoirs. The chapter argues that welfare monitoring at each stage of the post-farm gate production process is essential, together with provision of optimal thermal and spatial conditions in holding facilities and proper training for stockpeople on handling sheep to safeguard animal welfare. Finally, the chapter suggests a number of areas for future research.
Ilkka Leinonen, Newcastle University, UK
Life cycle assessment (LCA) of intensive poultry production systems
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Life cycle assessment provides a useful tool for identifying where significant improvements can be made to achieve environmental sustainability in agricultural production. Potential strategies for improving the environmental performance of intensive poultry systems are discussed in this chapter. These include improving feed efficiency by using additives such as enzymes in feed or alternatively improving the efficiency of birds through genetic selection, use of alternative feed ingredients, such as locally grown protein crops and agricultural by-products, as a replacement for South American grown soya, and considering other management options, such as improving poultry housing and adopting new strategies for manure management
K. Stafford, Massey University, New Zealand
Improving the welfare of lambs
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High lambing rates and maintaining high standards of lamb survival, health, nutrition and growth are essential for farm profitability, depending on the final product of sheep farming. The value assigned to lambs, the environment, farming tradition and economics of sheep farming will influence flock fecundity and how the flock is managed around lambing, as well as the welfare of lambs. This chapter examines the main issues affecting the welfare of lambs, including the handling and training of lambs from birth, causes of lamb mortality, techniques for marking lambs, and issues regarding the weaning of lambs and controlling infectious diseases in the lamb population. The chapter describes possible future trends in research in this area and provides guidance on where to look for further information on the subject.
Brian Fairchild, University of Georgia, USA
Hot weather management of poultry
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Maintaining an environment that minimizes stress on poultry is a significant part of obtaining a healthy bird that reaches its full genetic potential. One challenge that producers face is preventing heat stress and maintaining performance in hot weather conditions. By keeping bird body temperature, which slightly increases from 39°C to 41.1°C as the chick grows and develops, in the normal range, the bird will continue to grow, develop and efficiently utilize the feed that it consumes. The focus of this chapter will be on the principles of poultry management that farmers can implement in their poultry houses during hot weather to prevent heat stress and maintain normal bird body temperature. Ventilation, evaporative cooling and management practices that influence the ability of the farmer to keep birds cool will be reviewed.
Michael J. Goss, University of Guelph, Canada; Adrian Unc, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada; and Wilfried Ehlers, Georg-August University, Germany
Improving water management in organic crop cultivation
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Managing water for crop production requires capture and storage of water in the soil, which must also be protected from damage by raindrop impact and excess water. These actions ensure that the soil will benefit from increased organic matter content and be protected by harvest residues, living plants or a mulch of dead shoot material. This chapter describes actions to deal with excess water and offset water shortage through irrigation, and addresses issues concerning the water cycle, statics and dynamics of water in soil, the field water balance, soil evaporation, crop transpiration, crop water use, and water use efficiency. The chapter considers new developments and requirements in relation to future demand for food production without any risk to the natural environment or human welfare, and explores the potential to develop improved practices that allow soil organisms to protect crops from water shortage.
B. M. Hargis and G. Tellez, University of Arkansas, USA; and L. R. Bielke, Ohio State University, USA
Gut health and susceptibility to enteric bacterial diseases in poultry
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Most pathogens of poultry and other vertebrates enter the body via a mucosal portal of entry, and for the vast majority, this means either the respiratory or gastrointestinal tract (GIT). This chapter surveys the main bacterial pathogens found in the GIT of poultry, and examines the process of symbiosis between prokaryotes and the host in the gut. The chapter analyses the impact of these bacterial pathogens on the biology of the host and the effect of dysbiosis in poultry. It examines the effects of inflammation of the GIT on anaerobiosis, assesses the role of mucins, and addresses the effect of gut infections on dietary disruption as well as the impact of airborne infections of enteric bacteria on poultry.
