A high percentage of individuals participate in outdoor recreation, and as regions around the world continue to experience population growth there correspondingly will be increased demand for recreation services. Quality in such recreation can be defined as the degree to which recreation opportunities provide the experiences for which they are designed and managed. Therefore, key to protecting the recreation experiences in certain areas is an understanding of the different aspects of the visitor experience and recognizing which of these are important to visitors. This chapter is focused on developing forestry recreation services. Following a general introduction on recreation, a section is then included on visitor experience. The chapter then discusses the concept of the recreation opportunity spectrum. Recreation site planning and management are discussed, as are visitor use management, and monitoring and assessment. The chapter includes a case study on development of recreation services on privately owned forestlands in the United States.
Katrien Descheemaeker, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands; and Lindsay Bell, CSIRO Agriculture Flagship, Australia
Integrating livestock production into whole-farm system models of mixed crop–livestock systems
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Crop-livestock farming systems integrate various biophysical components with farm decision-making. Whole-farm system models help to understand the complexity arising from this integration and are useful tools to explore effects of interventions and to design improved systems. After describing the generic characteristics of crop-livestock systems, this chapter gives an account of the separate component models, from which whole-farm models are usually assembled. Most attention goes to the wide diversity in pasture, livestock and manure models, while approaches to represent farm management in models are also discussed. The interactions between farm components strongly determine model functioning and performance, and often present modelling challenges to capture them. With a focus on grazing, manure dynamics and animal mobility, the authors assess the key processes governing these interactions and review how models represent them. Further, the representation of feed quality in crop model outputs and the management of time scales and carry-over effects is dealt with. Finally, the authors provide two examples of common whole-farm model applications from contrasting environments.
Toyoki Kozai, Japan Plant Factory Association, Japan; Yumiko Amagai, Chiba University, Japan; and Eri Hayashi, Japan Plant Factory Association, Japan
Towards sustainable plant factories with artificial lighting (PFALs): from greenhouses to vertical farms
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Plant factories with artificial lighting (PFALs) have hitherto proved too costly to be economically viable, consuming too much electricity to be considered truly sustainable. However, recent advances are changing this, and the potential advantages of PFALs are making them an attractive option. This chapter discusses the requirements of sustainable plant production systems, exploring the potential and actual benefits of PFALs. The chapter considers the resource consumption, production cost and cost performance associated with current PFALs, as well as methods for reducing resource consumption and production costs. Finally, the chapter examines future challenges of environmentally and economically sustainable plant production for smart PFALs.
Moez El Shohdi, Egyptian Food Bank/Food Banking Regional Network, Egypt; and Rasha El Shafei, Universities of Canada in Egypt, Egypt
The role of food banks in food security and food loss and waste (FLW) prevention
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The current deficit of food supply in which more than 820 million people do not have enough to eat puts a real threat on the upcoming generations to satisfy their most basic need of food sufficiency. This chapter describes the development of food banks over the years, explains the difference between the traditional and contemporary food banking models and presents a case study on one of the most successful food banks in the Middle East region that diverts more than 17,000,000 meals monthly from the landfill.
K. J. Boote, University of Florida, USA
The future of crop modeling for sustainable agriculture
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Crop growth simulation models have become increasingly important as accepted tools with uses in education, research, crop management, industry, and government policy decisions related to improving and sustaining agricultural production of food, feed, fiber, and ecosystem services. This chapter begins with a brief review of history of crop modeling that has led to excellent collaborations among the world’s crop modeling community. It discusses present and future potential uses of crop models in education, academic research, plant breeding, strategic crop management, in-season advisory tools, famine risk tools, climate change impact assessment, ecosystem services, sustaining long-term soil fertility, and integration with livestock and economic models. It concludes with a look to the future with a review of what is new in crop models, the processes that need improvement, along with suggestions of new features needed.
Andrew Lister, USDA Forest Service, USA
Advances in monitoring forest growth and health
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Information derived from monitoring the status of and trends in forest resources is a critical tool for policymakers, managers, and other environmental decision makers. Advances in forest monitoring technology, particularly in the use of remote sensing, have helped deliver higher quality information in a timelier manner than in the past. This chapter gives background information on the practical and statistical principles behind both ground-based and remote sensing-based forest measurement and monitoring, provides historical context for each, identifies information gaps and practical challenges, and proposes solutions for harmonizing the two sources of information. This is done through the use of a hypothetical forest management case study aimed at providing a conceptual framework for forest managers seeking to design forest monitoring systems. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and suggests further reading.
Oliver Körner, Leibniz Institute of Vegetable and Ornamental Crops (IGZ), Germany
Models, sensors and decision support systems in greenhouse cultivation
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Model-based decision support and automation in horticulture is accompanied today by the development of Industry 4.0, that is, today’s greenhouses are advanced production systems with the possibility of controlling the indoor climate (and with that, the crop) very accurately with intelligent algorithms based on models and/or data. This chapter discusses the potential of sensors and models within the growing mechanisation in greenhouses. The chapter examines differences in development and application of deterministic explanatory and data-based models for real-time control and decision support systems (DSS) using soft sensors and the application of planning tools. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Frits K. van Evert, Wageningen University & Research, Agrosystems Research, The Netherlands
Data for developing, testing, and applying crop and farm models
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This chapter focuses on the data needed for developing, testing, and applying crop and farm models. The chapter reviews the kinds of data available to crop and farm modellers. The chapter describes practices concerning storage, exchanging, and combining data from various sources, examining the socio-economic and ethical implications. The chapter looks at the role of companies in data flows and generating recommendations to farmers. The chapter presents examples of successful use of agricultural data, both for science and for agricultural practice. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Juan I. Montero
Advances in greenhouse design
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Greenhouses are effective structures for producing high-value crops since they use natural resources as well as production inputs very efficiently. Consequently, greenhouses occupy large areas of the world. This chapter examines recent developments in greenhouse designs on three relevant production systems, namely low-tech greenhouses, high-tech greenhouses and the Chinese solar greenhouse (CSG). The chapter reviews advances in natural ventilation, light transmission and passive improvement of night-time conditions. The chapter discusses new greenhouse roofing for glasshouses as well as the concept of the semi-closed greenhouse, a type of high-tech greenhouse. The chapter describes types of CSGs and relevant technical features of CSGs in northeast, northwest and northern China.
E. J. van Henten, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands
Automation and robotics in greenhouses
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This chapter provides an overview of the state of the art of automation technology in protected cultivation and looks ahead to future directions for achieving further progress in this field. The chapter provides a generic description of the greenhouse crop production process and then uses it as a reference for reviewing the state of the art in automation and robotics. The chapter explains those tasks in protected cultivation that have already been automated and identifies those tasks that are predominantly still the domain of human labour. The chapter outlines the requirements for the technology capable of doing these tasks. The chapter describes the ongoing research in automation and robotics in protected cultivation and concludes with a description of the challenges facing high-tech systems in protected cultivation.
Josef Tanny, Agricultural Research Organization – Volcani Center, Israel
Advances in screenhouse design and practice for protected cultivation
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The increasing world population, along with water and land shortages and climate change, lead growers worldwide to protected cultivation systems. The screenhouse, built with a skeleton of basic construction elements enveloped by a porous screen, is one example of such systems. Another protected cultivation system is a screen cover without sidewalls, usually used for shading only. This chapter describes common types of structures and materials used by growers and discusses studies where microclimate and evapotranspiration were measured and modelled under the screens. The chapter considers the question of whether it is possible to increase water-use efficiency in screenhouses. The chapter reviews studies in which product quality under screens was examined. Finally, the chapter draws attention to knowledge gaps and suggests future research directions.
Donald Grebner, Mississippi State University, USA; and Pete Bettinger, University of Georgia, USA
Key challenges in forest management
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Forest managers face many challenges, both now and in the future, driven by society’s need as well as by the impacts dictated by the climate change threat. Growing populations will also strain the forest’s ability to provide traditional products sustainably while catering to the growing demands for ecosystem services not previously and explicitly managed for across forested landscapes. The objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of current and pending threats and challenges for forest managers around the world as well as current research focussed on these topics. The chapter starts with reviewing current and future concerns in forest management, which include climate change impacts, changing land-use and ecosystem services. Key research areas such as climate change impacts (e.g. species shifts, growth rates, extreme weather events, water, forest pests and invasive species), urbanization/forest fragmentation (e.g. wildland–urban interface) and ecosystem services (e.g. valuation) are discussed. A case study on forest management in North America is included.
Marcos Kogan, Oregon State University, USA
The synergism of biocontrol and plant resistance: a path to advance IPM to higher levels of integration
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This chapter reviews the future evolution of integrated pest management (IPM). It identifies the ways modern agriculture has disrupted plant defences and the control of pests by their natural enemies. The chapter discusses ways of restoring and enhancing these controls both through breeding and the use of biological methods. It demonstrates how IPM can be taken to the next level with a case study of a pome fruit IPM program in the Pacific Northwest of the United States.
