Asher Bar-Tal, Uri Yermiyahu and Alon Ben-Gal, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), Israel
Advances in fertigation techniques to optimize crop nutrition
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Improving fertilizer application involves the ‘4Rs’: applying the right fertilizer source at the right rate, time and place. This chapter reviews the latest research on the ways fertigation can meet these objectives. Topics discussed include nutrient consumption curves and supply, optimizing irrigation efficiency as well as models and decision support systems to support fertigation systems. The chapter includes case studies looking at grapefruit and chives both in conventional and soilless cultivation.
Jochem B. Evers and Leo F. M. Marcelis, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Functional–structural plant modeling of plants and crops
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Crop models have been instrumental in predicting yields in wide ranges of current and future environmental conditions. However, they encounter problems in representing spatial heterogeneity of a plant stand and the associated plant responses to local conditions, as well as in simulating the effects of specific plant traits, management choices that influence plant architecture and lighting regimes such as those in greenhouses. For such purposes, functional–structural plant (FSP) models have been developed, which simulate individual plants that interact with each other in 3D, with the changes in plant architecture feeding back on the distribution of environmental drivers that make them grow and develop (light, water, nutrients). In this chapter, the authors outline the purposes of FSP models, the components they need to have in order to serve the purposes mentioned above and give an account of recent applications of such models.
Daniel Wallach, INRA, France
Dealing with uncertainty in crop models
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There is increasing awareness in crop modeling of the importance of uncertainty. The modeler needs uncertainty information to prioritize improvements, while the user needs uncertainty information to make informed decisions. This chapter introduces the concept of model uncertainty, considering such factors as model structure, inputs and parameters. The chapter then looks at ways to reduce uncertainty in crop modelling and looks ahead to future trends in the area. Finally, the chapter provides detailed guidance on further reading on the subject.
Prof Prof Johannes S. C. Wiskerke
Achieving sustainable urban agriculture
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This collection reviews key recent research on developing urban and peri-urban agriculture.
Chapters first discuss ways of building urban agriculture, from planning and business models to building social networks to support local supply chains. Other chapters survey developments in key technologies for urban agriculture, including rooftop systems and vertical farming. The book also assesses challenges and improvements in irrigation, waste management, composting/soil nutrition and pest management. The final group of chapters provides a series of case studies on urban farming of particular commodities, including horticultural produce, livestock and forestry.
Dr Dr Anja Steglich
Optimising aquaculture/aquaponics in urban agriculture: developing rooftop water farms
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Fresh fish and fresh vegetables harvested directly from the roof, produced with treated wastewater from the building. This is the vision of the Roof water-farm (RWF) Project. This chapter describes how the project has developed by combining a range of existing technologies such as new housing design, grey-water recycling, hydroponics and aquaponics. It discusses key steps such as planning as well as communication and education strategies needed to involve key actors and win public support. It also reviews challenges in moving from the pilot stage to practical implication as well as potential for the future.
Dickson Despommier, Columbia University, USA
Vertical farming systems for urban agriculture
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Judging by the rapid growth of the vertical farm industry over recent years, vertical farming is projected to become a common feature of the built environment on a global scale within the next 10–20 years. This chapter describes and evaluates technologies and methods for growing edible plants indoors and presents a survey of selected commercial vertical farms currently operating that employ them. The chapter also focuses on advanced technologies that have led to the current state of progress in the vertical farming sector of urban agriculture, starting with two growing strategies that have become widely adopted for the indoor production of edible plants: hydroponics and aeroponics. A third hybrid method, aquaponics, which incorporates fish production into the hydroponic growing scheme, is likewise described. Lighting and nutrient management in vertical farms are also covered. The chapter concludes with discussions on both the challenges and future of vertical farming.
Nancy Ames, Joanne Storsley, Lovemore Malunga and Sijo Joseph Thandapilly, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada
Nutritional and bioactive compounds in barley
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Whole grain barley has been widely recognized as a valuable source of a number of biologically active compounds with unique health benefits. The great number of bioactive nutrients and their pleiotropic physiological effects make barley an ideal grain, raw material, and ingredient for the development of functional foods. This chapter discusses key issues and challenges currently faced by barley growers and manufacturers in producing high-quality products. It also reviews the known and potential bioactive compounds in barley, as well as research that has been carried out on barley and its health benefits. It concludes by discussing research that examines potential influences of barley bioactivity, future trends in research for barley and also highlights several sources for further information.
Tanja G. M. Sanders, Thünen Institute of Forest Ecosystems, Germany; Peter Spathelf, University of Sustainable Development, Germany; and Andreas Bolte, Thünen Institute of Forest Ecosystems, Germany
The response of forest trees to abiotic stress
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Trees, as long-living organisms, have to face varying growing conditions during their lifetime. This chapter introduces abiotic stress in trees, considering its interaction with biotic stress and examining the links between environmental dynamics and changes in stress. This chapter addresses the ability of trees and forest stands to adapt abiotic stressors. It describes management options to increase tree and forest adaptation to abiotic stressors (especially Adaptive Forest Management (AFM)) under conditions of climate change. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this field of research.
Nevin Cohen, City University of New York, USA
The changing role of urban agriculture in municipal planning: from planning for urban agriculture to urban agriculture for planning
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Urban agriculture’s popularity over the past few decades has required cities to address whether, to what extent, and how food production fits into the cityscape. Planners have used various policy levers, from revised zoning codes to tax incentives, to protect existing farms and gardens and expand urban food production. This chapter reviews these strategies of planning for urban agriculture, but argues that an emerging role of planners is to shape urban agriculture so that it helps solve seemingly intractable urban challenges. It offers examples of how planners can use urban agriculture to address two of these challenges: social justice and climate change.
Prof. Prof. Woodam Chung
Innovations in forest harvesting technology
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Forest harvesting is an essential component of sustainable forestry to ensure the maintenance of forest productivity. Increasing demand for forest product quantity and quality, shifting forest workforce composition and expectations, and rising environmental concerns are driving changes in current forest harvesting practices. New research and technologies are transforming conventional forest practices to improve sustainability. This chapter discusses innovations in forest harvesting technology. In their coverage of technological innovations, the authors review the use of electric low-emission log trucks, cable-assisted timber harvesting (for use on steep slopes), lightweight teleoperated (remote controlled) felling machinery, automation, machine vision, and precision forestry. These research areas hold great promise for improving forest worker safety and sustainable management of forest sites and vegetation. The authors also recognize that these forest technologies require substantial development for practical applications. The chapter concludes with a section on how research can further innovate such forest harvesting technologies.
Robert S. Brueggeman, Shyam Solanki, Gazala Ameen and Karl Effertz, Washington State University, USA; Roshan Sharma Poudel, North Dakota State University, USA; and Aziz Karakaya, Ankara University, Turkey
Fungal diseases affecting barley
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This chapter reviews current research on the main fungal diseases affecting barley. It first reviews what we know about the mecanisms of barley genetic resistance to fungal pathogens. The chapter then focuses on the description of major fungal pathogens effecting barley production, new insights into their mechanisms of virulence and implications for achieving sustainable resistance to these important pathogens. The chapter reviews current knowledge about biotrophic foliar diseases: stem rust, leaf rust, stripe rust, powdery mildew. It then discusses necrotrophic diseases: spot blotch, net blotch, ramularia leaf spot, septoria speckled leaf blotch, scald and fusarium head blight. The chapter finally discusses barley stripe.
João Carlos de Moraes Sá, State University of Ponta Grossa, Brazil; Florent Tivet, CIRAD, France; Rattan Lal, The Ohio State University, USA; Ademir de Oliveira Ferreira, Federal Rural University of Pernambuco, Brazil; Clever Briedis, Brazilian Agricult
Carbon management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems: soil organic carbon fraction losses and restoration
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The conversion of native vegetation (NV) into agricultural land by clearing and tillage disrupts the soil structure, and depletes soil organic carbon (SOC) pool. Data on changes in SOC pools are needed to enhance scientific knowledge regarding the effects of land use and Conservation Agriculture (CA) on soil fertility, agronomic productivity, and soil C sink capacity. The objective of this study was to quantify changes in SOC fractions due to conversion of NV to agricultural land, and to assess the rate of recovery of SOC fractions and the resilience index of CA cropping systems under sub-tropical (Ponta Grossa/PR — PG) and tropical (Lucas do Rio Verde/MT — LRV) regions of Brazil.
Dr Dr Alessandro Tondelli
Advances in understanding barley plant physiology: responses to abiotic stress
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The full expression of barley yield potential depends on its resilience capacity, which allows the crop to face a multiplicity of different abiotic stress conditions. The impact of abiotic stresses is expected to increase in the future because of the climatic changes that modify the annual temperature and rainfall profile. This chapter addresses the importance of cold acclimation as a coordinated metabolic rearrangement leading to frost tolerance, before going on to consider new methodologies for understanding barley’s resilience to drought. The chapter considers barley’s adaptation to soil salinity, its resistance to low nitrogen, and the importance of environmental adaptation as a key target for future breeding improvement. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and gives detailed suggestions on further reading.
Dr Dr Barbara Bentz
Advances in understanding and managing insect pests of forest trees
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Boreal and temperate forests comprise half of all forested land globally and are a major source of timber and other ecosystem services. Disturbances caused by native and invasive insects are among the most important mediators of forest mortality. The interacting effects of climate change on insects and trees coupled with increasing arrival rates of invasive insects are creating management challenges and uncertainty. This chapter reviews information and key issues for predicting climate change effects and for managing native and invasive forest insects that are considered pests in such forests. The chapter covers recent advances in this area of research and includes (1) observed and predicted responses of forest insects to climate change; (2) genetic variability and tree resistance screening mechanisms for tree breeding programs; (3) integrated biological control strategies for directly reducing native and invasive forest insect population spread and growth; and (4) indirect tactics for maintaining forest stand conditions that reduce susceptibility to insect attack. Case studies are also included.