Rafael Augusto da Costa Parrella, Robert Eugene Schaffert, Cicero Bezerra de Menezes, José Avelino Santos Rodrigues, Jurandir Vieira Magalhães, Cynthia Maria Borges Damasceno, Dagma Dionísia da Silva and Simone Martins Mendes, Embrapa Milho e Sorgo, Br
Improving sorghum cultivation in South America
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Sorghum production in Brazil has expanded significantly in recent years, with a current planted area of close to one and a half million hectares. Sorghum provides an excellent source of grain to feed cattle, poultry and swine, as well as forage for cattle, especially in situations of drought and conditions of low soil fertility. It can also be used in bioenergy production. In this chapter we review the history of sorghum production in Brazil, and then consider the improvements necessary to ensure that sorghum production can continue to meet demand. Particular emphasis is given to the need to develop adapted sorghum cultivars which will grow well in tropical soils and produce crops suited to their particular uses.
Margaret E. Graves, Dalhousie University, Canada; and Ralph C. Martin, University of Guelph, Canada
Grassland management to minimise the environmental impact of dairy farming
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Minimizing the environmental impact of dairy farming with perennial forage systems management is a complex process. The aim is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (enteric methane, nitrous oxide from soil and carbon dioxide from equipment and fertilizer use), adapt to the effects of climate change, reduce nitrogen and phosphorus losses into the environment, improve soil health, promote biodiversity and optimize land use. Well-managed forage systems can reduce methane emissions and nitrate leaching, and minimize feeding of concentrates, which have a greater impact on the agro-ecosystem. This chapter explores emerging strategies such as management-intensive grazing and novel forage species, cultivars and mixtures. The chapter also presents research based and applied case studies of intensive grazing for dairy cows.
Michael Stear, Karen Fairlie-Clarke, and Nicholas Jonsson, University of Glasgow, UK; Bonnie Mallard, University of Guelph, Canada; and David Groth, Curtin University, Australia
Genetic variation in immunity and disease resistance in dairy cows and other livestock
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For most diseases of economic importance in livestock, resistance can be considered to be a complex or quantitative trait with limited evidence of negative correlations with resistance to other diseases. Attention to such traits allows the selection of healthier and more productive animals. This chapter reviews the sources of variation in resistance to disease, and then considers three strategies for selecting for resistance: by directly selecting for resistance to important diseases, based on the incidence of disease or a disease-related marker; by selecting for animals with strong innate and/or adaptive immune responses to a specified challenge to achieve a broad-based disease resistance; and by selecting for animals that perform well in an environment in which disease is endemic. The discussion also covers high-density SNP chips, improved sequencing methodologies and genome-wide association studies (GWAS)
David R. Clements, Trinity Western University, Canada
Invasive weed species and their effects
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An invasive weed exhibits a tendency to spread rapidly to occupy new niches. This chapter describes ten examples of situations in which invasive weeds directly affect agriculture. The chapter also examines indirect effects, and discusses how climate change and globalization interact to promote invasions. The chapter explores the potential contribution of integrated weed management (IWM) to managing and controlling weed invasions, and provides extensive further reading on the topic.
Duy Ngoc Do, McGill University, Canada; and Haja N. Kadarmideen, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
Genetic factors affecting feed efficiency, feeding behavior and related traits in pigs
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Feed resource efficiency contributes to sustainable production of pig meat, both economically and environmentally. This chapter describes different measures of feed efficiency and the underlying genetics of feeding in pigs, drawing on studies of genetic correlations of residual feed intake (RFI) with pig production traits and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) revealing the genetic architecture and biological mechanisms of feed efficiency. The chapter looks ahead to the future and recommends adoption of an integrative systems genomic approach to ensure accurate genomic prediction and a more comprehensive biological understanding of feed efficiency.
John Moran, Profitable Dairy Systems, Australia
Improving smallholder dairy farming in tropical Asia
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This chapter reviews the importance of smallholder dairy farmers in Asia. It assesses their needs and the obstacles they face in improving dairy production. The chapter discusses ways of benchmarking performance and examples of initiatives to support smallholders. It identifies both constraints faced by smallholder dairy farmers in Asia and ways of addressing them to ensure sustainable increases in production and yield.
Fredy Altpeter and Ratna Karan, University of Florida, USA
Genetic improvement of sugarcane by transgenic, intragenic and genome editing technologies
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The grand social, economic and environmental challenges of the twenty-first century are demanding the acceleration of the genetic improvement of sugarcane to sustainably produce sugar and biofuel and to support the emerging bio-based economy. This chapter focuses on the contributions and future potential of biotechnology including enabling technologies, transgenic, intragenic and genome editing approaches for the improvement of agronomic sugarcane traits as well as metabolic engineering to develop value-added products and biofuels.