Prof Prof Hendrika Fourie
Integrated pest management (IPM) of nematodes
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Limited and fragmented information is available about long-term research efforts that demonstrate the value and impact of integrated pest management to combat nematodes. This particularly applies to major cereal (maize, wheat and rice) and leguminous (peanut, soybean and sunflower) crops on which this chapter focusses, and the economically most important nematode pests (root-knot, cyst and root-lesion nematodes) damaging such crops. A summary on the basic biology and morphology of nematodes is given, followed by integral and popular strategies (cultural, biological and chemical control and host plant resistance) used worldwide. A case study demonstrates the integration of multiple nematode control strategies, followed by the novel use of transgenic crops with nematode resistance, challenges faced in terms of nematode management under changing environmental conditions and practices (focussing on minimal disturbance of soil and conservation of soil-fauna communities) and the challenge posed by weeds as hosts of major nematode pests is also discussed.
Steven C. Ricke, University of Arkansas, USA
Short chain organic acids: microbial ecology and antimicrobial activity in the poultry gastrointestinal tract
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Interest continues for the development and implementation of alternative feed additives that limit foodborne pathogens in the poultry gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and benefit the host. Short chain organic acids have been employed as feed additives for a number of years. They have been primarily used for their antimicrobial properties in the feed as well as in the GIT after being consumed by the bird. Short chain organic acids are also produced by indigenous gastrointestinal bacteria during fermentation. These are primarily generated in the cecum which is the site where most of GIT microbial fermentation occurs. Short chain organic acids are also used as feed additives for poultry. When added to feeds, they can limit foodborne pathogens such as Salmonella in the feed and potentially in the GIT. This review will cover current findings and future prospects on poultry GIT responses to short chain organic acids generated by GIT fermentative microorganisms and antimicrobial efficacy when birds are fed treated feeds.
Alison M. Laing, Cam K. McDonald, Andrew J. Ash and Diane B. Prestwidge, CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Australia; and Holger Meinke, University of Tasmania, Australia
Whole-farm system models in practice: diverse applications
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The challenges of contemporary agriculture are causing farmers to seek models of whole-farm goals, which requires mathematically-based modeling grounded in the latest scientific understanding of animal growth and reproduction, crop physiology, soil and environmental sciences, as well as economics and human relations. Such models are often invaluable tools in the process of undertaking nuanced, multifaceted management decisions at the farm system level. This chapter explores model selection and, through a series of case studies, whole farm modelling in both smallholder systems and single enterprise farm businesses. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Martine Dorais, Université Laval, Canada
Advances in organic greenhouse cultivation
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Organic greenhouse horticulture has expanded considerably during the last decades to meet consumer demand. Organic greenhouse cultivation constitutes a sustainable alternative to mitigate producer challenges related to new pest infestation, weed infestation, extreme temperature events, drought, frequent episodes of hail as well as strong rain and wind, and soil erosion. This chapter highlights the current regulation and situation of organic greenhouse cultivation in the world, presents yield gap and profitability compared with conventional farming and describes recent advances related to robust plant material, soil and soilless growing systems, soil health, biostimulants, fertilisation and water management, plant protection and quality value of organic products. Finally, the chapter considers the environmental impact of organic greenhouse cultivation and future trends in this area, providing detailed guidance on further reading.
Prof. Prof. B. W. Alsanius
Sustainable systems for integrated fish and vegetable production: new perspectives on aquaponics
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Aquaponics integrates fish and seafood rearing (aquaculture) with soilless production of horticultural produce (hydroponics). Engineered systems of this kind meet the challenges posed by global population growth, urbanization, global climate change, limited access to resources for agricultural activities and sustainability. This chapter reviews and analyses three distinct habitats in the aquaponics system: the fish rearing unit, the water treatment unit and the crop production unit. The chapter describes processes and mechanisms relevant to aquaponics, separating loops and flows within the culture system (water, trophic levels, microorganisms) and impacts on global cycles (food safety, sustainability). Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this field.
Tod Ramsfield, Natural Resources Canada, Canada; and Kathy Lewis, University of Northern British Columbia, Canada
Advances in understanding and managing fungal and other diseases of forest trees
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Forest diseases are caused by pathogens and they affect all parts of the tree, including roots, stems, and leaves. Forest diseases result in volume losses and decreases in wood quality, which are considered detrimental in stands managed for timber products; however, in the context of a biodiversity reserve, diseases are important for nutrient cycling and habitat creation as agents of succession. This chapter uses a case study approach to describe how various forest pathogens affect trees and introduces strategies to reduce damage caused by forest pathogens in managed stands. The chapter introduces parasitic flowering plants, rust pathogens, diseases caused by Phytophthora spp., as well as abiotic disease. The chapter discusses the importance of exotic forest pathogens and the damage several of these pathogens have caused to ecosystems following their introduction, establishment, and spread. The chapter also addresses how climate change might change host–pathogen interactions, leading to differences in disease expression. Finally, the chapter provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Dr Dr Xiaofan Wang
Advances in sequence technologies for generating poultry gut microbiome data
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The important role of the microbiome in the immune system, nutrient digestion, and disease diagnosis and prevention has been well documented in both humans and animals. In poultry, the microbiome community changes between different organs, and the perturbation of gut microbiota can lead to intestinal infections and respiratory diseases, which result in enormous economic losses. The advances in several high-throughput sequencing techniques have generated big sequencing data for microbiome analysis. In this review, we go over the traditional molecular tools used to analyze gut microbiome in poultry, such as T-RFLP, DGGE, and TGGE, clone library sequencing using the Sanger method, the development of next-generation sequencing techniques such as Roche 454, Illumina, and Ion Torrent. We also discuss third-generation sequencing techniques including Pacbio SMRT sequencing and Oxford Nanopore, both of which were developed to generate length reads. Finally, we discuss other omics such as metagenomics, metatranscriptomics, and metaproteomics, which are necessary for studying microbiome functions.
Dr Dr Divek V. T. Nair
The role of essential oils and other botanicals in optimizing gut function in poultry
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The poultry industry has long trusted antibiotics for their benefits in chicken production such as improved feed conversion, growth promotion and disease control. However, the emergence of bacterial antimicrobial resistance has resulted in the U.S. federal guidelines prompting the animal industries to voluntarily phase out antibiotic growth promotion in food animals through changes in labelling and soliciting veterinary oversight on their therapeutic use. This situation has resulted in the search for alternatives that would fill the gap antibiotics once occupied. This chapter discusses the role of essential oils and botanicals in improving gut function in poultry, focussing on four major functions of phytobiotics that could potentially contribute to gut health: digestive conditioning, antimicrobial property, immunomodulation and gut microbiota modulation. The chapter discusses the impact of these functions on performance as well as carcass and egg quality. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Linton Winder, The BHU Future Farming Centre, New Zealand; and Rory Flemmer, Junior Enterprises, New Zealand
Robot-enhanced insect pest control: reality or fantasy?
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This chapter focusses on the incorporation of robotics and automation to detect insect pests within integrated pest management (IPM) programmes. The chapter reviews current technology that could be utilized for this purpose, and identifies significant barriers to implementing such an approach, including locating and identifying small and difficult-to-observe pests. The chapter provides examples of how technology is already being used or developed to solve real-world IPM problems, including uses of robotic technology to control insects, mites, nematodes and weeds. Finally, the chapter makes some predictions about how such technology may affect IPM in the next decade or two.
Dr Dr Jana Seifert
Omics technologies for connecting host responses with poultry gut function
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Optimal gut function is of importance to the whole metabolism of a chicken and thus also central to efficient feed conversion and optimal meat and egg production. State-of-the-art Omics technologies are currently available to gain a deeper insight into animal physiology. This chapter summarizes the latest studies using different omics technologies (e.g. genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics) to identify the response of chicken intestinal cells to various effectors. First, the functions, physiology and microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract in chicken are discussed. Then follows a section on Omics technologies, how they can be used and what they can tell researchers. The authors then present a section on the application of omics to the study of the chicken intestine. The chapter concludes with a case study on the proteomic analysis of the mucosal layer of the chicken gut, and a look to future trends in research.
Dr. Dr. Stephan Pfister
Modelling impacts of agriculture on freshwater
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Agriculture greatly impacts water resources due to the high volumes of irrigation water consumed in crop production. Additionally, agricultural activities affect hydrological cycles through land-use changes and soil modifications, which may lead to pollution of water bodies. On a local level, these impacts and specific improvement options can be assessed by risk assessment and integrated water resource management. Modelling the impacts of agriculture on freshwater comprehensively is a difficult task as freshwater can be impacted by water consumption and also by water pollution. These are influenced by direct agricultural activities (e.g. irrigation) as well as by indirect activities for the production of agricultural inputs (e.g. fertilizers, agrochemicals). This chapter looks at modelling the impacts of agriculture on freshwater. Following an introduction, the authors go on to look at modelling in relation to water consumption, water quality and salinization. The chapter also covers soil quality, land use and both geographical and temporal variation. Case studies are also included.
Graham Matthews, Imperial College London, UK
Chemical control in IPM systems: advances in selective pesticides and application systems
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The European Union has adopted integrated pest management (IPM) as a policy as part of the Sustainable Use of Pesticides Directive, in which chemical pesticides are used as a last resort. Bringing IPM into the policy for crop protection has focussed attention on using more selective pesticides and especially biopesticides, but to implement IPM well-trained practitioners are required to provide farmers with the support they need to achieve informed pest management. This chapter examines selective pesticides, the importance of dose selection, timing of chemical pesticide treatments and changes in pesticide application technology. The chapter offers an overview of biopesticides, baculoviruses and their application, and the application of bacterial biopesticides. The chapter also looks at the application of entomopathogenic nematodes, release of predators and parasitoids as a form of pest management and the use of pheromones.