Aruna Nandety and Ali M. Missaoui, University of Georgia-Athens, USA
Micronutrients: advances in understanding molybdenum in crop production
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Molybdenum (Mo) is an essential micronutrient for plants. Its biological importance resides in its role in nitrogen fixation. Most soils contain Mo, but its availability is pH dependent. Understanding the dynamics of Mo in plant nutrition and in the plant rhizosphere is key to determining efficient fertilization and optimized crop production. This chapter summarizes recent advances in Mo cycling in plants and soils and ways to maximize its uptake and use efficiency. The chapter suggests management practices to improve the uptake and use efficiency of Mo by crop plants. The chapter describes advances in understanding Mo cycling in soils and plants, as well as molybdenum uptake by plants, its movement into cells, and biosynthesis of Mo cofactors. The chapter addresses the challenge of optimizing Mo-use efficiency in crop production and methods of Mo application.
Dr Dr James L. Chamberlain
Sustainable production of temperate and boreal nontimber forest products: examples from North America
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Understory plants and fungi are critical to healthy and resilient forest ecosystems, and many of the products they provide are essential to people for sustenance and income. However, nontimber forest products, and the plants and fungi from which they originate, are seldom included in forest management. Most are harvested from natural populations, with potential for negative impacts at multiple ecological scales. This chapter introduces sustainable use of nontimber forest resources and describes methods for assessing product inventory and recovery. The chapter explains how traditional and local ecological knowledge is important in understanding how people steward the resources and production of nontimber products, with implications for sustainable management. The chapter provides detailed case studies of three North American edible and medicinal forest species. Finally, the chapter considers research priorities and future trends in this area, and provides guidance on further reading on this subject.
Gokhan Hacisalihoglu, Florida A&M University, USA; and Matthew W. Blair, Tennessee State University, USA
Current advances in zinc in soils and plants: implications for zinc efficiency and biofortification studies
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Zinc (Zn) deficiency is one of the critical abiotic stress factors that often limits crop production, yield, and quality worldwide. It is estimated over one third of the global arable lands are affected by Zn deficiency and so there is a need for more Zn-efficient crops. This chapter critically examines the most recent research developments in soil and plant nutrition for Zn efficiency issues. The chapter identifies trends related to Zn deficiency stress, seed Zn accumulation, and Zn efficiency for sustainable crop production and global food security. Finally, the chapter describes putative mechanisms governing Zn uptake and Zn efficiency, natural diversity in these traits and the important knowledge gaps that remain in these areas.
Dr Dr Paolo Omar Cerutti
Sustainable forest management (SFM) of tropical moist forests: the Congo Basin
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The Congo basin covers the second largest expanse of tropical forest on the planet. This chapter discusses the recent history and implementation challenges of sustainable forest management (SFM) across the basin. It shows that while the most modern SFM ideas and concepts have shaped the current forest legal framework, their effective translation into actions and implementation on the ground remains wanting. The chapter looks at issues such as logging concessions, land zones and the processes and institutions required to implement effective SFM policies.
David Nicholls, USDA Forest Service, USA
Developing forestry products: timber
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Timber products can include a wide array of socially valued goods originating from diverse tree species, forest types, and ecosystems. Over the past few decades, forest product market development and timber quality have been characterized by several important factors, many of them international in scope. Included are innovation in products and marketing, trade-offs between forest biomass and solid wood, global demands for wood fiber, global macroeconomic forces, the advent of biorefineries, and customization of specialty versus commodity products. The twentieth century witnessed great advancements in the forest sector and timber products modeling, forecasting trends in primary wood products, integrated markets, and increasing levels of international competition and trade. The twenty-first century could become a turning point for global forest products markets, characterized by declines in some timber-based sectors, with a simultaneous emergence of new products and businesses. This chapter addresses each of these, and discusses their impact on global timber markets, as well as future trends.
Professor Professor Gottlieb Basch
Weed management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Conservation Agriculture (CA) systems are often perceived as relying heavily on herbicides for weed management with no margin for herbicide input reduction. This perception results from production systems that are focussed mainly on the minimum soil disturbance component or no-till, but neglecting crop diversity and permanent soil cover components. This chapter analyses chemical and non-chemical methods of weed control, identifying the opportunities and challenges posed by CA. The chapter discusses soil seedbank dynamics, the mechanisms governing weed soil seedbank depletion and the need to prevent a weed or group of weeds becoming prevalent. The chapter also examines the importance of introducing crop diversity through crop rotation and/or intercropping, the resulting varying pressure on weeds, both spatially and temporally, and the benefits in weed management associated with mulching and cover crops. The chapter provides an analytical review of the adoption of CA in Sub-Saharan Africa by smallholder farmers, focusing on the challenges posed by weed management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Victoria Fernández, Technical University of Madrid, Spain; and Héctor A. Bahamonde, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Argentina
Advances in foliar fertilizers to optimize crop nutrition
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Foliar fertilizer sprays are increasingly used in agriculture for improving crop yield and quality, and also for improving plant performance under potential abiotic and/or biotic stress threats. This chapter focuses on new findings related to the nature of plant surfaces as a barrier for the absorption of agrochemicals. The chapter describes current knowledge on mechanisms of absorption by plant organs as affected by the structure and chemical composition of the surfaces. The chapter discusses key aspects related to the properties of foliar spray formulations for improving and standardizing the performance of the treatments under variable environmental conditions, with examples of recent foliar fertilization studies in relation to plant ontogeny. The chapter looks ahead to future trends for the application and development of foliar sprays as tool for sustainable agricultural production, as well as providing suggestions on where to look for further information.
Emilio J. Gonzalez Sanchez, Universidad de Córdoba, Spain, European Conservation Agriculture Federation (ECAF), Belgium and Asociación Española Agricultura de Conservación. Suelos Vivos (AEAC.SV), Spain; Oscar Veroz-Gonzalez, Asociación Española Agr
Conservation Agriculture: climate change mitigation and adaptation benefits
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This chapter discusses how Conservation Agriculture can be used to tackle the challenges posed by climate change to agricultural ecosystems. It focuses on the fundamentals of climate change mitigation and benefits of adapting to climate change. The chapter also includes a case study on the LIFE+ Agricarbon Project and concludes by discussing future trends in the subject and directing readers to sources of further information for research.
Andrew N. Sharpley, University of Arkansas, USA
Advances in understanding the environmental effects of phosphorus fertilization
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Agriculture has dramatically increased the efficiency of grain and protein production for the world’s growing population for a given unit of land area. In most cases, this increase has been achieved through crop and animal breeding, increased use of fertilizers, while using less land area. With intensification of production systems, there has been a greater frequency and severity of water quality impairment associated with nonpoint discharge of nutrient from agriculture to surface and ground waters. This chapter reviews the causes of these impacts on water quality and how future water quality problems could be mitigated. The chapter examines the cycling, fate, and transport of phosphorus in agriculture, remedial measures and the legacies of past management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
J. F. Angus, CSIRO Agriculture and Food and Graham Centre – Charles Sturt University, Australia
Advances in optimising nitrogen-use efficiency in crop production
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Globally, the quantity of nitrogen (N) fertilizer applied to crops is growing rapidly as it replaces the shrinking contribution of soil organic N and meets the demand by higher-yielding crops. On average, crops recover close to half the applied N, so its inefficient management is an increasing problem. Low nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE) leads to accumulation of mineral N in the soil and thence to pollution of groundwater, streams, oceans and atmosphere. Many management practices are known to increase NUE, and their effectiveness is shown by increasing NUE in Western Europe and the US. In the rest of the world there is no evidence of increasing NUE. Farmers in many regions are adopting improved fertilizer-management practices, but their effect is offset by reduced NUE at higher N rates. The most significant steps to optimising NUE are reducing subsidies that encourage overfertilization and promoting as many cost-effective improved practices as possible.
Dr Dr John A. Stanturf
Advances in monitoring and managing natural hazards and forest disturbances
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Managing and monitoring disturbances of forest ecosystems and natural hazards are increasingly critical endeavors as proliferating pests and diseases, changing frequency and intensity of wildfires, windstorms, and invasive species and increases in ungulate herbivory are causing novel responses. This chapter describes the characteristics of natural and anthropogenic disturbances and focus more specifically on disturbances of boreal and temperate forests, with particular emphasis on hurricanes as an example of multiple disturbance processes. Ecological resilience is one factor in the vulnerability of a forest to disturbances, determined in part by the strength of its ecosystem memory. Many disturbances will increase in frequency, intensity, or both due to climate heating. Monitoring forest conditions and detecting changes are necessary to develop early warning systems for predicting disturbances and especially natural disasters. Monitoring is the key to detecting change and managing to ensure the continued flow of benefits to society.
Silvio Salvi, University of Bologna, Italy
Advances in molecular breeding techniques for barley: targeted induced local lesions in genomes (TILLING)
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TILLING (Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes) is a reverse genetics method which identifies individuals carrying allelic variants at a gene of interest, within a chemically mutagenized population. TILLING has a number of positive features, including the capacity to provide the investigator with single point mutations offering a wide range of genetic effects useful in functional studies or in breeding applications. Additionally, mutant lines are not regulated as genetically modified. In barley, TILLING has been applied since 2004 and at least six TILLING resources have been described. Mutation densities ranged from 1 per 154 to 1 per 2,500 kb, suggesting that efficient barley TILLING requires a few thousands mutagenized plants. In this review, we will address the main aspects and results of barley TILLING applications. We will give special emphasis on technical novelties in molecular screening approaches, and on rationale and opportunities of using TILLING in barley breeding.