Francesco Tei and Euro Pannacci, University of Perugia, Italy
Integrated weed management in tomato cultivation
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Weeds pose a major threat to agriculture and cause crop yield losses in a big way. What needs to be done to counter the threat of weeds? This chapter discusses many measures to tackle the problem of weeds, especially in tomato cultivation. One of the most important is Integrated Weed Management (IWM). IWM combines direct and indirect weed control strategies to effectively tackle the problem of weeds in tomato cultivation. This chapter then looks into the preventive steps to be taken and discusses methods like crop rotation. Chemical weed control is another important aspect. The chapter also presents case studies on how research has been used to improve tomato cultivation in practice.
Samuel E. Aggrey , University of Georgia, USA ; Fernando González-Cerón , Chapingo Autonomous University, Mexico ; and Romdhane Rekaya , University of Georgia, USA
Genes associated with functional traits in poultry: implications for sustainable genetic improvement
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Poultry production primarily focuses on the supply of saleable products. Meat and eggs are classified as production traits and are the focus of improvement in poultry breeding organizations, while the functional traits of birds have received much less attention. However, over the past decade, the decline in some functional traits and increased awareness of poultry welfare has led to increasing interest in including functional traits in genetic improvement programmes. In this chapter, we first consider the key functional traits of reproductive capacity, skeletal integrity, cardiovascular fitness and disease resistance. We review how advances in molecular biology and sequencing of the chicken genome have made it possible to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and gene variants associated with functional traits, and discuss how these traits are genetically related to production traits. We consider how this information can be used to implement sustainable genetic improvement of poultry.
Sang Mok Sohn, Dankook University, South Korea
Improving organic agriculture in the developing world: Asia
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Traditional Asian farming methods are often seen as being close to organic production, but there is a need for considerable research and farmer education if the sector is to develop in accordance with scientifically led organic knowledge and to fulfil its potential. This chapter describes key crops grown in Asia and the current state of organic production in Asia, focussing particularly on rice production systems. The chapter examines types of organic rice farming and organic vegetable production. Finally, the chapter deals with the challenge of improving organic agriculture in Asia.
E. K. Doyle, University of New England, Australia
Improving sheep wool quality
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Wool is a natural fibre produced by nearly 500 different sheep breeds. Mean fibre diameter is the most important wool quality parameter and has the largest influence on the value of wool. Wool fibre competes with synthetic, cellulosic and cotton fibre consumption, and currently makes up 1.2% of world fibre production. This chapter considers five key areas where the wool industry needs to increase efficiency and improve the management of sheep in order to maintain market share and remain competitive. We review the utilisation of breeding values, health and welfare management for improved wool quality, optimisation of nutritional management, adoption of precision sheep management and improving consumer awareness of the provenance of wool products. The focus of the chapter is the quality of Merino wool.
Abie Horrocks and Melanie Davidson, The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, New Zealand; and Paul Horne and Jessica Page, IPM Technologies Pty Limited, Australia
Integrated pest management in wheat cultivation
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This chapter provides an overview of integrated pest management (IPM) in wheat cultivation. IPM uses biological, cultural and chemical methods in a compatible way. A wide variety of biological control agents contribute to pest control in wheat and successful IPM strategies require looking at the system as a whole, rather than treating pest problems in isolation. The New Zealand-based participatory project outlined as a case study emphasises how direct access to experts by farmers is critical for the successful adoption of IPM. IPM is not a rigid recipe for successful pest control, because strategies implemented from farm to farm may vary even though the IPM principles on which they are based do not. Research that supports IPM needs also to be flexible and dynamic.
Peter Paulsen, Frans J. M. Smulders and Friederike Hilbert, University of Veterinary Medicine, Austria
Food safety management on farms producing beef
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The production of safe, high-quality beef requires both good farming practices and additional measures targeted against specific hazards to human or animal health. This chapter provides an overview of good farming practices for beef cattle farms, with particular discussion of biosecurity, animal welfare and the importance of clean cattle policies. Hazard-specific control measures are then presented for one important hazard: E. Coli O157. Finally, existing quality assurance programmes for beef production are briefly reviewed.