Osman Yasir Koyun and Todd R. Callaway, University of Georgia, USA
Controlling pathogens in the poultry gut
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Food-borne pathogenic bacteria are all too often found as commensal or transient organisms in the gastrointestinal tract of poultry. Many of these organisms do not reveal themselves through illness in the bird, although some do. Therefore, it is important to find ways to apply treatment to all members of a flock, rather than simply treating ‘sick’ birds. This chapter describes the gastrointestinal microbiota of poultry before going on to consider alternatives to the use of antibiotics. The chapter considers the use of organic acids, bacteriophages, sodium chlorate and pro- and prebiotic approaches.
Taro Takahashi, Rothamsted Research and University of Bristol, UK; Graham A. McAuliffe, Rothamsted Research, UK; and Michael R. F. Lee, Rothamsted Research and University of Bristol, UK
Assessing the environmental impact of ruminant production systems
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One of the most common methods to evaluate environmental footprints of farming systems is life cycle assessment (LCA). Although LCA itself is suitable for and adopted by a wide range of industries far beyond agriculture, what separates agriculture, and in particular pasture-based ruminant production systems, is the high degree of uncertainties associated with physical, chemical and biological processes that underpin production. Through a review of recent literature and a quantitative case study, this chapter explores how the practical trade-off between feasibility and scientific rigour should be addressed in the field of ruminant production systems. Finally, the chapter provides detailed guidance on where to look for further information in the field.
Dr Dr Jerke de Vries
The environmental impact of valorising agricultural by-products
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Agricultural by-products, that is primary residue, industrial by-products and animal manure, are an important source of nutrients and carbon for maintaining soil quality and crop production but can also be valorised through treatment pathways such as fermentation, incineration or a combination of these called bio-refinery. Here, we provide an overview of opportunity to reduce environmental impact of valorising agricultural by-products. We estimate the available by-products in Northwestern Europe as a case study and the maximum and realistic greenhouse gas reduction potentials. Availability, collectability, the original use and environmental impact including land use changes, soil carbon sequestration and pollution swapping are discussed as critical factors when valorising agricultural by-products.
Ümit Serdar, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey; Toshihiro Saito, Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea Science, Japan; Beatriz Cuenca, Empresa de Transformacion Agraria S.A (TRAGSA) Maceda, Spain; Burak Akyüz, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey; José Gomes La
Advances in cultivation of chestnuts
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Chestnut (Castanea), within the family Fagaceae, is a multipurpose tree that produces nuts and timber, as well as holds an important place in landscape and culture. The aim of this chapter is to present the current state of global cultivation of the Castanea species, in terms of its ecological characterization, propagation methods and multifunctionality. The chapter will examine chestnut’s economic profitability and the importance of wood and fruit production for promoting the resilience and sustainability of chestnut cultivation. The chapter describes specific regional characteristics of chestnut cultivation around the world. The authors include sections on the ecological conditions affecting the growth of chestnuts, chestnut management as coppice forest or orchards, propagation methods (including grafting, layering, cutting and micropropagation) and orchard establishment and management (including training, pruning, fertilization and irrigation). The harvest and storage of chestnuts and pest management in chestnut orchards are also covered.
Jerry L. Hatfield, Christian Dold, Erica J. Kistner-Thomas and Kenneth M. Wacha, USDA-ARS, USA
Agroecosystem models for delivering ecosystem services
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Agroecosystems are complex representations of the interactions occurring among multiple biological systems at the field and landscape scale. Models simulating these interactions across time and space are not very mature and expanding our current knowledge on crop, pest, and soils models provides a framework for how we use agroecological models to quantify a range of ecosystem services. This chapter examines the need for an agroecosystem approach, outlining the importance of plants, soils, pests, diseases, weeds and pollinators as part of the agroecosystem. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Casey Hoy, Ohio State University, USA
Advances in understanding agroecosystems ecology and its applications in integrated pest management
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Achieving the theoretical goal of integrated pest management (IPM), maintaining pest populations at levels below an economic threshold through a combination of tactics, has so far proved difficult to attain. Production systems, particularly specialized commodity production based on economies of scale, place constraints on IPM, but managing agroecosystem health is an alternative that incorporates IPM into its multiple goals and benefits. This chapter describes the shift in focus required for agroecosystem health from particular commodities to diversified landscapes and agroecosystems, from pest suppression to ecosystem services, from technological inputs to ecological knowledge and experience, and from management by individuals to management by human populations and organizations. The chapter presents some detailed case studies of IPM via agroecosystem management and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Prof. Prof. Gabriele Beccaro
Tree nut cultivation, ecosystem services, biodiversity and conservation
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There is growing concern about the impact of overuse of agricultural inputs on the environment which in turn has created a challenge for food production systems that should sustain acceptable production levels while preserving natural resources. It is now well-accepted that a holistic approach is needed to improve management techniques that ensure both nature conservation and stable production levels. In nut crop production the complex interconnections among physical and biological structures, agricultural practices, functions and services strongly influence, and may be influenced by, several aspects such as orchard design, ground cover management and different biological components. This chapter will address biodiversity and conservation issues concerning tree nut cultivation, through an analysis of the ecosystem services and dis-services that may affect, and can in turn be affected by, agricultural practices. It also features sections on tree nut cultivation and biodiversity, and pest management and animal diversity in tree nut orchards.
Evelyne A. Groen, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Key challenges in modelling of agricultural activities and their environmental impact
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Modelling agricultural activities gives insight into the environmental impact of current practices. Furthermore, modelling allows testing the effect of mitigation strategies or management changes and supports decision making towards environmentally friendlier products. Model quality depends on accuracy of modelling decisions and quality of the obtained data. This chapter discusses several tools to assess model quality. The chapter categorizes agricultural models based on certain characteristics, such as linearity and time-dependence. The chapter includes two detailed case studies that show the benefits of including uncertainty propagation and sensitivity analysis. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in research and suggests further reading in this area.
Emeritus Prof. Emeritus Prof. Michael E. Irwin
Foundations of an IPM program: detection, identification, and quantification
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Integration of pest management efforts based on advanced technologies and multiple pest assessments in multi-field and areawide venues has led to a host of sophisticated approaches that continue to shape the discipline of integrated pest management (IPM). From the initial efforts, the concept of pest control has evolved into an established ecological, economic, and sociological paradigm. This chapter describes the bedrock components of IPM, pertinent to managing annual and perennial fruit, grain, vegetable, and greenhouse crops, as well as ornamentals. Although emphasis is placed on recently formulated and emerging technologies and their current and future impacts on the two foundational IPM components, the chapter also examines the status quo and provides insight into the constraints imposed by the state of technology and by society at large. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Pablo Hernández-Alonso, Mònica Bulló and Jordi Salas-Salvadó, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Spain
Advances in understanding health benefits of pistachio
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The health benefits of nuts, mainly in relation to cardiovascular disease (CVD) but also for other chronic conditions, have been widely demonstrated in epidemiological studies and clinical trials. Among nuts, pistachio is a nut with a moderate amount of macronutrients and micronutrients. It is specifically rich in vegetable protein, fibre and bioactive compounds such as lutein-zeaxanthin and beta-carotene, all of them linked to potential health benefits. This chapter explains the nutritional composition of pistachio nuts and summarizes their potential health benefits and the current human, animal and in vitro research exploring the beneficial role of pistachios on health.
Ivan Milosavljević and Mark S. Hoddle, University of California-Riverside, USA
Advances in classical biological control to support IPM of perennial agricultural crops
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Scientific advances in classical biological control and supporting disciplines have provided ‘tools’ that could enable permanent suppression of some seemingly intractable invasive pest problems that limit the effectiveness of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programmes in perennial crops. This chapter examines the steps required in the development of a classical biological control programme for managing invasive insect pests. The chapter includes a detailed case study of Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, an invasive pest of California citrus, to demonstrate the potential of ‘tools’ to support development of a classical biological control programme targeting this pest. The chapter explores the benefits of classical biological control for IPM of insect pests in perennial crops before looking ahead to future research trends in this area. The chapter provides detailed guidance on further reading on the topic.
Hans Pretzsch, Technical University of Munich, Germany
Transitioning monocultures to complex forest stands in Central Europe: principles and practice
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The high expectations placed on forests in Europe require an integrative approach to forest management. Heterogeneous mixed-species stands are of special interest as they fulfil many ecosystem services better than monocultures, and consequently homogenous forest stands are now often transformed into more heterogeneous stands. This chapter contrasts even-aged monoculture forests and selection forests, describing the transition from monocultures to more complex forest stands. The chapter presents practical examples of transformation and models for scenario analysis, as well as explaining the principles of selection forest management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Andrea Vannini
Integrated disease management in tree nut cultivation
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Integrated disease management and use of protocols and products that minimize the environmental impact are paramount needs in the cultivation of tree nuts. In this chapter, such approaches are proposed for chestnut cultivation and, specifically, for the management and mitigation of damage caused by one of the most threatening diseases affecting chestnuts worldwide – ink disease caused by Phytophthora spp. The chapter starts by introducing the concept of area-wide integrated ink disease management, followed by sections on monitoring and GIS mapping of the disease, and landscape features of the disease – Phytophthora being easily dispersed via water and infected soil. Also covered are tree and soil treatments used to treat the disease, and a review of the varieties resistant to the disease (breeding of interspecific hybrids has led to resistant rootstocks). The chapter concludes with a discussion on the importance of quality and certification of material for propagation.