Peter Hobbs, Cornell University, USA; Christian Thierfelder, International Maize and Wheat Research Center (CIMMYT), Zimbabwe; Patrick Wall, Independent Consultant – Sustainable Agricultural Systems, Mexico; Raj Gupta, Center for Advancement of Sustaina
The role of crop and cropping system management in Conservation Agriculture systems
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This chapter describes the issues of adopting Conservation Agriculture (CA) agronomy in three distinct geographic areas of the world. Firstly, the rice-wheat systems of the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia are presented, looking at the contrasting methods of rice and wheat production in the area and the use of no-till in these systems. Secondly, the rainfed maize systems in East and Southern Africa are discussed with a focus on issues such as seeding systems, crop residues, crop rotation and weed management. Lastly, the section on Brazil looks at green manure cover crops as a way to maintain productivity when using CA. In this chapter, the use of CA management systems in the three regions has been shown to help resolve constraints, and sharing and describing how farmers and other stakeholders work in these and other regions augers well for tackling the challenge of food security both now and in the future.
Prof. Prof. Donato Chiatante
Advances in understanding root development in forest trees
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In forest ecosystems, root systems represent up to 40% of the biomass, and around 75% of the annual net primary production is allocated to the fine root component (roots with a diameter of less than 2 mm). Fine roots are involved in nutrition, whereas coarse roots (more than 2 mm in diameter) contribute to tree anchorage and stability. Root studies are necessary to understand whether the natural level of root plasticity is able to respond to the foreseen worsening global environmental scenario. In this chapter, the author principally focuses on root turnover and root system architecture parameters describing respectively the plasticity of fine and coarse roots. An example is provided on how the methods used can enable the analysis of tree responses to abiotic stressors such as drought and fire as well as mechanical forces. The concluding remarks highlight the importance of including root research when planning landscape forest restoration of specific sites.
Thomas J. Dean, Louisiana State University, USA
Advances in stand management and regeneration
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Multiaged forests are thought to have the redundant structure to withstand changing disturbance regimes that are expected with the future climatic scenarios. This chapter describes the methods for deciding how to control stand density in multiaged silviculture at both the stand level and the individual tree level. The chapter examines stand regeneration and the resilience and recovery of multiaged forests. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and suggests further reading in this area.
Z. R. Khan, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), Kenya; A. W. Murage, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Kenya; and J. O. Pittchar and C. A. O. Midega, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ec
Insect pest and disease management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems: a case of push–pull practice
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This chapter reviews the dissemination, adoption and benefits of the push-pull cropping system in Conservation Agriculture (CA), an innovation that was developed and promoted by the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) and partners with a view to addressing some of the biotic and abiotic constraints threatening cereal farming in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). This chapter introduces push-pull technology, outlines its dissemination and adoption, and describes the benefits of push-pull technology in Conservation Agriculture systems. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Prof Prof Amir Kassam
The need for Conservation Agriculture
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The chapter describes the root causes of the degrading nature of the dominant conventional tillage agriculture. It argues that the paradigm of conventional tillage agriculture is ecologically unsustainable and not fit for purpose, at any level of development, to meet present and future societal needs of optimal production and harnessing ecosystem services. Its continuation in any farming system as part of the Green Revolution mindset can only be regarded as irresponsible. The chapter proposes the need to return to managing soils as living biological systems with Conservation Agriculture (CA) as an alternate paradigm for sustainable agriculture and intensification. CA production systems rely on the practical and context-specific application of three interlinked principles of: no or minimum soil disturbance (no-till seeding and weeding), soil mulch cover (crop biomass cover and stubbles) and diversified cropping systems (rotations, sequences, associations, involving annuals and/or perennials including legumes), along with other complementary production management practices. CA principles can and are being applied to all land-based production systems in most agro-ecologies. Unlike conventional tillage systems, CA systems are climate-smart and they offer a range of advantages that cannot be provided by conventional tillage agriculture.
B. W. Alsanius, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden; M. Jirström, Lund University, Sweden; M. T. Naznin and S. Khalil, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden; and E.-C. Ekström, Uppsala University, Sweden
Optimizing horticulture for urban agriculture
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Urban horticulture is attracting increasing attention in both low- and high-income countries. The practice can be needs-driven, i.e., providing and securing food and livelihoods, or based on environmental considerations, social integration, and human wellbeing. This chapter focuses on the potential of urban horticulture to provide nutritious, healthy, and safe plant foods (fruit, vegetables) for the urban population and urban livelihoods, and to contribute to circularity of urban resources. The chapter shows that urban horticulture has the potential to make cities more sustainable, self-sufficient, and food secure, but that food safety, waste valorization, and system optimization are important issues.
Milan Mesic, Zeljka Zgorelec, Aleksandra Percin, Igor Bogunovic and Darija Bilandzija, University of Zagreb, Croatia
Secondary macronutrients: advances in understanding calcium cycling in soils, uptake/use by plants and ways of optimizing calcium-use efficiency in crop production
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The importance of calcium as a secondary macronutrient can be described in different ways because of its role in soils and its function in plant nutrition. The majority of chemical and some physical soil properties are heavily influenced by calcium content in soil profiles. The available content of soil calcium is usually adequate for normal plant development, but large amounts of calcium are applied to soils with mineral fertilizers (as part of ballast) or as various liming materials used in the manipulation of soil pH. Large amounts of calcium are applied as gypsum for reclamation of sodic soils and for the improvement of physical properties of heavy soils. In this chapter, the authors discuss the role of calcium in soils, plants and as a complex constituent of liming materials used in soil amelioration.
Ruediger Hauck, Auburn University, USA; and Lisa Bielke and Zhongtang Yu, The Ohio State University, USA
The interaction between gut microbiota and pathogens in poultry
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The poultry gut harbours a diverse microbiota, which plays a pivotal role in host nutrient utilization and health. Although the majority of this microbiota is commensal bacteria, pathogens are also present. Commensal and pathogenic microbes interact with each other, either positively or negatively, profoundly affecting host nutrition and incidence of infection. A better understanding of the gut pathogen-microbiota interaction is essential to address the current challenges in poultry production. Recent studies using metagenomics have helped gain new insights into the interactions between the gut pathogens and commensal microbes in poultry. This chapter reviews the current understanding and discusses the knowledge gaps surrounding the interaction between gut microbiota and pathogens in poultry, and also future research needs. The intestinal pathogens discussed in this chapter include Escherichia, Salmonella, Clostridium, Campylobacter, Eimeria and viruses. Starting with an introduction to these pathogens and their associated diseases, there then follows a section on the interactions between these pathogens and microbiota, and their impact on host nutrition and health.
Jamil Abdalla Fayad, Agricultural Research and Rural Extension Company of Santa Catarina (EPAGRI), Brazil; Jucinei José Comin, Federal University of Santa Catarina State (UFSC), Brazil; Alvaro Mafra, Santa Catarina State University, Brazil; Claudinei Kur
Management of vegetable Conservation Agriculture systems
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This chapter discusses the principles and practices of no-tillage systems for vegetables (NTV), focusing primarily on tomato, onion and parsley cassava cultivation. It presents research regarding a long-term experiment of NTV for onion with winter crops and the effects on chemical, physical and biological properties of the soil and yield of the crop. It also reviews NTV for parsley cassava and concludes by discussing current and future trends for no-tillage systems for vegetables.
Glen Fox, University of California-Davis, USA and The University of Queensland, Australia; and Reg Lance, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Australia
Developing barley crops for improved malt quality
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This chapter introduces current key challenges for improving malting barley such as the rise in the craft brewing industry. It goes on to review typical traits of malting quality, such as grain size, protein and germination. It also highlights the importance of malt extract which is obtained after the malting process, and reviews other important traits such as starch degrading enzymes, malt colour, grain hardness and other traits that are not routinely measured. A case study on modern varieties for 21st century brewing is also included as well as a brief history of barley improvement in Australia. The chapter concludes by discussing requirements for successful programs in malting quality improvement and potential future trends in research.
David M. E. Poulsen, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
Optimising the use of barley as an animal feed
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Barley is a highly significant feed grain, especially in colder regions where other feed grain crops such as wheat, sorghum and corn cannot easily grow. It is used to feed ruminant and non-ruminant species. Despite 80% of the worlds barley being used as feed, most of the emphasis on breeding and selection has been focussed on supplying the malting and brewing industries. This chapter discusses the concept of “feed barley, along what is expected from barley to be used as feed for a range of livestock. The chapter then reviews ways of optimising the use of barley for animal feed, from production and breeding through to the application of new technologies such as near infrared spectroscopy and molecular markers. The chapter then examines the specific grain quality and nutritional requirements of the major animal species routinely fed barley-based diets. The chapter concludes by assessing future research trends in optimising the use of feed barley.
Dr Dr Patrick C. Wall
Benefits of Conservation Agriculture to farmers and society
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Conservation Agriculture (CA) describes farming systems where the soil is not tilled, crop residues remain on the soil surface, and crop rotation is practised. CA emulates as closely as possible natural vegetation systems. This chapter presents the benefits of CA to farmers and society. The first section outlines the benefits to farmers from the adoption of CA which include fuel, labour and time savings, reduced soil erosion, improved crop water relations, increased machinery efficiency, increasing soil organic matter levels and fertility, increased levels of soil biological activity, and, allied with these benefits, increasing crop yields over time. The next section covers difficulties experienced with adoption of CA which include weed control, competition for crop residues, managerial capacity, poorly drained soils and crop diseases. The authors go on to discuss the benefits to society resulting from CA adoption on the farm and landscape. The chapter concludes with a section on what can be done to help farmers considering CA.