J. Upton, E. Murphy and L. Shalloo, Teagasc, Ireland; M. Murphy, Cork Institute of Technology, Ireland; and I.J.M. De Boer and P.W.G. Groot Koerkamp, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Improved energy and water management to minimize the environmental impact of dairy farming
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As demand for animal products such as milk increases, the livestock sector places increasing demands on already scarce resources such as land, water and fossil fuels, while also contributing to environmental problems such as climate change. In this chapter, we consider how dairy farms can manage both energy consumption and water in order to minimize their environmental impacts. First, section 2 offers an overview of the current situation with respect to energy, and covers current usage, existing efficiency incentives and consumption modelling. Section 3 then presents two groups of strategies for addressing energy consumption: those which primarily aim to save on-farm energy costs, and those which aim to reduce not only costs, but also energy consumption and emissions. Section 4 reviews the results of these different groups of strategies, and makes recommendations for the development of dairy farming technology. Finally, section 5 addresses the issue of sustainable water use.
Randy C. Ploetz, University of Florida, USA
Integrated disease management in mango cultivation
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Mango, Mangifera indica L., is affected by a great number of fruit, foliar, stem and root diseases. This chapter covers diseases that seriously impact the crop. Their significance, geographical distribution and history are outlined, and the symptoms, causal agent(s) and epidemiology of each are detailed with emphasis on their management. Insect pests, nutritional disorders and other non-disease items are not considered.
Munir J. Mohammad Rusan, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Jordan and International Plant Nutrition Institute (IPNI), USA
Fertigation techniques for efficient water and nutrient use in agriculture
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Irrigated agriculture constitutes about 20% of the total cultivated land in the world, has much higher crop productivity compared to rainfed agriculture and contributes significantly to meeting the challenge of feeding the world. However, water resources are very limited, especially in the arid and semi-arid regions where irrigated agriculture is most practised. This chapter describes how fertigation (application of nutrients through irrigation water) acts as a powerful and efficient tool to optimize the efficient use of both water and nutrients. The chapter examines the advantages and limitations of fertigation, the prerequisites for successful and efficient fertigation, and the equipment available for fertilizer injection. The chapter also covers fertigation under greenhouse conditions and how the principles of the ‘4 rights’ (4R) can be applied to nutrient stewardship. Finally, the chapter addresses monitoring of soil, plant and water under fertigation, and looks ahead to future research in this area as well as providing guidance on further reading.
Gaspar H. Korndörfer, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Brazil
Improving nutrient management in sugarcane cultivation
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A nutrient management strategy which relies on the total replacement of all nutrients in the biomass is not sustainable from an economic or environmental point of view. This chapter therefore reviews more sustainable strategies for nutrient management in sugarcane cultivation. It begins by discussing the benefits of crop rotation, green manure and trash retention, before a detailed consideration of cane fertilization with nitrogen and other macronutrients, micronutrients and silicon. The potential uses of cane processing residues are considered. Finally, foliar diagnosis is reviewed as a tool to evaluate the nutritional status of a crop.
Pekka Huhtanen, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden
Feed evaluation and formulation to maximise nutritional efficiency in dairy cattle
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This chapter reviews the evaluation of energy and protein value of ruminants’ feedstuffs. It emphasises the importance of accurately estimating feeding values to optimise production. The chapter discusses experimental methods and models used to evaluate the energy and protein values of feeds. The advantages and weaknesses of static empirical models and dynamic mechanistic models are discussed. The chapter emphasises the need to evaluate models using large data sets from productions studies to improve the accuracy of predictions of production responses.