Dr Dr Christophe Orazio
Species choice, planting and establishment in temperate and boreal forests: meeting the challenge of global change
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Due to global change, there is a need to question most of the practices used to establish forests. This chapter provides discussion of the current issues for most of the key processes of forest establishment and highlights the importance of the choice of genetic material in the establishment of plantation forests. It confirms that more knowledge and accurate decision support will be needed in the near future and that new resilience strategies are required.
Professor Professor Travis R. Glare
Advances in microbial control in integrated pest management: entomopathogenic fungi
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The use of entomopathogenic fungi to control insect pests has been expanding in recent years, with improvements in formulation and more extensive commercialization. However, there are still limitations on their effectiveness in some situations. Combining entomopathogenic fungi with other control options has been investigated for control of a range of insects. This chapter discusses the use of entomopathogenic fungi in integrated pest management. For the bulk of this chapter, the authors provide examples of successes and explore the wider potential for entomopathogenic fungi if certain obstacles are overcome. Use in combination with conventional chemicals, other natural enemies and botanical extracts are covered, as are habitat manipulation, attraction and deterrence. Not all combinations of entomopathogenic fungi with other agents lead to improved control, and true synergy between agents is rare. However, there are many examples of improved control of target insects and mites through combinations of entomopathogenic fungi and other agents. Several case studies are provided.
Stef J. Koppelman and Melanie L. Downs, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
Advances in detecting tree nut allergens
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Food allergy remains a major problem affecting consumers. Together with peanut, tree nuts belong to a small group of allergens responsible for the great majority of food allergies. This chapter begins by providing an overview of tree nut allergies and their prevalence. It then discusses allergenic proteins and thresholds, as well as the required sensitivity of detection methods. Finally, the chapter reviews both general issues in developing effective detection methods as well as the range of techniques available for particular tree nuts, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Assumpció Antón, Erica Montemayor and Nancy Peña, Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology (IRTA), Spain
Assessing the environmental impact of greenhouse cultivation
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This chapter aims to address the environmental aspects of greenhouse cultivation, it covers the methodology used to perform an environmental assessment and provides information regarding damaging and beneficial environmental aspects, as well as suggestions to improve environmental quantification methods for greenhouse production systems. The chapter explores the methodology used to account for environmental impacts using a life cycle perspective, including a brief summary of life cycle assessment (LCA) tools, and its application to greenhouse crop production. The chapter describes the different components involved in greenhouse cultivation (including structures, greenhouse management, fertilization, pesticides and waste management) and how to include them in the environmental quantification assessment. Finally, the chapter draws conclusions regarding not only the improvement of environmental aspects of greenhouse cultivation but also enhancement of environmental quantification tools.
David Shapiro-Ilan, USDA-ARS, USA; Selcuk Hazir, Adnan Menderes University, Turkey; and Itamar Glazer, Volcani Center, Israel
Advances in use of entomopathogenic nematodes in integrated pest management
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Entomopathogenic nematodes in the genera Heterorhabditis and Steinernema are potent biological control agents that have been commercialized widely for control of economically important insect pests. This chapter describes the foraging and infection behavior of nematodes and the production technology, formulation, application technology, and commercialization of entomopathogenic nematodes. The chapter considers the factors affecting the efficacy of nematodes in integrated pest management and methods to improve their efficacy. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Tatjana Stevanovic, Laval University, Canada
Emerging technologies to develop new forest products
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Forest trees occupy a central place among lignocellulosic plants, in terms of both abundance of wood they produce each year and also generating a variety of other biological tissues. This chapter focusses on new processes and new applications of wood polymers, notably uses of lignins. The chapter considers the three major biopolymers: celluloses, hemicelluloses and lignins. The chapter focusses particularly on polymers, notably lignins, as the wood constituents are the richest carbon sources of all lignocellulosic polymers and the most important aromatic polymers on earth. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Andreas Hund
Non-invasive field phenotyping of cereal development
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High throughput field phenotyping (HTFP) allows the selection of crops with unprecedented precision, and plays an important role to understand genotype-by-environment interaction. This chapter describes carrier systems for non-invasive field phenotyping, outlines the principles of envirotyping, and examines the challenge of physiological breeding by means of high-throughput phenotyping of plant development. The chapter describes the importance of the different phases of cereal development and how to phenotype them, and analyses genetic crop models. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Joop C. van Lenteren, Wageningen University, The Netherlands; and Vanda H. P. Bueno, Federal University of Lavras, Brazil
Advances in augmentative biological control in integrated pest management
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Augmentative biological control uses mass-reared natural enemies for releases in large numbers to reduce pest populations. Augmentative biocontrol is increasingly applied worldwide in many different crops. It is a cornerstone of integrated pest management (IPM) programmes and plays a key sustainability-determining role in IPM. This chapter describes the scale of augmentative biological control and where this type of biocontrol is applied. The chapter describes the natural enemies commercially available and gives information on their mass production. The chapter discusses the important role of biocontrol in IPM programmes, and its practical use in very different agricultural production systems. Finally, the chapter presents the advantages and disadvantages of this control method, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Ali Islam, University of Ordu, Turkey
Advances in breeding of hazelnuts
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Hazelnut (Corylus spp.) is a member of the Betulaceae family, and is widely distributed in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. Cultivated varieties differ from each other in such characteristics as nut size, shape, kernel ratio, shell thickness, etc. Key target characteristics for breeding not only include high yield but also good morphological and vegetative traits as well as resistance to pests and diseases. This chapter discusses advances in the breeding of hazelnuts. Following an introduction, the author first presents a section on floral biology, pollination and compatibility in hazelnut. The chapter then includes information on the development of hazelnut varieties mainly relating to hazelnut breeding programmes in Turkey, Europe and also the United States (where the focus has been for breeding for resistance to Easter filbert blight). Then follows a section on the breeding of rootstocks referring to programmes in the United States, Turkey, Italy and Iran. A number of new key cultivars of hazelnut are then described.
Dr Dr Matthew Reynolds
Theory and application of phenotyping in wheat for different target environments
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Phenotyping serves both research and breeding purposes. For research, precise and often costly procedures are employed to phenotype strategic traits in order to gain a better understanding of how genotypes adapt to different environments. For breeding, both strategic and screening traits are considered, the latter typically being measured at high throughput. This chapter describes phenotyping for key traits and environments, as well as the challenges facing reliable phenotyping. The chapter explains applications of phenotyping in breeding, offering a detailed case study of physiological breeding for yield potential and climate change. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and suggests further reading in this area.
Chieri Kubota, The Ohio State University, USA
Understanding crop responses to controlled climates in greenhouses
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Understanding plant responses to environmental factors is crucial in controlled environment crop production. This chapter summarizes current understanding of interactions of key aerial environmental factors affecting plant growth and their strategic applications to improve the productivity, profitability and sustainability of greenhouse cultivation. It reviews the current body of knowledge regarding plant responses to environmental interactions. Environmental factors discussed include light intensity, temperature, air circulation, relative humidity and carbon dioxide concentration. Interactions of (1) light and temperature; (2) light and carbon dioxide; (3) light and plant canopy structure; (4) temperature and temperature integration time; and (5) humidity, air circulation and light are also presented (it must be noted there are many other combinations of factors, not only of aerial factors but also of root-zone factors). A case study is provided on tipburn management of strawberry using night-time humidity control. The chapter concludes with a look towards future trends in research.
Anne Oxbrough, Edge Hill University, UK; and Jaime Pinzón, Natural Resources Canada, Canada
Advances in understanding forest ecosystem services: conserving biodiversity
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Forest biodiversity is fundamental to ecosystem functioning, facilitating processes such as nutrient cycling, pollination and seed dispersal. A healthy forest provides a range of economic, societal and cultural values and services beyond timber production, including recreation, carbon sequestration, ecotourism, landscape aesthetics and the intrinsic value of biodiversity to society. Despite this, forest biodiversity remains under increasing pressure from agricultural conversion and intensive, large-scale, yield-driven forest management approaches. In this chapter, the authors explore how these approaches alter forest biodiversity and, in particular, species of conservation concern. The authors outline how sustainable forest management can be used to maintain or enhance biodiversity. Two case studies are provided that illustrate these concepts in contrasting biomes: managing forest biodiversity in landscapes of low forest cover, a case study from temperate plantation forestry in Ireland; and, managing forest biodiversity by emulating natural ecosystem dynamics, a case study from boreal mixedwood forests in Canada.
Professor Professor Thomas Miedaner
Selection strategies in hybrid rye with special consideration of fungal disease resistances
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Although winter rye is known for its high tolerance to biotic stress factors, several diseases are occurring in most rye-growing countries: snow mold, brown foot rot, powdery mildew, leaf rust, stem rust, Fusarium head blight, and ergot. For hybrid breeding, resistance selection is important due to the restricted genetic variation within a cultivar. For powdery mildew and the two rusts, race-specific qualitative resistances based on single resistance (R) genes and quantitative resistances have been described. For the other diseases only quantitative resistances can be selected. This chapter describes the features of snow mold, foot rot, powdery mildew, leaf rust, stem rust, Fusarium head blight and ergot. The chapter examines and assesses strategies for resistance selection and looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Miguel Sanchez-Garcia, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), Morocco; and Alison R. Bentley, The John Bingham Laboratory, NIAB, UK
Marker-assisted trait introgression for wheat breeding and research
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Trait introgression, the incorporation of a specific character, is a cornerstone of both wheat breeding and research allowing a specific line or variety to be improved for the character. Varieties can be improved by introgressing the trait of interest into their genetic background through backcrossing techniques especially when the underlying genetic control is relatively simple. Moreover, the agronomic value of the variety can be easily and rapidly recovered or improved by combining backcross and double haploid (DH) approaches. This chapter describes the principles of backcross breeding and explains the use of marker assisted doubled haploids for trait introgression. The chapter describes the results of combining backcross and DH introgression and outlines the principles of marker assisted speed breeding.