Stefano Pascucci, Exeter University, UK
Building natural resource networks: urban agriculture and the circular economy
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This chapter discusses how to re-think socio-ecological functions for urban areas in an economy inspired by the principles of circular and regenerative practices. It begins by showing how existing food systems have been trapped in the paradigm of a linear economy model. It then shows how regenerative urban agri-food systems can be built through a circular economy approach. It also presents and discuss how novel natural resource networks can be created in circular food economies in urban areas. The chapter reviews strategies and examples of how this can be achieved, as well as bottlenecks and how they can be overcome.
Guillermo Tellez and Juan D. Latorre, University of Arkansas, USA; Margarita A. Arreguin-Nava, Eco-Bio LLC, USA; and Billy M. Hargis, University of Arkansas, USA
The role of synbiotics in optimizing gut function in poultry
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The impending ban on antibiotics in animal feed due to the current concern over the spread of antibiotic resistance genes makes the development of alternative prophylactics imperative. This chapter presents some of the alternatives currently used in food-producing animals to influence their health in relation to human health. The chapter focuses on experiences with probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics in poultry, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Steven C. Ricke, University of Arkansas, USA
Role of prebiotics in poultry gastrointestinal tract health, function, and microbiome composition
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Prebiotics have been established as a series of feed compounds that serve as specific substrates for gastrointestinal tract (GIT) bacteria. The general premise is that such compounds support GIT bacteria that benefit the host. In addition, GIT bacteria supported by prebiotics can be antagonistic to foodborne pathogens and prevent their colonization in the GIT. In poultry, prebiotics have been used primarily to prevent the establishment of foodborne pathogens but have also received attention regarding their impact on overall GIT health. This chapter reviews the impact of prebiotics on bird health, GIT function, and prevention of foodborne pathogen GIT colonization. Following an introduction, prebiotics are defined and discussed. Then follows an overview of the potential impact of such prebiotics on avian upper GIT health. A section is included on the avian intestinal microbiome, function, and prebiotics. The characteristics of the avian cecum are presented in detail, including coverage of the cecal microbiome and the use of prebiotics.
Prof Prof Telmo Jorge Carneiro Amado
Rehabilitating degraded and abandoned agricultural lands with Conservation Agriculture systems
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Soil degradation worldwide is a serious concern since global demands for food production and security and environmental preservation have increased substantially. In Brazil, intensive tillage, low soil cover and residue input, monocropping, soil organic matter depletion, erosion, compaction and subsoil acidity are the main drivers of degradation and abandonment of agricultural soils, whereas high grazing pressure, unbalanced fertilization, weeds, soil compaction and poor pasture management are the drivers in pasturelands. This chapter discusses integrated strategies under Conservation Agriculture (CA) to restore soil productivity in degraded agricultural lands by mechanical and biological decompaction and subsoil acidity alleviation in tropical and subtropical regions in Brazil. Following an introduction on the degradation of both croplands and pasturelands, the authors go on to discuss the adoption of CA as a tool to prevent and reverse soil degradation. The chapter concludes with two case studies: the first on restoration of compacted and low productive soils, and the second on soil quality improvement in acidic tropical soils.
J. L. Havlin, North Carolina State University, USA; and A. J. Schlegel, Kansas State University, USA
Enhancing phosphorus-use efficiency in crop production
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Enhancing acquisition and utilization of applied phosphorus by crops will help to conserve limited rock phosphate reserves and minimize off-site transport of applied phosphorus. Understanding plant root growth and the release of substances that can solubilize mineral and organic phosphorus in response to phosphorus deficiency will enhance crop recovery when phosphorus is applied. Improved technologies to quantify plant-available phosphorus from mineral and organic soil phosphorus reserves will enhance the accuracy of fertiliser and manure phosphorus recommendations. This chapter discusses interactions between phosphorus management (phosphorus rate, source timing, and placement) and diverse cropping systems and climate and how these interactions are essential to efficient utilization of phosphorus resources.
Prof Prof Michele Pisante
Soil management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Conservation Agriculture (CA) is known to deliver ecosystem services, maintain the soil potential productivity and improve the resource-use efficiency as well as the natural resources. It adapts to and mitigates climate change and leads to a more efficient use of inputs hence reducing production costs. This chapter describes the principles of Conservation Agriculture, including soil management. The chapter examines the concepts of no-tillage agriculture, cover crops and crop residues management. The chapter also discusses the environmental benefits and ecosystem services linked to CA as well as economic benefits. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Michael H. Kogut, USDA-ARS, USA
Understanding gut function in poultry: the role of commensals, metabolites, inflammation and dysbiosis in intestinal immune function and dysfunction
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Study of the importance of the microbiome to health and susceptibility to diseases has become a leading area of research in poultry science in recent years. The microbiota is emerging as a fundamental force influencing diverse aspects of avian physiology. This chapter examines intestinal immunity and microbiota interactions with the immune system. The chapter considers the role of gut microbiota as an epigenetic regulator of gut function as well as the causes of dysregulation of gut functionality. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Raveendra R. Kulkarni
Gastrointestinal diseases of poultry: causes and nutritional strategies for prevention and control
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Gastrointestinal health plays a critical role in ensuring the overall health and productivity of livestock, including poultry. In this regard, antimicrobial growth promoters (AGP) have been used to maintain and promote gastrointestinal health. With the industrial strategy of gradual phasing out of AGP in poultry production, the incidence of enteric diseases, including necrotic enteritis, is expected to rise. Since intestinal health forms an integral part of a sustainable food animal production system, it is important to understand the etiological factors associated with gastrointestinal diseases as well as the strategies for disease prevention and control. In this chapter, important enteric diseases and disorders will be discussed, briefly highlighting their etiology followed by possible nutritional interventions, including feed additives such as plant-derived extracts, prebiotics, probiotics and organic acids, as possible alternatives to AGPs for disease control.
Tim George, James Hutton Institute, UK
Advances in understanding crop use of phosphorus
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This chapter examines the essential role of phosphorus (P) in plants and how plants have evolved to maintain the supply of P to these essential functions. The chapter discusses the concept of P-replete plants and what this means regarding both their physiological and genomic state and how this information can be used to manage crops more effectively. The chapter explores the inherent difference in P-replete status and response to P deficiency seen between crop species and genotypes of crop species, and discusses trade-offs between responses within an individual. The chapter concludes with discussion of what a crop ideotype for efficient use of P might be like and looks ahead to how this information might impact our ability to design and implement sustainable agricultural systems in the future. Finally, the chapter provides detailed suggestions for further reading.
Dr Dr Ajit S. Nehe
Advances in understanding uptake and utilization of nitrogen in wheat
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Wheat provides 20% of calories and protein consumed by humans. Cereals represent 56% of world fertilizer nitrogen (N) consumption and the wheat crop accounts for 18.2% of global use. Nitrogen fertilizer represents a significant cost for the grower and also has environmental impacts through N leaching causing eutrophication of freshwater and marine ecosystems and N2O (a greenhouse gas) emission associated with denitrification by soil bacteria. The development of N-efficient cultivars will be of economic benefit to farmers and will help reduce environmental contamination associated with excessive inputs of N fertilizers. The physiological, metabolic and physico-chemical processes that may contribute to high N-use efficiency (NUE) and reduced N fertilizer inputs, while maintaining an acceptable yield, are reviewed and the prospects for application in breeding programs discussed. Promising traits for selection by breeders to increase NUE are identified, and their implications for breeding are discussed.
John DeLong, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada; and Robert Prange, Dalhousie University, Canada
Advances in controlled atmosphere storage of horticultural produce
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This chapter highlights advances in controlled atmosphere (CA) storage science of horticultural crops (mainly apples and pears) over the last two decade, emphasizing the connection between technical/managerial aspects of the CA regime and retention of product quality during and after the storage period. The chapter particularly focuses on: initial low O2 stress (ILOS); delayed CA storage; anti-ethylene compounds (e.g. 1-MCP); dynamic controlled atmosphere (DCA) systems based on chlorophyll fluorescence (CF), ethanol detection and respiratory quotient (RQ) determination for identifying the lower oxygen limit (LOL); and strategies for reducing the electrical energy demands of the storage room. The chapter concludes with a reflection upon likely future advancements in CA storage science over the next 10-20 years, including: refining and broadening DCA system and 1-MCP application (singly and together), more metabolomic research to understand the biochemical and molecular effects of hypoxic stress, and new protocols for reducing storage room-related electricity consumption.