Peter Neuenschwander and Désiré Gnanvossou, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Benin; Stefan Hauser, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; Georg Goergen, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (II
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: fruit and other tree crops
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This chapter reviews control methods for the main pests affecting fruit and other tree crops. It describes the use of classical biological control for mango, papaya, cacao, coconut and citrus. Mango mealybug, Rastrococcus invadens, has been controlled with great success across West and Central Africa by two parasitoids. On papaya, the spiralling whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus has been controlled by two serendipitously introduced parasitoids. Papaya mealybug Paracoccus marginatus from South America was brought under control within one year by another parasitoid. These results were compromised by the invasion of the tropical fruit fly Batrocera dorsalis. The resulting mis-use of pesticides was replaced by bait sprays and parapheromones, a parasitoid introduced in Benin and Cameroon, and management of the African weaver ant Oecophylla longinoda. A new species of phytoseiid mite was introduced against the coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis. On cacao, Phythophthora megakarya was controlled by managing shade trees, soil cover, and applying fungicides. Cultural control measures were developed for cashew.
Xin Sun and Eric Berg, North Dakota State University, USA
Factors affecting the colour and texture of pig meat
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In pork, colour and texture are the two most significant factors influencing consumer perceptions of quality. It is therefore important to understand the many factors that can affect pork colour and texture, because these factors influence purchasing decisions. Furthermore, those in charge of marketing pork must be informed regarding the assessment methods available to monitor, evaluate and categorize pork colour and texture. In this chapter, we will explore the biological and environmental factors that affect colour and texture in pig meat. We will then introduce and discuss existing and potential methods for assessment of the colour and texture attributes of pig meat.
Jacques Le Gouis, INRA, France and Malcolm Hawkesford, Rothamsted Research, UK
Improving the uptake and assimilation of nitrogen in wheat plants
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Nitrogen is a critical macronutrient with a major influence on wheat grain yield and end-use quality. The key challenges are to detect and use genetic variability to breed for more efficient wheat varieties. For this, traits related to nitrogen capture by the root system, then nitrogen assimilation and finally nitrogen remobilization from source organs to the grain are to be considered. The possibility of using these traits will depend on the available genetic variability and the identification of molecular markers associated with relevant chromosomal regions. Future major research trends include the developments in high-throughput phenotyping and characterization of the response to combinations of environmental factors.
Nalini C. Gnanapragasam, Former Deputy Director (Research), Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka; currently Agricultural Tea Consultant - Malwatte Valley Plantations PLC, Sri Lanka
Insect pests of tea: shot hole borers, termites and nematodes
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The tea plant (Camellia sinensis (L) O. Kuntze) is a perennial crop and every part of the plant is prone to infestation by some pest over its lifetime. The prevalence and occurrence of the pest is primarily determined by the specific agro-climatic conditions, the type of cultivar and the cultural practices adopted within a given specific location. This chapter briefly describes the biology and ecology of important pests attacking tea in the different tea-growing areas of the world and the type of damage/injury induced, focusing on shot hole borers, termites (both live wood and scavenging varieties) and nematodes.
Mingyang Huang and Yu Wang, University of Florida, USA; and Chi-Tang Ho, Rutgers University, USA
Factors affecting pork flavour
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Pork-related products such as bacon, sausage and ham comprise a large portion of the meat products sold in today’s market due to their desirable flavour. The application of various processing methods such as cooking, curing, deboning, grinding, canning and application of additives or spices during processing greatly contribute to the characteristic aromas of specific pork-related products. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an integrated overview of the essential flavour constituents in pork products and the presumptive factors affecting pork flavour. Despite large differences among animal species, genetics, and methods used in processing and cooking, this chapter will attempt to focus on consensus odorants that have been studied by at least two independent groups, and will emphasize the heat-induced formation of pork odorants’ pathways.
W. Tadesse, A. Amri, M. Sanchez-Garcia, M. El-Bouhssini, M. Karrou, S. Patil, F. Bassi and M. Baum, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Morocco; and T. Oweis, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Jo
Improving wheat production in the Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) region
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Wheat is the principal staple food in most countries of the Central and West Asia and North Africa (CWANA) region, accounting for 45% of the region’s per capita calorie intake with an average wheat consumption of about 200 kg/capita/year. Wheat production in the region has increased both horizontally and vertically from 1961 through 2013. However, most of the countries in the region are still unable to meet their national demand. This chapter reviews the major challenges of wheat production, the available wheat production technologies and the ways forward to improve wheat production while conserving the natural base in the region.