Carly Schramm, Yuri Shavrukov and Peter Anderson, Flinders University, Australia; and Akhylbek Kurishbaev and Satyvaldy Jatayev, S. Seifullin Kazakh AgroTechnical University, Kazakhstan
Development of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers for cereal breeding and crop research: current methods and future prospects
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Modern cereal breeding and research increasingly relies upon the application of molecular genetics. This chapter provides an overview of the development of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers for use in such breeding and research. Fluorescence detection methods are fully reviewed as this field is experiencing an explosion of interest among plant biologists and crop breeders. More than 20 modern fluorescence-based methods for SNP identification and discrimination are included and the specific advantages and disadvantages of each covered. This variety of approaches gives researchers and industry the freedom to adapt and improve upon existing methods and develop novel techniques to suit specific SNP analyses. The majority of the described SNP methods are already widely used in plant biology and crop breeding, whereas others are more popular in medical research yet have potential applications in plant research.
Daniel G. Neary, USDA Forest Service, USA
Advances in nutrient and water management in forestry: monitoring, maintaining, and restoring soil health
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A number of important advances in nutrient and water management in forestry have been made since the middle of the 20th Century to maintain and improve soil health. Many concerns have been expressed about the sustainability of forestry operations with intensification of management and harvesting disturbances and the occurrence of natural disturbances. The most important of these advances is implementation of the concept of Best Management Practices (BMPs). The use of BMPs involves a continuous cycle of design, analysis, planning, implementation, review, monitoring, and modification. The core of the BMP concept is the Streamside Management Zone (SMZ). The focus of the SMZ is on forestry management activities on lands adjacent to streams and waterways, and how these activities can be conducted to maintain water quality and site productivity. Other advances include soil testing and monitoring to ensure maintenance of physical properties, water status, and nutrient conditions that are the foundations of site productivity.
Stefania De Pascale, University of Naples Federico II, Italy; Luca Incrocci, University of Pisa, Italy; Daniele Massa, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Italy; Youssef Rouphael, University of Naples Federico II, Italy; and Alberto Pardossi,
Advances in irrigation management in greenhouse cultivation
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The advantages of greenhouse include the ability to secure better conditions than outdoor environment for crop growth and development, increased off-season production and autonomy from external weather conditions. This chapter provides an up-to-date critical overview of scientific advances in irrigation management for greenhouse vegetables and ornamentals. The chapter presents a technical design of a typical greenhouse irrigation system, before covering water balance and crop evapotranspiration techniques as well as the use of high-tech moisture sensors for irrigation scheduling. In the context of enhancing the water use efficiency of greenhouse crops, the chapter also discusses innovative management practices such as biostimulants and grafting. Finally, the chapter concludes by looking ahead to future prospects and research breakthroughs.
Paul Iji, Fiji National University, Fiji Islands and University of New England, Australia; Apeh Omede, University of New England, Australia and Kogi State University, Nigeria; Medani Abdallh, University of New England, Australia and University of Khartoum
The role of specific cereal grain dietary components in poultry gut function
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Cereal grains constitute the greatest proportion of most practical poultry diets. As dietary components, cereal grains provide most of the dietary energy and help to support the development of the structural and functional integrity of the digestive tract. However, many cereal grains contain one or more deleterious factors, which may negatively affect the structural and functional development of the gut. Some of the key factors are carbohydrate in nature, but there are non-carbohydrate fractions which may actually not provide any nutrients but function mainly as anti-nutrients. This chapter broadly explores the normal structure and function of the digestive tract in poultry in the absence of dietary factors. It then highlights the nature of the key components of cereal grains, particularly the components that may influence the development of intestinal structure and function. Finally, the chapter examines the role of cereal grain components on poultry gut function and the possible mechanisms by which these interactions take place.
Patrick Thorwarth, University of Hohenheim, Germany
Genomic prediction in crops: advantages and drawbacks
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Genomic Selection evolved as a promising new method to support decision making for plant breeders. This chapter provides a short introduction to genomic prediction and its usefulness as a selection tool. In addition, the chapter highlights some of the most important factors to be considered when implementing and applying genomic selection in research and plant breeding. The chapter focuses on the application of genomic selection in plant breeding and the discussion of some of the advantages and drawbacks of this method. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends and provides guidance on further reading in this area.
Ernesto Igartua, Carlos P. Cantalapiedra and Ana M. Casas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Spain
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in barley
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In recent years, the limiting factors for Genome-wide Association Studies (GWAS) in barley have shifted from the number of markers to the number of individuals, and to the deepness of phenotyping, particularly in field experiments of required size. Recent advances in methodology provide an increasing number of models available for research. This chapter provides an up-to-date review of issues relevant to GWAS approaches, with a particular focus on barley. The chapter offers an overview of all GWAS studies performed on barley and a summary of the results achieved. The chapter describes such methodological challenges as linkage disequilibrium, ascertainment bias, genetic and physical distances, resolution to single genes and the impact of population structure on detecting major loci in wheat. Finally, the chapter briefly introduces several new developments that enrich the outcome of GWAS studies, like genotype-environmental association suitable for landrace and wild materials, the inclusion of environmental effects to explain QTL effects, and the analysis of gene regulatory networks.
Ryan J. Arsenault, University of Delaware, USA
Understanding gut function in poultry: immunometabolism at the gut level
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In poultry production, a trade-off has been made between growth and efficiency on the one hand, and immune potential and disease resistance on the other. The emerging field of immunometabolism, brought to the fore by research into human metabolic syndrome and cancer, is an opportunity in poultry production to eliminate this trade-off and have both production efficiency and immune robustness. This chapter provides an overview of metabolism and immunometabolism, including the most important links between metabolic and immune pathways. The chapter describes methods of investigating metabolism and addresses the components of feed that lead to inflammation, and how to mitigate this effect. Finally, the chapter discusses the future of research in this field, using examples of how feeding the immune system is already enhancing growth and immune response in poultry.
Wei Zhang and Xiwen Cai, North Dakota State University, USA
Alien introgression and breeding of synthetic wheat
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Wheat is a major food grain source of humans and genetic improvement has contributed significantly to its production. However, the genetic gain of wheat production has slowed in recent years due to its narrow genetic variability and draining of the gene pool in wheat breeding. This chapter elucidates both the contribution of wheat-related species to wheat improvement through alien introgression and breeding of synthetic wheat. The section on alien introgression from wheat-related species into wheat covers gene introgression from both annual and perennial wheat -related wild species as well as wheat-related crop species. This is followed by a comprehensive review of chromosome engineering technologies. The chapter concludes with a summary on the breeding of synthetic hexaploid wheat, and the issues of genome instability and homoeologous gene expression.
Mihai Botu, University of Craiova, Romania
Sustainable plum and apricot cultivation
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Sustainable fruit cultivation may depend on the combination of a number of factors; these include optimal growing conditions, correct selection of cultivars and rootstocks, and application of modern crop-cultivation techniques. Sustainability also implies promotion of biodiversity, improvement of microbiological processes in the soil, and protection of the environment (e.g., by avoiding pollution from fertilizers and pesticide runoff). It has been estimated that fruit production may need to increase two- to three-fold to meet future demand, but this needs to be achieved in a sustainable way. This chapter explores ways this might be achieved for plum and apricot production. Sections are included on the genetic resources available for cultivation of these fruits and the environmental factors affecting plum and apricot cultivation. Then follow separate sections on plum and apricot (also covering prune) cultivation. The authors conclude the chapter with a discussion on future trends in plum and apricot cultivation.
Dr Dr Julie Graham
Advances and challenges in sustainable raspberry/blackberry cultivation
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Rubus crops are important for human health and for employment in rural communities. As demand for these berry crops increases at a time of changing climate and consumer awareness of real and/or perceived risks associated with traditional growing practices including inputs, new breeding strategies and cultivation practices are needed. This chapter addresses some of the challenges and solutions to continued sustainable growth, including pest and disease stresses, environmental impacts, effects of climate change and environmental stresses. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Todd Einhorn, Michigan State University, USA
Challenges and opportunities in pear cultivation
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Excessive vigor of European pear varieties and a dearth of dwarfing rootstocks create significant challenges to the establishment and management of modern high-density orchards. The pronounced negative relationship between pear tree vigor and precocity requires considerable intensive horticultural intervention to expedite a return on investment and to achieve maximum yield potential. Plantings of low-to-moderate tree densities are no longer economically sustainable given their characteristically inconsistent fruit quality and suboptimal yields. Nascent technologies and novel horticultural strategies have potential to balance reproductive and vegetative development of pear trees and facilitate the cultural management of high-density orchards. This chapter presents the challenges and opportunities in pear cultivation. A review of pear floral biology and fruit setting habits and their complex interaction with environmental factors is presented along with practical horticultural strategies to promote balanced canopies. The physiological bases for applying these strategies and their implications on agronomic processes and whole plant performance are highlighted.