Bradley J. Heins, University of Minnesota, USA
Opportunities and challenges in crossbreeding dairy cattle in temperate regions
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Crossbreeding is an old technology; however, when used in today’s dairy systems, crossbreeding can produce profitable results for dairy producers. Interest in crossbreeding of dairy cattle has become a topic of great interest in the last ten years and has developed in response to concerns dairy producers have about fertility, calving difficulty, and stillbirths in today’s genetically improved Holstein cows. This chapter summarizes landmark crossbreeding research at the University of Illinois before going on to consider crossbreeding research in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Ireland and Germany. The chapter includes a case study focussing on crossbreeding with Jersey cows conducted at the University of Minnesota. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Hamid El Bilali, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Austria
Improving supply chains to prevent food losses and waste: an overview
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Wasting food is unsustainable from environmental, economic, social and ethical points of view. Curbing food losses and waste (FLW) amount would improve food chain sustainability and contribute to food security. For that, reducing FLW is one of the targets of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This chapter highlights the causes of FLW and identifies possible prevention/reduction ways in agricultural production, harvesting, storage, processing, transport, distribution, marketing and consumption. The chapter outlines strategies to prevent/reduce FLW along the supply chain, including investments, good practices, behavioural changes and coordination within the food chain. The chapter makes the case for adopting a ‘systems approach’ to realise the full benefits of FLW reduction. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Steven C. Ricke, University of Arkansas, USA
Microbial ecology and function of the gastrointestinal tract in layer hens
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With the introduction of next-generation sequencing, a more comprehensive identification of the laying hen gastrointestinal tract microbial population has emerged. There are several factors that can influence the composition and function of the layer hen gastrointestinal tract including age of the bird, diet, and type of feed amendment. The microbial communities in each compartment of the layer hen gastrointestinal tract have been identified and examined for impact on the host. Some compartments such as the ceca harbor a highly complex microbial population of fermentative microorganisms that produce short chain fatty acids. The ceca can also be colonized by foodborne Salmonella and some serovars such as S. Enteritidis can become invasive infecting the reproductive tissues. A variety of feed additives have been applied in attempts to limit Salmonella colonization in laying hens and improve laying hen performance. This chapter will review the function and microbial ecology of the layer hen gastrointestinal tract.
Amir Kassam, University of Reading, UK; Rolf Derpsch, Consultant, Paraguay; and Theodor Friedrich, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Italy
Development of Conservation Agriculture systems globally
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This chapter outlines the development of Conservation Agriculture (CA) system globally in terms of its origins, pioneers and champions, main drivers for its spread, CA systems involved, regional adoption, challenges and future prospects. Reducing soil disturbance by tillage began in the USA in the 1930s in response to the devastation caused by mouldboard ploughing and prolonged drought in the mid-west prairies that led to the period known as the ‘dust bowl’. Initially, a number of soil and water conservation practices were developed, including contour ploughing, bunding and terracing. Stubble mulch farming was also developed and this became a forerunner of no-tillage farming which appeared in the 1940s in the USA and led to the term conservation tillage. Realizing that tillage was the root cause of soil erosion and degradation, the term conservation tillage was replaced by the term Conservation Agriculture in 1997 at the meeting of the Latin American Network for Conservation Tillage (Red Latino Americana de Labranza Conservacionista, RELACO), in Morelia, Michoacan, Mexico.
Luiz F. Brito and Hinayah R. Oliveira, Purdue University, USA and University of Guelph, Canada; Fabyano F. Silva, Federal University of Viçosa, Brazil; and Flavio S. Schenkel, University of Guelph, Canada
Developments in genomic predictions in dairy cattle breeding: a historical overview of methods, technologies, and applications
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Selection and breeding decisions have traditionally been made based on phenotypic measurements and pedigree information of selection candidates or close relatives. However, the recent availability of genomic information on a large number of markers has transformed modern dairy cattle breeding around the world. Currently, among the main uses of genomic information are the identification of Quantitative Trait Loci and candidate genes related to economically important traits, and the prediction of genetic merit of individuals for selection. In this context, several statistical methods have been developed to enable the incorporation of genomic information to achieve these goals. In this chapter we summarize the key developments in genomic prediction and selection in dairy cattle, with a focus on the tools and statistical methods proposed over time. Additionally, we also discuss the main contributions that supported such developments, and indicate potential constrains and opportunities in the use of current methods in the future of dairy cattle breeding.
Dr Dr Dana K. Dittoe
Commercial poultry production and gut function: a historical perspective
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In the United States, in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, poultry production was only a side operation for many farmers; however, by the 1930s a commercial poultry industry began to flourish. Certainly, today’s poultry industry would never have developed without the many advances that have taken place in nutrition, genetics, housing, and veterinary care that were contributed by university and industry scientists. The objective of this chapter is to provide a brief description of the history and development of the commercial poultry industry, and the impact of changes in production practices that are having impacts on poultry gut health. Beginning with an introduction to the origins of the broiler chicken, there then follows sections on nutrition, genetic selection, and poultry housing. The chapter concludes with discussions on veterinary care of poultry and challenges to the industry regarding health of both the poultry produced and of the humans that consume poultry products.
Keith Warriner and Mahdiyeh Hasani, University of Guelph, Canada
Post-harvest risk management of biological hazards encountered in horticultural produce
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Fresh produce remains the main cause of foodborne illness outbreaks implicating a diverse range of enteric pathogens. The primary source of pathogens is pre-harvest contamination, which then become disseminated during processing. This chapter provides an overview of fresh produce related foodborne illness outbreaks and the characteristics of implicated pathogens. The chapter describes the routes by which pathogens can be introduced and distributed at different post-harvest stages, from the field through to food service. The chapter introduces a range of risk management strategies based on antimicrobial coatings, antimicrobial gas treatments, irradiation, UV-C and those based on advanced oxidation process. The chapter explains application of Response Surface Modelling (RSM) to balance microbial reduction with changes in produce quality, providing a detailed case study. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and provides guidance on further reading on the subject.
Kor Oldenbroek, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands
Genetic diversity in dairy cattle: variation within and between breeds
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This chapter focuses on genetic diversity in dairy cattle, meaning that it examines those domesticated cattle breeds selected for milk production. The chapter presents the relevant definitions and discusses the role of natural and artificial selection in the creation of breeds and genetic diversity. The chapter examines the importance of genetic diversity both between and within breeds and the conservation of genetic diversity in gene banks. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance for further reading on the subject.
Adrian C. Newton, James Hutton Institute and SRUC, UK; and Henry E. Creissen, Neil D. Havis, and Fiona J. Burnett, SRUC, UK
Integrated disease management of barley
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Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an ecosystem approach to crop production and protection that combines different management strategies and practices to grow healthy crops and minimize the use of pesticides. This chapter looks at how IPM can be applied to barley production, considering the different disease threats, the tools available and possible approaches to deploying them. The chapter evaluates varietal disease resistance, the range of crop protectants available and how agronomy can be used optimise these tools. The chapter also reviews the sources of knowledge available and the means and barriers to IPM use in practice. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Michael J. Stout, Louisiana State University Agricultural Centre, USA
Plant-insect interactions, host-plant resistance, and integrated pest management
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The interactions between plants and the arthropod herbivores that feed on them are intricate and multifaceted. Plant-arthropod interactions can be divided, heuristically, into host-plant finding, acceptance and utilization phases. Plant resistance results when a plant expresses traits that disrupt one or more aspects of a plant-arthropod interaction, where disruption is understood relative to the interaction of an herbivore and a susceptible host lacking the resistance-related traits. This chapter defines plant resistance, outlining processes of plant resistance including host-plant selection and host-plant utilization. The chapter examines phenotypic plasticity in plant resistance, the mechanistic bases of plant resistance and tolerance and insect counter-defenses, as well as the genetic basis of plant resistance and its use in integrated pest management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Steven E. Naranjo and Richard L. Hellmich, USDA-ARS, USA; Jörg Romeis, Agroscope, Switzerland; Anthony M. Shelton, Cornell University, USA; and Ana M. Vélez, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
The role and use of genetically engineered insect-resistant crops in integrated pest management systems
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Host plant resistance is an important and foundational element of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The application of genetic engineering (GE) has significantly accelerated the deployment of host plant resistance in several cropping systems. Current GE crops represent powerful forms of antibiotic host plant resistance. This chapter provides a broad review of the application of GE-based host plant resistance within an IPM context. The chapter explores the environmental aspects of GE-based host resistance, its integration into IPM, and resistance management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future GE crops.
Margaret Skinner, Cheryl Frank Sullivan and Bruce L. Parker, University of Vermont, USA
Integrated pest management (IPM) in greenhouse and other protected environments
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Production in greenhouses, high tunnels, and other protected environments is expanding worldwide to allow for more intensive and continual cultivation to mitigate the effects of climate change. Growers want to create conditions that are ideal for the plants to thrive, but these are often the same ones that favor insects and other arthropod pests, requiring the implementation of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in greenhouses. The practices and organisms used for IPM in greenhouses and high tunnels are unique and specific to the target pest, geographical location, and crop. This chapter describes the process of scouting for both pests and beneficials in the greenhouse environment, before discussing plant-mediated IPM systems (including a case study from the Northeastern USA). The chapter addresses the realities of IPM in the developing world as well as other novel IPM practices and future developments. Finally, the chapter provides guidance on further reading in this area.
C. Egger-Danner, ZuchtData EDV-Dienstleistungen GmbH, Austria; and B. Heringstad, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Norway
Advances in dairy cattle breeding to improve resistance to claw disorders/lameness
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Foot and claw disorders are, along with reproductive and udder health problems, major reasons for involuntary culling in dairy cattle. Culling due to lameness accounts for 8-15% of all culls. This chapter describes the key factors needed to achieve genetic improvement of claw health and discusses the challenges. It covers the various steps in breeding from the definition of the breeding goal, performance recording (phenotyping) with standardization and measures to improve data quality, genetic evaluation with the genetic background of traits, trait definitions, data validation and models, including aspects of genomic evaluation, direct and indirect selection for claw health and the possible impact on genetic gain. The chapter provides examples of successful implementation into routine breeding programmes and offers recommendations and examples of best practice. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and makes suggestions for further reading on the subject.