Ignace Godonou, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and Catholic University of West Africa, Benin; May-Guri Sӕthre, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; Ghislain Tepa-Yotto, International Institute of Tropic
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: vegetables
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In many West African countries, vegetable production is a key sector of urban and peri-urban agriculture. However, production is undermined by biotic constraints, mainly arthropod pests, disease-causing organisms and plant parasitic nematodes. In an attempt to combat this, farmers frequently use broad-spectrum and highly toxic pesticides. However, farmers’ coping strategies against pests and production constraints remain largely ineffective. This chapter reviews some key biotic constraints and presents a number of alternative management strategies. For instance, IITA identified and developed biopesticide Bba5653 to control Plutella xylostella on cabbage. Attempts were made to develop botanical pesticides such as cassava peels against root knot nematodes. In Benin, natural enemies of aphids were recorded, with Lysiphlebus testaceipes emerging as a promising element in aphid management strategies. We conclude that there is a need to increase farmers’ awareness of the side effects of highly toxic pesticide use and to offer training on the use of biopesticides and botanicals and the preservation of pests’ natural enemies.
Jeffrey Rushen, University of British Columbia, Canada
Housing and the welfare of dairy cattle
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In modern dairy farming, lactating cows and un-weaned calves are often housed indoors, in a restricted space, at high density, and/or separate from other animals. Such housing conditions affect the welfare of the animals by creating risks of illness and injuries and placing restrictions on behaviour. This chapter will examine issues arising from the physical and social aspects of dairy cattle housing, with a focus on the most current and controversial issues in the area. Sections 2–5 focus on the different housing systems available for lactating cows and on the advantages and disadvantages of these alternatives. Sections 6–8 then review the issue of housing for un-weaned calves.
Ben Tyson, Central Connecticut State University, USA; Liza Storey and Nick Edgar, New Zealand Landcare Trust, New Zealand; Jonathan Draper, Central Connecticut State University, USA; and Christine Unson, Southern Connecticut State University, USA
Ensuring biodiversity in dairy farming
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Dairy farming may affect the biodiversity of microbial species, grass or pasture species, soil, native vegetation, and other flora and fauna on the farm itself. It can also affect aquatic, downstream estuarine and coastal biodiversity because of the nutrients, pesticides and sediments transported away from the farm through surface runoff and groundwater. This chapter will address the impacts of dairy farming on biodiversity, approaches to biodiversity enhancement, measures for enhancing biodiversity and strategies for engaging farmers in biodiversity enhancement. It then reviews a number of case studies to illustrate these issues.
Lilian Elgalise Techio Pereira and Sila Carneiro da Silva, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil; Cory Matthew and Ignacio F. López, Massey University, New Zealand; and André Fischer Sbrissia, Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, Brazil
Grazing management for sustainable grazing systems
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Grasslands play a key role in soil, water and biodiversity conservation and deliver numerous other ecosystem and cultural services. This chapter defines key terms associated with grassland grazing systems, with a particular emphasis on the meaning of grazing management and sustainable intensification. The chapter outlines current knowledge regarding major effects of grazing management on above- and belowground plant responses. The chapter then discusses how the mass flow of herbage can be manipulated through grazing management targets. Selected major effects of grazing on soil C and N stocks are then presented in the fourth section, and the chapter highlights how grazing strategies that maximise animal performance also have the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to potential future research aimed at sustainable improvement of grassland and animal productivity within a context of global climate change.
V. Pérez and J. I. Hormaza, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea La Mayora (IHSM La Mayora – CSIC – UMA), Spain
Exploiting the mango genome: molecular markers
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As in other crops, the development of molecular tools is allowing significant progress in understanding different aspects of mango biology. This chapter reviews advances made in the use of different molecular tools in mango in the last decades, including biochemical markers and DNA research. The chapter looks ahead to current and future developments in the field, including next-generation sequencing and localization of genes of interest for breeding purposes. The chapter offers suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Jourdan Bell, Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension, USA; Robert C. Schwartz, USDA-ARS Conservation and Production Research Laboratory, USA; Kevin McInnes, Texas A&M University, USA; Qingwu Xue and Dana Porter, Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extensio
Improving water management in sorghum cultivation
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Grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) is a drought tolerant crop that has been grown across the American Great Plains since the early twentieth century, primarily as a feed crop. Sorghum’s deep, fibrous root system provides greater root volume and therefore potential access to a greater soil water volume enabling sorghum to withstand greater periods of water stress if there is ample stored soil water. This chapter examines dryland production of sorghum and sorghum irrigation methods, including deficit irrigation. The chapter also addresses the relationship between soils and irrigation management.