Gerben J. Messelink and H. Marjolein Kruidhof, Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands
Advances in pest and disease management in greenhouse cultivation
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Greenhouse crops are continuously under pressure of infestations by a wide range of pests and diseases. This chapter describes the myriad practices that can contribute to managing pests and diseases, and how to integrate these practices in an ecologically based integrated pest management (IPM) approach. The chapter offers a historical perspective on the development of IPM, together with an explanation of its underlying rationale and main challenges. The chapter discusses the different components of IPM, including sanitation, cultural control, preventative and curative biological control. The chapter examines food web complexities, which inevitably result from integrating multiple biological control agents in a single crop, and offers a detailed case study on IPM implementation in tomato. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Youbin Zheng, University of Guelph, Canada
Developments in growing substrates for soilless cultivation
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Growing substrates are used to provide physical support, as reservoir for water and nutrients, for providing air space for free gas exchange, and also for providing a habitat for beneficial microorganisms. Peat- and coir-based substrates and rockwool are the most commonly used substrates in modern advanced greenhouse operations. This chapter examines the materials commonly used in forming growing substrates and addresses methods and technologies for assessing them. The chapter looks at the use of beneficial microorganisms to create a resilient rootzone and considers the implementation of integrated rootzone management (IRM). Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Dario J. Chavez and Rachel A. Itle, University of Georgia, USA; Daniel Mancero-Castillo, Universidad Agraria del Ecuador, Ecuador; Jose X. Chaparro, University of Florida, USA; and Thomas G. Beckman, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances and challenges in peach breeding
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Peaches are found in diverse climates and growing regions, plus its relatively short juvenile period, self-pollinated fruitfulness, small genome size and important identified Mendelian traits have made peach a model fruit for breeding and genetics research. This chapter reviews the moderate chill peach variety development programme that commenced in the United States in 1986 as a cooperative regional effort involving the USDA-ARS, the University of Georgia and the University of Florida, and is located at the University of Georgia Research and Education Center outside of Attapulgus, Georgia. The chapter reviews the identification of a locus for resistance to peach fungal gummosis (PFG) and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Pierre-Éric Lauri and Sylvaine Simon, INRA, France
Advances and challenges in sustainable apple cultivation
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Developing sustainable apple cultivation is based on both a better knowledge of tree architecture and physiology in relation to fruiting, and on how the tree interacts with its abiotic and biotic environments. Improving knowledge in these domains is crucial to take into account the societal demand towards less input-dependent orchards. This chapter provides an overview of apple tree growth and fruiting, exploring the bases for sustainable apple training and pruning management. The chapter also challenges the current apple production agroecosystem and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
E. David Peebles, Mississippi State University, USA
In ovo development of the chicken gut microbiome and its impact on later gut function
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Beneficial as well as pathogenic microorganisms, derived from external and maternal sources, can inhabit the gut of hatchlings. In an effort to optimize the enteric development of chicks and to assist in the establishment of intestinal bacteria populations that are conducive to their good health and for their subsequent protection against invading pathogens, the in ovo administration of various biologics has been explored in various laboratories. This chapter discusses the various biologics tested for their effects on the gut microbiome and examines competitive exclusion cultures, specifically identified probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics and nutrients. The chapter also looks at the prospects for the commercial in ovo use of these biologics during transfer, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Leo F. M. Marcelis, Wageningen University, The Netherlands; Joaquim Miguel Costa, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal; and Ep Heuvelink, Wageningen University, The Netherlands
Greenhouse production systems have been introduced to improve growth conditions for plants to increase yield and quality. While initially greenhouses were mainly found in cool climates, water saving has become an important driver for the expansion of the greenhouse industry, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Over the past few decades, the level of control in greenhouses has increased rapidly due to an increased use of technology. During the last 30 years, the yield per unit land area has doubled for several crops. We expect that the application of new technologies will continue to expand in the coming years while at the same time biological and ecological principles will be increasingly applied. This chapter provides key figures on production in greenhouses, discusses the sustainability of greenhouse production and describes current and future trends in greenhouse production.
Prof. Prof. Stefano Musacchi
Optimizing production of quality nursery plants for fruit tree cultivation
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It is now possible to purchase specific nursery tree types that are more compatible with an intended training system, improving planting efficiency and encouraging early production. Although single axis, well-feathered scions suitable for high-density spindle training systems have dominated nursery production over the past two decades, recent nursery trends increasingly produce double axis scions for pear, apple and even stone fruits, to obtain uniform and early producing fruiting walls. This chapter summarizes current knowledge of the physiology of grafting and recent innovations in such fruit tree nursery techniques. New approaches to regulate nursery plant growth and development are reviewed. In vitro propagation is also included which is becoming more and more powerful for producing rootstocks and self-rooted varieties of several fruit species. Sections on scion grafting and budding techniques are covered and the biochemical and physiological aspects of graft incompatibility are discussed in detail. The chapter concludes with a section on tree production in the nursery.
Susan McCallum, James Hutton Institute, UK
Advances and challenges in blueberry breeding
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Efforts have steadily increased towards understanding the biological processes underlying key physiological traits in blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum). Studies have shown high levels of genetic diversity are present within this species, much of which remains to be harnessed. This chapter introduces both the recent advances and current challenges in the breeding of blueberries, with particular focus on demand and production in the United Kingdom. Key cultivars currently used in the industry are listed and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. The genetic material available and its use in breeding programmes are also covered including crossing with other species within the genus Vaccinium to obtain desirable traits. Also included are sections on phenotyping and marker-assisted breeding. An extensive discussion on the improvement of flavour in blueberry is also provided. The chapter concludes with a summary and a look ahead to future trends in research.
Peter Fantke, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
Modelling the environmental impacts of pesticides in agriculture
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The active ingredients of pesticides, which are widely applied in agriculture worldwide, are important contributors to global human and ecological health burden. Modelling emissions and related human toxicity and ecotoxicity impacts of agricultural pesticides in environmental and life cycle assessment is therefore crucial, but also comes with challenges. This chapter provides an overview of how pesticides are currently addressed in emission inventory and impact assessment, along with a case study focusing on emission, exposure and toxicity quantification of four selected pesticides applied to potatoes in a real-life scenario, and details on remaining challenges and ways forward. The chapter discusses the relevance of spatiotemporal variability in modelling emissions and the toxicity and ecotoxicity impacts of pesticides, and how substitution scenarios can be used to identify more sustainable pesticides. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Dr Dr Jeferson M. Lourenço
Antibiotics and gut function: historical and current perspectives
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Antibiotics play a central role in human health, and the sensitivity of bacteria to these compounds is a natural resource that must be husbanded to keep from losing their effectiveness from increasing antibiotic resistance in the environment. This chapter places the use of antibiotics in poultry production in its historical context to understand the benefits that antibiotics have conferred on animal production to date. The chapter considers past, present and future use of antibiotics, focusing on the use of bacteriocins and phytochemicals.
Prof. Prof. Benoît Gabrielle
Improvement options for agricultural crop production for food, feed and bioenergy
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Agriculture currently faces the dual challenges of both having to increase its overall biomass output while contributing to the mitigation of pressing global environmental changes. It is therefore urged to reconcile these challenges by drastically increasing its performance in the short term. This chapter reviews the agronomic options available at the crop production level to participate in this effort, from single practices to a more integrated systems approach. Strategies such as improved tillage, fertilizer management, the inclusion of legumes in crop rotations, irrigation management, intercropping, and disease and weed management are appraised using the life-cycle assessment framework, the use of which currently prevails to inform on sustainability. The chapter concludes with a summary of these options and suggests avenues for future research whether into a better estimation of performance or towards the implementation of low-impact crop production systems.
Sara M. Villani, North Carolina State University, USA; Kerik D. Cox, Cornell University, USA; and George W. Sundin, Michigan State University, USA
Optimizing disease management in fruit cultivation
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Sustainable management of plant diseases is a perennial challenge for pome fruit and stone fruit producers in humid regions throughout the world. Delayed orchard profitability, decreased orchard longevity, reduction in fruit quality and unsalable fruit caused by fungal and bacterial diseases of tree fruit result in devastating economic losses annually. Globally, tree fruit growers are increasingly relying on an integrated management approach through the incorporation of predictive modelling and biological, chemical and cultural control methods to mitigate disease-associated losses. This chapter provides an introduction of tree fruit production and general management paradigms, followed by a discussion of main pre-harvest fungal and bacterial diseases, methods of integrated disease management and a discussion of advances in technology for pathogen detection and disease management. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future challenges of the tree fruit industry and provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Mark Mazzola and Shashika S. Hewavitharana, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in understanding tree fruit-rhizosphere microbiome relationships for enhanced plant health
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Host–microbe interactions in the rhizosphere influence numerous processes that determine plant productivity and health. The rhizo-microbiome influences functions ranging from protection of the plant from pathogen attack to enhanced nutrient availability and uptake. This chapter examines the use of ‘omics’ technologies to address key issues in plant–microbe interactions including the effects of the rhizosphere microbiome in determining plant health and production when interacting with their environment. After examining the contribution of the microbiome in directing plant responses to their environment, the chapter provides two case studies focusing on manipulation of the rhizosphere microbiome to optimize crop production on orchard replant sites. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.