Alison Kelly, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries and Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Australia; and Clayton Forknall, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Austra
Advanced designs for barley breeding experiments
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This chapter provides a review of key developments in experimental design in barley breeding. After a brief history to set the scene, the chapter covers the background of experimental design for field trials, highlighting the key principles that are still fundamental for modern comparative experiments, including model-based design. The following section explores the quantification of genetic relationships through either pedigree or molecular marker information. Finally, the chapter presents the principles of multi-phase experiments for testing material both in the field and in the laboratory. Three case studies are included to highlight non-standard experimental designs that should be in the toolkit of every agricultural scientist and which are essential for modern plant breeding programs.
Andrea Visioni, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Morocco
Advances in understanding of barley plant physiology: plant development and architecture
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This chapter summarizes recent advances in understanding the genetics of barley development and architecture. In particular it discusses developments in understanding: barley plant structure and morphology; molecular control of vegetative development; and molecular control of reproductive development. Finally, the chapter looks at the implications of these developments for breeding more resilient and productive varieties.
Tanya Stathers, Natural Resources Institute (NRI) – University of Greenwich, UK; and Brighton Mvumi, University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
Challenges and initiatives in reducing postharvest food losses and food waste: sub-Saharan Africa
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This chapter reviews food losses and waste in sub-Saharan Africa. It gives a general introduction to the terms ‘food loss’ and ‘food waste’ and how they differ. It focuses on the postharvest food losses occurring in sub-Saharan Africa and compares ‘objective measurements’ with ‘perceptions’ of food losses occurring during and after harvest. It also provides an overview of what information is already available regarding food losses and waste in sub-Saharan Africa. The chapter goes on to discusses various challenges and initiatives in reducing food losses and waste and concludes by providing a general summary and several resources for further information.
Professor Professor Christian Maltecca
The use of genomic information to improve selection response while controlling inbreeding in dairy cattle breeding programs
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This chapter discusses the use of genomic information to improve selection response in dairy cattle breeding programs. It assesses population size and inbreeding, as well as discussing how genetic information can be used to reduce inbreeding. The chapter also provides an understanding of the genetics of inbreeding and how the construction of mating designs can be used to limit inbreeding. The authors also review how alleles can be maintained and discusses how optimum contribution selection (OCS) can be used to maximize selection response while controlling inbreeding. It concludes by providing a case study of using optimum contribution selection and an overview of how genetic information can provide a new way forward in understanding and controlling inbreeding.
Clyde W. Fraisse, University of Florida-Gainesville, USA; Norman E. Breuer, Catholic University Nuestra Señora de la Asunción, Paraguay; and Victor Cabrera, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
Developing climate-based decision support systems from agricultural systems models
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Decision Support Systems (DSSs) in production agriculture are computer software programs that make use of models and other information to make site-specific recommendations for farm management-related activities. Major advances have been made in developing DSS for agriculture, particularly with respect to incorporating climate forecasts into farmers’ decision-making process. This chapter describes DSSs in agriculture, focussing on the importance of a participatory approach in DSS development. The chapter offers examples of climate-based DSS for crop and land management, pest and disease management, and livestock (dairy) management. The chapter reflects on lessons learned in the process of developing climate-based DSS. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Keith Tyrell
Monitoring and minimizing health risks related to pesticides
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Pesticide poisoning is a cause of many human deaths, either via deliberate self-poisoning or via occupational exposure. This chapter looks at monitoring exposure to pesticides and how to minimize human health risks related to their use/exposure. Following an introduction, a section on data-collection approaches and limitations is presented. Then follows a section on policy responses to what is a now a global pesticide poisoning crisis. The case of the smallholder cotton farmers in the Republic of Benin is presented. The chapter concludes with a section on recent surveys in Benin conducted by the Pesticide Action Network UK and the Benin Organisation for the Promotion of Organic Farming (OBEPAB). The authors conclude that pesticide poisoning remains a significant problem in low- and middle-income countries causing substantial numbers of deaths and serious illnesses placing a heavy burden on both health systems and economies.
Ruth Mbabazi and Karim Maredia, Michigan State University, USA
Biotechnology applications for integrated pest management
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An exciting wave of discoveries in biotechnology is revolutionizing agriculture worldwide. Biotechnology tools and applications are offering great opportunities for integrated pest management (IPM) programs in agriculture. This chapter describes biotechnology applications for pest management including pest diagnostic and genetic characterization of pests, molecular breeding for insect and disease resistance, genetically engineered crops for insects, pathogens, and weeds management as well as applications of emerging genome-editing approaches for pest management. These applications provide additional options in IPM programs and in turn help reduce pest damage and crop losses, decrease the use of toxic chemical pesticides, and enhance agricultural productivity, economic growth and global food security as well as improve environmental quality. Successful deployment of biotechnology tools and applications enhance the overall effectiveness of IPM programs. The chapter also highlights policy issues including intellectual property rights, biosafety, regulatory, communication, and stewardship aspects surrounding the access, utilization, deployment and management of biotechnology tools in pest management programs.
Tom Goddard, Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, Canada; Gottlieb Basch, University of Evora, Portugal; Rolf Derpsh, Agricultural Consultant, Paraguay; Li Hongwen and He Jin, China Agriculture University, China; Muratbek Karabayev, International Maize and W
Institutional and policy support for Conservation Agriculture uptake
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Conservation Agriculture (CA) has been adopted by farmers in at least 78 countries around the world in response to land degradation from intensive tillage and monoculture production systems. Since pioneer farmers started the CA development journey five decades ago it has been refined into a sustainable production system with improved economics and multiple social and environmental co-benefits beyond stopping the immediate land degradation concerns. This chapter reviews experiences of CA in a wide range of countries (including Canada, Kazakhstan, China, Paraguay and Argentina) in order to allow the identification of commonalities and differences. The chapter examines the subsidization of agricultural activities as a barrier to change and evolution of processes and the initial reluctance and skepticism of academia with regard to CA. The chapter considers CA as a disruptive innovation and looks ahead to the future of CA policy on a global scale.
Stephane Boulakia, Florent Tivet and Olivier Husson, Centre de coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), France; and Lucien Séguy, AgroécoRiz, France
Nutrient management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Nutrient cycling is considered as a key agroecosystem service of Conservation Agriculture (CA). CA brings together major nutrients and organic matter fluxes within the soil-micro-organism-plant system. It also generates organic and inorganic nutrient pools accessible through new biological pathways. This chapter addresses nutrient management practices and benefits in CA systems. Current trends in CA systems design are discussed, as is integrated nutrient management. The concept of the “forest model” is introduced and discussed in detail. Sections on nutrient pools, bioavailability of elements, and mineral use efficiency in CA systems are also included. The chapter concludes with two case studies from contrasting agroecosystems: one from a Brazilian Fazenda transitioning from “generic” CA to CA based on multifunctional mix species cover, and one from a French dairy farm, illustrating how CA, associated with important and diversified organic matter inputs from cover crops and crop residues, impacts and modifies plant nutrition management.
Peter Sullivan, Canadian Dairy Network, Canada
International genomic evaluation methods for dairy cattle
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The primary systems of data recording and genetic evaluation of dairy cattle are managed at a national level, with separate programs being run by each country, or in some cases for a small group of countries. However, international genomic evaluation methods for dairy cattle are needed so that sire evaluations can account for and estimate suitable degrees of sire re-ranking from one country to the next. This chapter compares national versus international standards and genetic versus genomic evaluation methods. The chapter highlights key points of understanding for current and future applications of international genomic evaluation of dairy cattle. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading on the subject.
Theodor Friedrich, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Italy
The role of no or minimum mechanical soil disturbance in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Minimum mechanical soil disturbance is one of the pillars of Conservation Agriculture (CA). It is the core concept, which distinguishes CA as a sustainable farming system from tillage-based systems. This chapter introduces concepts of tillage and soil disturbance and the issues and solutions related to this topic along the cropping cycle. The role of no or minimum soil disturbance in CA systems is fully explored, firstly by looking at the effects of soil tillage and tillage implements on the soil. The chapter goes on to discuss how soil disturbance can by minimised during farming activities such as land preparation, seeding, planting, pest, disease and weed management, and harvesting. The issue of soil compaction is also discussed. The author concludes that agriculture is possible without soil disturbance and that sustainable agriculture via CA may become a reality.
W. Keith Moser, USDA Forest Service, USA; Adam P. Coble, Oregon Department of Forestry, USA; Lea Hallik, University of Tartu, Estonia; Andrew D. Richardson, Northern Arizona University, USA; Jan Pisek and Kairi Adamson, University of Tartu, Estonia; Russe
Advances in understanding canopy development in forest trees
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This chapter introduces the reader to physiological processes at the leaf, crown, and canopy level. It details the importance of light and water to these processes, then outlines the patterns that foliage at the three levels assume in order to maximize carbon uptake and tree performance. Summaries of research in leaf orientation, leaf clumping, and traits acclimation along a canopy light gradient are presented. At the canopy level, the continuous recording of canopy phenology and the eddy covariance method of recording biosphere-atmosphere fluxes are also discussed. These methods are suitable for whole-season measurements at the cross-landscape or regional level. Managers will find this knowledge useful as they assemble information to aid in their managerial decisions.
Dr Dr Soo-Hyung Kim
Advances and improvements in modeling plant processes
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This chapter provides an overview of the advances made historically and today in modeling key plant processes with a focus on the processes associated with carbon acquisition and allocation (photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, respiration, and assimilate partitioning), and the timing of plant developmental events (phenology). Areas for further improvement are also addressed.