Peter J. Gregory and Christina K. Clarke, University of Reading, UK
Establishment and root development in wheat crops
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Good establishment lays the foundations for wheat yield. Here, we have used the term ‘establishment’ to encompass development and growth prior to the elongation of the main stem. We describe how the seedling root system establishes and then outline how four agronomic practices (time and depth of sowing, seeding rate and soil moisture conditions) affect the initial growth of the plant. We present a case study from Australia on how embryo size and seed mass affects early growth, and conclude with some recent ideas as to how root systems might be optimized in different soils to increase production.
Grant Dewell, Iowa State University, USA
Ensuring the safety of feed for beef cattle
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The unique ruminant digestive system of beef cattle enables them to eat and digest a wide range of feed products, including by-product or alternative feeds not utilized in other livestock production systems. It is important to ensure that the various feed products provided to cattle will not pose a food safety risk to the people who consume beef products. This chapter will provide an overview of the three major areas where food safety risks can be introduced via feed material: purchase of contaminated feed products, contamination during storage and contamination of feed due to mixing or delivery errors. In each case, measures to prevent unacceptable risk are also briefly considered.
Stefan Hauser, IITA, Nigeria; Clifford Gold, Nevada City, USA; Cornelia Pasberg-Gauhl and Friedhelm Gauhl, FG-Inter-Agro-Consult KG, Austria; Juliet Akello, IITA, Zambia; Kim Jacobsen, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Belgium; Lindsey Norgrove, Bern Unive
Identifying and managing plant health risks for key African crops: banana and plantain
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Many smallholder farmers in humid sub-Saharan Africa rely on bananas and plantains (Musa spp.) as major staple food and income generating crops, with only a negligible portion traded internationally. Banana and plantain production is mainly threatened by various pathogens and pests. This chapter describes the major diseases including fungal diseases (Fusarium wilt, black sigatoka), viral diseases (banana bunchy top and banana streak virus), bacterial disease (banana Xanthomonas wilt) and pests such as nematodes and weevil, affecting bananas and plantains.. The chapter also describes measures used to manage and control these diseases and pests.
Moshe Lapidot and Ilan Levin, Institute of Plant Sciences – Volcani Center, ARO, Israel
Genetic resistance to viruses in tomato
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The cultivated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) constitutes a major agricultural industry: it is grown worldwide and, in terms of vegetable crop production, is only second to potato. Tomato plants show a wide climatic tolerance and are grown in both tropical and temperate regions around the world. Viral diseases are responsible for heavy yield losses and are one of the reasons that in many locations tomato production has shifted from open-field to protected production. The three most important tomato viruses in terms of production losses are Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV), Tomato mosaic virus (ToMV) and Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV). This chapter describes the development of genetic resistances to these three viruses in tomato.
A. S. Ross, Oregon State University, USA
Genetic and other factors affecting wheat quality
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Wheat quality derives from interactions between the components of the kernel. In turn these components are themselves collections of multiple sub-components. Many components are under genetic control and are modulated, if not profoundly influenced, by growing conditions. This chapter focuses on the three main polymeric components of wheat grain: protein, starch, and fibre, as these are arguably the primary contributors to wheat flour functionality. It explores the relationship between sustainable wheat production and wheat grain quality and milling performance as well as analysing in detail the protein, starch and fibre composition of wheat grain.
Andreas W. Ebert and Lawrence Kenyon, AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center, Taiwan
Ensuring the genetic diversity of tomatoes
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This book chapter describes key issues regarding genetic diversity of tomatoes, including taxonomy and mating system. Figures on global ex situ conservation of tomato germplasm are provided and the world’s largest collection in the public domain, held by AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center, is described in some detail. This chapter also deals with the policy framework for the conservation, access and benefit-sharing mechanisms of plant genetic resources (PGR). It describes how the policy framework and stricter phytosanitary requirements affect the exchange and use of PGR. Ways to strengthen sharing of PGR for food and nutrition security and climate change adaptation are discussed.