Dr Dr Eduardo Augusto dos Santos Rosa
Uses and health benefits of chestnuts
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Production and consumption of chestnut has shown a steady increase in recent years, driven by both increased consumer awareness about food composition and the health benefits of a nut-rich diet. This chapter provides an overview of the uses and health benefits of chestnuts (Castanea spp.). Starting with an overview of recent research on chestnuts, the chapter goes on to review the general uses of chestnuts in the Mediterranean and Europe. The specific nutritional features of chestnuts are discussed, as are the effects of cooking on the quality of chestnuts. The importance of good post-harvest handling and storage are considered – chestnuts are extremely susceptible to damage during storage. Uses, such as in growing media or skin care products, for chestnut co-products (bur, shell, leaves, curing wastewater etc.) left behind by processing are discussed. The chapter concludes with a comprehensive overview of the health benefits of eating chestnuts.
Jose Blasco, María Gyomar González González, Patricia Chueca and Sergio Cubero, Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias (IVIA), Spain; and Nuria Aleixos, Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain
Advances in automated in-field grading of harvested crops
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Mechanical harvesting machines such as canopy and trunk shakers are widely used for yield collection from some crops; however, most fruits and vegetables produced for the fresh market have to be collected manually. This chapter reviews the current state of mechanized collection technology, such as the development of harvest-assist platforms, as well as the possibilities of these machines to incorporate artificial vision systems to perform an in-field pre-grading of the product. The main advantages of each system are discussed and the problems encountered in the field are described. A case study on the use of harvest-assist platforms in citrus orchards is presented describing prototypes that are capable of both inspecting collected fruits and separating them into categories using computer vision.
Duane Greene, University of Massachusetts, USA
Optimizing plant growth, yield and fruit quality with plant bioregulators
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Plant bioregulators (PBRs) are used extensively in the tree fruit production industry. They influence many processes in a plant including shoot growth, branch angle, bud break, flower bud formation and fruit abscission, ripening, shape and finish, and as such can be used to optimize not only plant growth but also fruit yield and quality. The chapter starts with a classification of PBRs, followed by a detailed discussion on the application of PBRs and their use such as in the development and maintenance of tree structure, and also the control of vegetative growth. The use of PBRs in crop load management and their influence on flowering and fruit set is also presented concluding with sections on both the pre-harvest application of PBRs and their use in improving fruit shape and appearance.
Keizi Kiritani, formerly National Institute of Agro-Environmental Sciences, Japan
Understanding agroecosystems and pest management: from chemical control to integrated biodiversity management
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Agroecology analyzes the different components that make up an ecosystem such as soils, climate, plants and animals, and their interactions within agricultural landscapes. Bringing together a wide range of disciplines, agroecology encompasses different scales from the individual field through to farms and landscapes and, even, complete food systems from farm to fork. There is a strong focus on protecting natural resources to ensure sustainable agricultural production. This chapter explores agroecology and pest management practices, using the example of a particular agroecosystem: rice paddies in Japan. It discusses how an understanding of agroecosystem dynamics explains the limitations of early attempts at chemical control of rice insect pests. It also shows how this understanding has informed the development of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies and is now leading to new concepts such as integrated biodiversity management (IBM). Finally, the chapter explores how agroecological concepts can help address challenges such as invasive species and climate change.
Oscar E. Liburd, Lorena Lopez, Daniel Carrillo, Alexandra M. Revynthi and Omotola Olaniyi, University of Florida, USA; and Rana Akyazi, Ordu University, Turkey
Integrated pest management of mites
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Plant feeding mites are major pests of agricultural crops and ornamentals. They disrupt physiological processes, change the physical appearance of the plant, and transmit diseases to crops. This chapter takes a holistic approach to integrated mite management by reviewing the basics of mite taxonomy and morphology and then studying key plant mite families focusing on major plant feeding mite pests as well as natural predators that regulate these mite populations. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading on the subject.
Bekir Erol Ak, University of Harran, Turkey
Advances in cultivation of pistachio
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Pistachio is grown most intensively in Iran, Syria, Turkey and the USA. The other pistachio-producing regions are the Near East, North Africa and Southern Europe. The most important characteristics of pistachio nuts from a marketing viewpoint are large size, high percentage of shell splitting, low percentage of blank nuts, high oil and protein content, regular bearing and high percentage of green kernels (although this is a varietal characteristic, it is also related to altitude and time of harvest). This chapter discusses recent advances in the cultivation of pistachio. Following an introduction, a section on pistachio genetics is provided. Then follows information on the climatic requirements of pistachio, which requires a period of chilling as well as a hot, dry climate for fruiting. The flower and fruit characteristics of pistachio are then discussed with information provided on how to plan orchards as pistachio is a dioecious species. Both pistachio cultivars and rootstocks are listed. Propagating techniques (both by seed and budding) are then presented, followed by a discussion on establishing, planting and managing orchards. The chapter concludes with sections on pests and diseases and how to improve crop yield.
Ksenija Gasic and Christopher Saski, Clemson University, USA
Advances in fruit genetics
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Sustainability of fruit production worldwide is heavily dependent on advances in fruit genetics. Changing environments, innovative production systems, increased pest and pathogen pressure and fluctuating consumer preferences are forcing fruit producers to adjust at a higher pace than ever before. This chapter provides an overview of the advances in fruit genetics as they pertain to discoveries in fruit quality and disease resistance, and their application to the improvement of fruit production and sustainability. The chapter looks at developments in genomic mapping, marker-assisted breeding and biotechnology. The chapter also examines the genetics of fruit quality and disease resistance, and includes a detailed case study on hot spot on chromosome 4 in Prunus. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Özlem Tokuşoğlu, Celal Bayar University, Turkey
Advances in understanding the nutritional profile and health benefits of almonds
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Almond (Prunus dulcis) is widely grown in countries with a Mediterranean climate and is considered a healthy source of many nutrients. This chapter discusses the nutritional composition of almonds and, in particular, those nutrients with nutraceutical properties, from phenolics and fatty acids to phytosterols. The author shows how this unique nutritional profile translates into health benefits related to almond consumption. Following an introduction, a section is provided on phenolics in almonds (including a breakdown on the compounds found in almond skins). Then follows a section on lipid and fatty acid content; here information is provided on the fatty acid composition of almonds from different cultivars, and also a comparison with other nut crops including hazelnut, peanut, pistachio, and walnut. Phytosterols and tocopherols are then discussed as almonds are considered a good source of both nutrients. The chapter concludes with a section on the health benefits of almonds.
Alasdair Sykes, Cairistiona Topp and Robert Rees, Scotland’s Rural College (SRUC), UK
The use of farm-level models to assess the environmental impact of livestock production
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In light of a changing climate, the international community is committed to taking action to reduce overall levels of greenhouse gas emissions. Agriculture will play an important role here given that agriculture and land use are responsible globally for around 24% of such greenhouse gas emissions. This chapter looks at the use of farm-level models to assess and mitigate the environmental impact of agriculture, with a focus on greenhouse gas emissions and livestock production. Sections are first included on the rationale for environmental modelling in agriculture and methodologies for accounting for agricultural emissions. The authors then describe a range of tools and critically assess their use for farm-level benchmarking and mitigation assessment. The chapter also discusses the technical aspects of modelling farm-level emissions and environmental impacts within the defined framework, in order to provide a synthesis of the current state of the art and a basis for the consideration of specific development objectives.
Stefano Carpin, University of California-Merced, USA; Ken Goldberg, University of California- Berkeley, USA; Stavros Vougioukas, University of California-Davis, USA; Ron Berenstein, University of California-Berkeley, USA; and Josh Viers, University of Cal
The use of intelligent/autonomous systems in crop irrigation
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Climate change, combined with the need to feed an increasing population with decreasing arable land, requires to radically re-think the way water is delivered to crops to increase efficiency and minimize wasted water. This chapter examines how robotic and artificial intelligence can be used to improve precision irrigation in vineyards. The chapter pays particular attention to robot-assisted precision irrigation delivery (RAPID), a novel system currently being developed and tested at the University of California. The chapter presents preliminary results from RAPID testing and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Ron Berenstein, University of California-Berkeley, USA
The use of agricultural robots in crop spraying/fertilizer applications
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Spraying pesticides is a main element of agriculture worldwide, since 30% to 35% of crop losses can be prevented when harmful insects and diseases are eliminated by applying pesticides. A robotic sprayer can help reduce pesticide application while removing the human operator from the hazardous pesticide environment. This chapter provides an introduction to robotic sprayers and describes in detail a case study of the development of a smart robotic sprayer with its key components. The chapter also describes the operational framework developed for such a robot that supports human-robot collaboration. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Andreas Maurer and Klaus Pillen, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany
Nested association mapping in barley to identify extractable trait genes
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Wild germplasm contains a wealth of alleles, which are useful in modern agriculture. Nested association mapping (NAM) makes use of wild germplasm by developing multi-parental populations after crossing a single elite cultivar to a number of exotic donors. The resulting NAM lines are subsequently characterized through SNP genotyping and quantitative trait phenotyping. Both data sets are finally merged to conduct genome-wide association studies (GWAS) leading to the identification of quantitative trait loci (QTL), which are involved in controlling these traits. This chapter describes the principles of QTL mapping and NAM mapping, and outlines the sequencing the barley genome. The chapter includes a number of detailed barley NAM case studies from around the world. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and suggests further reading on the subject.