Raphael Mrode, Scotland’s Rural College, UK and International Livestock Research Institute, Kenya
Genetic and genomic dairy cattle evaluations in developing countries
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Genetic improvement programmes have delivered huge economic returns in developed countries. Supporting these successful genetic improvements are efficient genetic evaluation systems (GES) for the accurate evaluation of animals on which selection is based. Thus, GES is not only an integral and important component of any genetic improvement programme, but it has direct influence on the rate of genetic progress that is achievable. This chapter discusses genetic and genomic dairy cattle evaluations in developing countries. Following an introduction, a section entitled efficient data collection and storage is provided covering historical perspectives, and the current status of data and data collection in some developing countries (Kenya, Zimbabwe, India and Brazil). Then follows a section on analytical systems for the computation of the genetic merits of animals covering both conventional genetic evaluation systems and genomic selection. The chapter concludes with a discussion on systems for dispersal of better genetic merit.
Charles Vincent, Agriculture Agri-Food Canada Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Canada; Guy Hallman, Phytosanitation, Oceanside, USA; Phyllis Weintraub, Gilat Research Center, Israel; and Francis Fleurat-Lessard, Gradignan, France
Advances in physical control methods in IPM
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The evidence is mounting for pesticide failures on many fronts, including environmental contamination and pest resistance to chemical products. As an alternative, physical management methods are environmentally friendly, are not subject to the development of resistance, leave no residues and require no complicated registration procedures. In this chapter, recent advances in physical control methods are reviewed, and how they are applied to the pre-harvest situations, and to the post-harvest situations of stored products, notably fresh fruits, vegetables and flowers. Physical management techniques should be fully integrated into integrated pest management programmes. The chapter discusses how physical barriers are applied in the pre-harvest field as compared to the post-harvest situations and how sanitation measures differ between pre- and post-harvest. The chapter concludes with a section on the vision for the future of post-harvest phytosanitary measures, which includes the possibility of artificial intelligence, coupled with affordable sensors.
George B. Frisvold, University of Arizona, USA
Economic assessment of integrated pest management (IPM) implementation
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Besides reducing health and the ecological risks of pest control, integrated pest management (IPM) seeks to increase farm income. Economic constraints also act as barriers to adoption of IPM practices. An understanding of how IPM affects the farm “bottom line” is crucial to efforts to encourage IPM. This chapter discusses methods for estimating the economic impacts of IPM, devoting special attention to advances in statistical methods to account for sample selection bias in program evaluation. The chapter also discusses methods for estimating economic values of reduced environmental risks. Finally, the chapter examines the effectiveness of Farmer Field Schools in promoting pest management knowledge, IPM adoption, and farm income and discusses ways to improve economic assessments of IPM programs.
Christine Baes, University of Guelph, Canada and University of Bern, Switzerland; and Bayode Makanjuola and Larry Schaeffer, University of Guelph, Canada
Assessing inbreeding and genetic diversity in the Holstein breed using pedigree and genomic approaches
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Various breeding strategies to improve dairy cattle production, conformation, health and, more recently, efficiency, have been developed. However, as selection intensity within these finite populations has increased, so has the relatedness within individual populations. This chapter looks at inbreeding and genetic diversity in the Holstein breed. It discusses the forces affecting genetic diversity within the breed, including drift, selection, migration, and mutation. Assessing measures of relatedness using different sources of information available for Holsteins (additive genetic relationships, genomic relationships, and other measures of inbreeding) are described. Inbreeding and its effects on phenotypes, including positive effects of inbreeding, inherited defects, and inbreeding depression for quantitative traits, are then explored. Exploration of population measures of inbreeding, such as the effective population size and the rate of inbreeding leads into a discussion on how to manage genetic diversity in Holsteins. The chapter concludes with a case study on Holstein cattle in Canada.
J. R. Olatunji and A. R. East, Massey University, New Zealand
Advances in cooling technologies to preserve horticultural produce
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Fruit and vegetables are living organisms that continue to respire after harvest, deteriorating over time, in a process known as senescence. Although it is impossible to halt senescence, removing the field-heat, and reducing the temperature of the product at the time of harvest, has substantial effects on maintaining product integrity. Cooling is the first ‘cool’ stage of the horticultural cool-chain, and is designed to rapidly and efficiently reduce the product temperature from the field temperature (often 20-30°C, depending on local conditions) to storage temperature (usually between 0-15°C, depending on the specific product. This chapter provides a review of the state of the art of produce cooling with emphasis on the recent developments in this field.
Scott Day, Treelane Farms Ltd, Canada; Ademir Calegari, Agricultural Research Institute of Paraná State (IAPAR), Brazil; Alessandra Santos, Marcus Cremonesi, Lilianne Maia and Wilian Demetrio, Federal University of Paraná, Brazil; and Marie L. C. Bartz,
Biodiversity management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems
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Biodiversity in agriculture is one of the most effective ways to achiebe sustainable crop production without damaging the environment. This chapter reviews biodiversity management practices and benefits in Conservation Agriculture systems. After looking at the importance of soil microorganisms, the chapter looks at how CA systems contribute to soil biological activity, particularly the way cover crops and rotations, with a no-till regime, can enrich soil and the multitude or organisms living in it. The chapter concludes with a case study discussing biodiversity management practices and benefits in CA systems in South-West Manitoba (Canada).
B. Basso and R. A. Martinez-Feria, Michigan State University, USA; and B. Dumont, University of Liege, Belgium
Modeling crop rotations: capturing short- and long-term feedbacks for sustainability and soil health
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Crop rotation is a critical management strategy available to farmers to sustain soil fertility, combat pests, and improve crop yields. Because of the complex feedbacks occurring in the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum, legacy effects and their interactions with climate are generally not well understood, and their ultimate influence on yields and environmental quality is difficult to predict. Crop simulation models offer a way of parsing through this complexity. This chapter illustrates how crop models account for the interactions between soil, genotypes, management, and climate, on crops grown in various rotations, and their effects on yield and environmental outcomes (e.g. nitrate leaching, soil organic carbon sequestration) under current and future climate scenarios by presenting two different case studies and modeling approaches. The authors conclude the chapter by summarizing the advantages and disadvantages of the modeling approaches and offer some recommendations for how to best capture legacy effects.
Robert Venette, USDA Forest Service, USA; and Amy Morey, University of Minnesota, USA
Advances in understanding the ecology of invasive crop insect pests and their impact on IPM
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Invasive species represent one of the greatest threats to agriculture and commercial forestry, worldwide. Examples of invasive pests continue to increase with increasing world trade and human transport, but all biological invasions progress through similar stages of arrival, establishment, spread and impact. This chapter reviews how management strategies change as invasions progress. As problems from invasive species increase, some scientists and decision-makers question if species-by-species research and farm-by-farm management are the optimum ways to address the problem. Here, the authors address two more fundamental questions: can the various approaches to invasive species management still be considered integrated pest management, and why does it matter if they can or cannot? Lastly, the authors describe invasive species as a ‘wicked problem’, for policy-makers, researchers and stakeholders. Great achievements can be made if the problem is tamed, but research and management efforts may be jeopardized if it is not.
E. A. Heinrichs and John E. Foster, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
Advances in breeding crops resistant to insect pests: rice as a paradigm
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Over the last 60 years research involving the development and deployment of insect-resistant crop cultivars has led to significant crop improvements in the major food-producing areas of the world. This chapter discusses the history, status, latest methods, and challenges of breeding insect-resistant rice varieties. The chapter examines host plant resistance as an ecological approach to managing crop pests and considers the process of evaluating resistance on the basis of insect behavior. The chapter looks at breeding rice for resistance to insect pests and considers the constraints on the development and deployment of insect-resistant plant technology. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Don Reicosky, Soil Scientist Emeritus USDA-ARS and University of Minnesota, USA
Conservation Agriculture Systems: soil health and landscape management
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At the core of Conservation Agriculture (CA) is the transformation towards soil health and systems management innovation with emphasis on regenerative carbon management. This chapter documents the role of CA systems in relation to soil health and soil function. The three principles of: 1) permanent organic crop residue soil cover; 2) diverse crop rotations and cover crop mixes; and 3) continuous minimum mechanical soil disturbance, of CA systems, along with complementary supporting practices, are fully discussed. Then follows a section on plant carbon and its impact on hydrology and water use efficiency. The author concludes that a strong partnership is needed among all social, economic, and political sectors to promote innovation, adoption and success of Conservation Agriculture systems in light of the need for global food security.
Thuy T. T. Nguyen, Agriculture Victoria, Australia
Advances in dairy cattle breeding to improve heat tolerance
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Elevated temperature can impact dairy cows in many aspects, leading to a decline in productivity and ultimately the profitability of the industry. There is a need to breed for heat tolerant dairy cattle to mitigate these impacts. This chapter outlines technologies to breed for more heat tolerant dairy cattle, exploiting either between or within breed genetic variation in the trait. Finally, the chapter discusses future perspectives on the use of different tools to achieve accelerated improvements of this important trait, and provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Dr Dr Matthew J. McGrath
Advances in understanding the role of forests in the carbon cycle
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The recognition that increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide are warming the global climate has led to forests being viewed as potential natural ways to reduce carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. Forests’ complex interactions with local and global climates, however, make predicting the impacts of changes in forest cover and composition challenging. This chapter examines the importance of forest carbon content and methods of monitoring it. The chapter describes the mechanisms driving forest carbon storage and explores whether forests should be considered sources or sinks of carbon. The chapter distinguishes between carbon management and climate management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and offers suggestions for further reading.
Reiner Jedermann, Institute for Microsensors, Actuators and Systems (IMSAS), Germany; Ulrike Praeger and Martin Geyer, Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy (ATB), Germany; and Walter Lang, Institute for Microsensors, Actuators and
Temperature deviations during transport as a cause for food losses
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Deviating temperature conditions during distribution processes reduce the quality of food and significantly contribute to global food losses. The effect of careless handling and inadequate processing only become visible much later in the cool chain, making it difficult to quantify the contribution of individual processes. This chapter highlights the importance of transport losses of produce and draws attention to the omnipresence of temperature deviations. The chapter examines methods of shelf-life prediction, as well as the identification, quantification and mitigation of temperature abuse, along with remote monitoring. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Upendra Singh
Improving modeling of nutrient cycles in crop cultivation
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This chapter describes nutrient cycle modelling for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) and is not meant to be a review of existing nutrient models. Most of these existing models were designed to predict the effects of N and P on crop growth response. Given the importance of N in global food production and its impact on the environment, the major emphasis of this chapter has been on N modelling.
Sean Moore, Citrus Research International and Rhodes University, South Africa; and Michael Jukes, Rhodes University, South Africa
Advances in microbial control in IPM: entomopathogenic viruses
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Although there are several families of viruses known to include insect pathogens, only a handful are recognised to have species with any potential of being biopesticides. The majority of these are baculoviruses and are an ideal component of an integrated pest management (IPM) programme, as they are highly target pest-specific, have no detrimental side effects, are user-friendly, are often as effective as the chemical alternatives, are compatible with most pesticides and technologies, and they leave no detectable residues. However, there are certain challenges associated with their usage, such as slow speed of kill, a narrow host range, limited shelf life, high cost and the possibility of resistance development – the solutions to which are discussed in this chapter. Three baculovirus biopesticide case studies are provided elucidating the practical benefits and challenges of using baculoviruses in IPM systems. The chapter concludes that the usage of insect viruses in IPM is set to grow in the future.
Claudio O. Stöckle, Washington State University, USA; and Francisco Meza, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile
Improving modelling of water cycles in crop cultivation
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Adequate representation of the water cycle in cropping systems remains as one of the major concerns for crop model developers as it is involved in many critical processes such as the determination of the energy balance and crop temperature, the determination of crop productivity, and the movement of nutrients in the soil and their uptake. Even though the water budget equation is rather simple, the scarcity of measurements and data to specify the parameters and evaluate the component processes, as well as the myriad of empirical and mechanistic approaches available, makes it difficult for crop modelers to decide on suitable approaches to incorporate in their models. This chapter presents a summary of the most common approaches that are included in crop simulation models, the parameterization of the equations involved, and the main limitations currently observed.
Dr Dr Peter Amer
Recent developments in multi-trait selection in dairy cattle breeding
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Selection indexes, and their underlying breeding objectives, are widely used in dairy cattle breeding, and indexes tend to play an important role in selection decisions made by commercial farmers in many of the more advanced dairy industries within well developed economies. This chapter describes the key role of multi-trait indexes in dairy cattle breeding, how this role is evolving, and consequently, the methods used to establish the weightings in the indexes. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides guidance on further reading on the subject.
John Cole, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in dairy cattle breeding to improve resistance to mastitis
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Mastitis, an inflammatory response associated with bacterial infections, is generally regarded as the most-costly disease of dairy cattle because of its high incidence and effects on milk production and composition. Genetic selection for highly productive dairy cows has been very successful; however, udder health has declined in many dairy breeds because of its unfavourable correlations with milk production. Poor udder health increases veterinary and farm labour costs, increases rates of involuntary culling, decreases farm revenue, and adversely impacts animal welfare. However, genetic selection can be used to improve udder health just as it has been used to increase production. This chapter reviews advances in dairy cattle breeding to improve resistance to mastitis. It includes sections on both conventional and new phenotypes for improving resistance to clinical mastitis, and also on both national and international genetic improvement programmes for resistance to clinical mastitis. It concludes with a section on increasing rates of genetic gain through genomic selection.
Guillermo Tellez and Juan D. Latorre, University of Arkansas, USA; Margarita A. Arreguin-Nava, Eco-Bio LLC, USA; and Billy M. Hargis, University of Arkansas, USA
The role of probiotics in optimizing gut function in poultry
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The spread of antibiotic resistance genes has created public concerns leading to new laws that restrict the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in domestic and meat-producing animals in several countries around the world. In this chapter, the safety and efficacy of individual monocultures for prophylactic and/or therapeutic efficacy against Salmonella infections in poultry under both laboratory and field conditions are summarized. In addition, the development of novel, cost-effective, feed-stable, direct-fed microbials with potential for widespread utilization and improved production, delivery and clinical efficacy for animal use are presented. Following an introduction, a section on the use of probiotics in poultry is presented; a discussion on probiotics and inflammation is also provided. The risks on the overuse of antibiotics are discussed, and the chapter concludes with an introduction to the use of direct-fed microbials in commercial poultry diets.
Joel Ira Weller, The Volcani Center, Israel
Genetic evaluation: use of genomic data in large-scale genetic evaluations in dairy cattle breeding
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Genomic evaluation has been successfully implemented in nearly all advanced dairy producing countries. Methods to compute genomic genetic evaluations for dairy cattle can be divided into single-step methods and multi-step methods. This chapter introduces the use of mixed model equations and the numerator relationship matrix, outlining the two basic methods used to compute genomic evaluations. The chapter explains the process of validating methods of computing genomic estimated breeding values. Finally, the chapter examines how genomic selection has changed the dairy cattle industry and looks ahead to future research trends in this area, as well as providing detailed guidance on further reading on the subject.
Dr Dr Michael D. Cressman
Genetics and other factors affecting intestinal microbiota and function in poultry
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The diverse intestinal microbiota of poultry plays critical roles in determining feed utilization, health, and diseases. A comprehensive understanding of how various factors shape the intestinal microbiota in poultry can help develop new dietary and managerial interventions to enhance bird growth, maximize feed utilization efficiency, and lower enteric diseases caused by pathogens. This chapter reviews the current understanding of how different factors (except diet and growth promoters that are covered in other chapters of this book) can affect the intestinal microbiota. These factors include genetics and breeds, hatchery conditions and environment, bedding and litter, climate and geographic regions, gender and diseases. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future perspectives in research on intestinal microbiota in poultry and provides comprehensive guidance on finding further information on this area.
Philip J. Burton, University of Northern British Columbia, Canada
The scope and challenge of sustainable forestry
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Forests have managed to sustain themselves for millennia, recovering, reorganizing or migrating in response to innumerable disruptions. Humans have always reaped the benefits of this natural ability of treed ecosystems to renew themselves. Overharvesting of wood for fuel and building materials, however, eventually led to restrictions at different times and places around the world, and was eventually resolved through the development of sustained yield forestry. This introductory chapter focusses on current research in sustainable forestry. Beginning by discussing the concept of sustainable forestry, the chapter goes on to explore the natural resilience of forests. Further sections address the ways in which sustainability is interpreted and the challenges encountered in its implementation. In later sections, each of the subsequent chapters is referred to, in turn, providing an overview of the book. The chapter concludes with a reflection on what sustainable forestry is and how it may be attained.
Trudee Fair and Pat Lonergan, University of College Dublin, Ireland
Developments in the use of embryo technologies in dairy cows
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Reproductive technologies offer the opportunity to produce far greater numbers of offspring from genetically valuable dams, than they would normally have in their lifetime. Technologies such as ovum-pickup when applied to harvest oocytes from prepubertal animals provide the means to dramatically reduce the genetic interval, whereas the large number of embryos recovered from multiple ovulation embryo transfer gives greater scope for selection for genetic improvement. When animal breeding programmes couple these technologies with genomic selection based on genome wide assisted selection, the accuracy of selection can be increased further. The current range of interventions that can be applied to breeding programmes provides great scope to increase the efficiency, sustainability and welfare of the dairy industry. This chapter provides an update on current developments in reproductive technologies that are available for routine use and those that are still in the research stage but have the potential to provide solutions for the dairy industry in the future.
Robert Moore, RMIT University, Australia
Understanding gut microbiota in poultry
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Research has shown that gut microbiota; the bacteria, archaea, protozoa, fungi and viruses that reside within the gastrointestinal tract, has a profound effect on the health and productivity of poultry. This chapter outlines what is known about the establishment and development of the gut microbiota, some of the mechanisms by which the microbiota can affect poultry and the ways that the microbiota can be manipulated to enhance poultry health and productivity. Firstly, an overview of the microbiota of chickens is presented. This is followed by a discussion on the functional interaction of such microbiota with the host, in this case, the chicken. A section on the manipulation of microbiota for health and productivity of chickens is provided, covering the use of microbes to manipulate gut microbiota and also the use of feed additives and antibiotics. The chapter concludes with an overview of future trends in research.
Yamina Micaela Rosas, Laboratorio de Recursos Agroforestales, Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas (CADIC), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Argentina; Pablo Luis Peri and Héctor Bahamonde, Instituto Nacio
Trade-offs between management and conservation for the provision of ecosystem services in the southern Patagonian forests
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Forests provide critical ecosystem services for human well-being; however, some ecosystem services are more valued (e.g. provisioning services) than others (e.g. regulating or supporting services). Temperate regions contain several forests affected by humans, mainly with regard to ecosystem services and biodiversity. This chapter focuses on Nothofagus forests in southern Patagonia. It analyzes potential trade-offs between ecosystem services and biodiversity, and how new silvicultural approaches (such as silvopastoral and variable retention harvesting) allow multi-objective management at the landscape level. The authors first discuss forest ecosystem service characterization. Further sections are included on the provision of forest ecosystem services in southern Patagonia and developing strategies of sustainable forest management. The chapter closes with an overview of forest ecosystem services in a changing world. The authors conclude that future proposals (such as land-sharing) will require fewer trade-offs and promote positive synergies within the provision of ecosystem services, generating more resilient alternatives that can mitigate potential climate change effects.