Linda J. Thomson and Ary A. Hoffmann, University of Melbourne, Australia
Ecological impacts of pesticides and their mitigation within IPM systems
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Chemicals, frequently the main method of pest control in agriculture, have negative effects on natural enemies that also control pests. Mitigation of pesticide impacts depends on increasing the role of natural enemies, reducing chemical application while still controlling pests and maintaining yields. This chapter outlines the ways in which pesticide use leads to increased pest problems and examines strategies for mitigating pesticide impacts. The chapter includes a detailed case study focussing on the diamondback moth (DBM). Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Seyyed Hassan Pishgar-Komleh, Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation, Poland and Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Czech Republic; Paria Sefeedpari, Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation, Poland; Nathan Pelletier, University of
Life cycle assessment methodology for agriculture: some considerations for best practices
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Life cycle assessment (LCA), a method that originates from the manufacturing industry, is increasingly applied to agricultural systems as a more holistic perspective and approach with respect to managing agricultural product life cycles. However, the practice of applying LCA to agricultural systems is far from being standardized. Key methodological issues remain unresolved, resulting in a plethora of ways in which LCA is applied in practice that sometimes provides conflicting results. This chapter discusses issues associated with LCA including delimitation of systems boundaries, defining the functional unit, handling co-production, and the choosing of impact assessment methods. This chapter addresses the methodology of agricultural LCA, supported by detailed case studies. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Tan Joon Sheong, Lee Yang Ping and Sharifah Shahrul Rabiah Syed Alwee, FELDA Global Ventures Research and Development, Malaysia; Létizia Camus-Kulandaivelu, Maxime Mercière, Alba Zaremski and Frédéric Breton, CIRAD, France; and Christophe Klopp, INRA,
Fungal diseases affecting oil palm
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Oil palm is prone to attack by a number of fungal diseases such as basal stem rot (BSR), Fusarium wilt (vascular wilt) and bud rot disease. To date, only partial resistance materials have been identified for BSR. This chapter provides further insights on the BSR that is a major problem for plantations, particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia. The chapter focuses particularly on one variety of BSR, Ganoderma boninense, but also addresses Fusarium wilt and bud rot disease, examining the latest research on resistance materials.
Bo P. Weidema, Aalborg University, Denmark
Assessing socio-economic impacts of agriculture
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Economic assessments remain the dominating form of socio-economic assessment in agriculture; yet practical implementation often suffers from severe limitations. However, much of the early criticism has slowly been adopted and integrated in the form of significant improvements in the consistency and completeness of the economic assessment techniques. What remains is a better integration with the qualitative understandings developed in the social impact assessment community. This chapter is dedicated to impacts that are related to social and economic pressures, such as underpayment of labour, illegitimate resource acquisition and control, and inadequate work conditions. The author describes the development and state of the art of cost–benefit assessment and social impact assessment in agriculture (Sections 2–6) and their integration into models and tools with an economy-wide supply chain perspective (Section 7). Socio-economic impacts of agricultural development are covered in Sections 8–11. The final section considers the role of certification and fair-trade schemes.
Rolando Cerda, CATIE (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza), Costa Rica; Luis Orozco-Aguilar, The University of Melbourne, Australia; Norvin Sepúlveda, CATIE (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza), Costa Rica;
Tropical agroforestry and ecosystem services: trade-off analysis for better design strategies
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A large body of research has documented a wide list of provisioning and regulating services from tropical agroforestry systems (AFS). This chapter offers an overview of ecosystem services delivered by tropical AFS and presents practical approaches for trade-off analysis between ecosystem services and plant biodiversity for better design (or redesign) and management of AFS. It is structured as follows: Section 2 highlights the main provisioning and regulating services provided by tropical AFS (covering pest and disease regulation, nutrient cycling and soil quality, carbon sequestration, and water regulation); Section 3 provides an overview of practical approaches to assess trade-offs; and Section 4 presents a case study of trade-off analysis. This last section uses data from a so-called Sentinel Landscape–El Tuma-La Dalia in Nicaragua, and is useful to derive recommendations to enhance the delivering of ecosystem services from five AFS (cocoa AFS, coffee AFS, pasture-silvopastoral, grain fields, and homegardens).
Leonard Coop and Brittany S. Barker, Oregon State University, USA
Advances in understanding species ecology: phenological and life cycle modeling of insect pests
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The modeling of insect phenology has been an important component of IPM decision support systems for several decades. This chapter describes general concepts and methods of the systems approach using applied phenology modeling as an example. The authors outline the steps of model construction from a systems perspective, and then discuss funding challenges, types of resources, and major sources of error in phenology model development and implementation. The chapter also compares some of the trade-offs and pitfalls of using linear and non-linear approaches to modeling temperature-development data. It provides an example of using the systems approach by presenting a life cycle systems model for the spotted wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii, a major fruit crop pest in the US and Europe. The model can serve as a way to summarize current knowledge and potential best management practices that can guide the development of IPM programs.
Jean-Marc Roda, CIRAD and Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Use of palm oil for biofuel
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The use of fossil fuels depletes the world’s limited supply of coal, oil and gas and releases stocked CO2 into the atmosphere. Biofuels, derived from biomass, are renewable and carbon neutral, because consumption merely releases CO2 that was taken from the atmosphere by the growing biomass a few years before. However, increasing the use of biofuels could also increase the pressure on ecosystems which must support the production of additional biomass. In this chapter, we review the sustainability of biofuels, discuss their production and economics and consider levels of government support for production and related geopolitical issues.
Yael Edan, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
Human–robot collaboration in agricultural robots
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Agricultural robots are being developed for many on-farm tasks; however, in practice, current working agricultural robotic systems are limited and fully robotized farms are not yet available. This chapter presents initial work carried out in the domain of human–robot collaboration in agriculture and provides directions about how it should be further adopted to enable successful robotization of agricultural operations. The chapter discusses the various interaction roles a human may have with a robot and also the levels of human–robot collaboration. Aspects of interface design are also included, and human–robot collaborative tasks such as detection, navigation, harvesting and spraying are discussed. The chapter concludes with a look on the future of agricultural robotics where the role of humans in agriculture will not be eliminated by introducing robotic systems, and should more autonomous systems become feasible, humans will still be needed for supervision and collaboration.
Philipp H. G. Boeven and C. Friedrich H. Longin, University of Hohenheim, Germany
Prerequisites, procedures and potential of hybrid breeding in wheat
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Hybrid wheat breeding offers great potential to deal with increasing demands for food and feed of future generations. Wheat hybrids possess substantial heterosis for grain yield and can combine disease resistance and quality traits with higher grain yield compared to line cultivars. Moreover, hybrid wheat breeding offers the smart stacking of major dominant genes. Major challenges are the establishment of heterotic groups and the need to increase the cross-pollination capability of wheat for a more efficient hybrid seed production. The chapter describes heterosis in wheat and heterotic groups, before moving on to consider hybrid seed production. Finally, the chapter discusses the relative advantages of hybrid versus line breeding.
Prisila A. Mkenda, Charles Sturt University, Australia and The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Tanzania; Sunita Pandey and Anne C. Johnson, Charles Sturt University, Australia and Graham Centre, Australia; and Geoff M. Gurr,
Advances in conservation biological control and habitat management for IPM
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Conservation biological control and habitat management are key components of integrated pest management (IPM). These related approaches suppress pests by promoting natural enemy survival and impact and by exploiting direct, suppressive effects on pests from vegetation structure. During this century, substantial progress has been made in research and practical use of these approaches. Chemical ecology, integration of molecular techniques and understanding of landscape and regional scale effects are areas where key developments have been made. This chapter focusses on advances in this field of study. It first discusses the terms ‘conservation biological control’ and ‘habitat management’, and differences between them. It goes on to put forward the rationale for conservation biological control and habitat management, and elucidate advances in these areas. The chapter concludes with a section on future directions – the primary challenge being to translate this body of research knowledge into practicable strategies and on-farm adoption.
Matthew Haas, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Germany; and Martin Mascher, Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK) and German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research, Germany
Use of the secondary gene pool of barley in breeding improved varieties
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Barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare L.) is an important crop species and breeding efforts over the past century have resulted in agronomically advanced cultivars. These efforts have also resulted in reduced genetic diversity of elite barley germplasm, hampering the ability of breeders to improve cultivars in the future, especially with respect to new diseases and a changing climate. This chapter describes in detail the use of H. bulbosum to improve cultivated barley. The chapter offers an account of doubled haploid production, introgressions, linkage mapping and next-generation sequencing before looking ahead to future research trends in this area.
Annarita Marrano and David Neale, University of California-Davis, USA
Towards sustainable production of walnut (Juglans regia L.)
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Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.) is the only species of the genus Juglans widely cultivated for nut production. Over the last 20 years, global walnut production has grown by almost 250%, with China, the United States and Iran as leading producing countries. This enormous growth is mainly attributed to an increase in regular consumption of walnut due to its high nutritional value and numerous benefits to human health. Walnut breeding programmes are facing the challenge of increasing production sustainably because of climate change and human population growth. This chapter reviews recent efforts and achievements in ecologically and economically friendly walnut cultivation. The chapter describes different practices that have been applied in this direction, such as the development of new cultivars with genetic resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, the identification of solutions for reducing input consumption, and the exploration and conservation of genetic diversity in walnut.
