The reuse of treated wastewater for crop irrigation is important in the effective use of scarce water resources in ensuring a stable supply and in recovery of nutrients. This chapter explains the composition of wastewater, methods for treatment and guidelines for reuse for crop irrigation, including crop types and irrigation techniques.
Using life cycle assessment to compare intensive versus extensive agricultural systems
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The number of life cycle assessment (LCA) and LCA-based footprint studies comparing food products coming from different agricultural production systems, reflecting different production intensities, is rapidly growing providing an increasing amount of data for further analyses. This chapter examines the use of LCA to compare intensive with extensive agricultural systems. The chapter addresses the validity of LCA studies comparing intensive and extensive agricultural systems and looks at assessing validity at the inventory level (using the example of reactive nitrogen emission modeling and monitoring heavy metal emissions in different farming systems).
The role of biodiversity in agroforestry and other types of smallholder farming
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Agricultural biodiversity, commonly referred to as agrobiodiversity, is a part of biodiversity that is conserved in agricultural habitats and food production landscapes. Adopting a multidimensional approach to their management is essential to increase sustainability of agricultural habitats. This chapter describes the application of food system concept in providing a framework to enable such a multidimensional approach. The chapter outlines the multiple dimensions of food security and places food security in the context of global environment change. Finally, the chapter explains the concept of multifactor food security promotion.
Advances in conventional breeding techniques for oil palm
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At the beginning of the 20th century, oil palm was a semi-wild crop which had not been subjected to breeding efforts. This chapter will review the history of oil palm breeding, starting from the beginning of the 20th century up to the present day. We will discuss breeding objectives, breeding methods and data collection methods currently in use, and will then review the impacts and progress of oil palm breeding programs. Finally, we will consider seed production and future trends in oil palm breeding.
Improving the environmental performance of pig and poultry production
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Currently, pork and chicken account for nearly three-fourths of global meat consumption. With increasing concern for the environmental impacts associated with human activity, and due to the magnitude of the pork and poultry sectors, there is mounting pressure to meet the growing demand for these animal-based proteins with fewer resources and lower emissions. This chapter outlines improvement options for making pig and poultry production more sustainable and provides detailed case studies. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading about the subject.
The nutritional and nutraceutical value of walnut
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Walnut fruit is rich in vitamins, carbohydrates, minerals, proteins and unsaturated fats which promote human health. Walnut kernels also contain a very high amount of serotonin which is a neurotransmitter involved in regulating moods, feelings of happiness, sleep, anxiety and blood pressure. Walnut also has anti-cancer, anti-ageing, anti-tumour, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory and anti-fatigue effects. Walnut green husk (WGH) has also exhibited positive effects on the alleviation of fat disorders. This chapter introduces walnuts as a source of vitamins, protein, fat and carbohydrate, and outlines their health-promoting properties.
Advances in automating meat processing operations
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Meat processing presents a particular challenge to robotics, as it deals with deformable biological products that lack uniformity: no two fish, sides of beef or chicken carcasses are exactly alike. Meat processing plants have many adept human practitioners, skilled with knives, and has proven extremely difficult to automate with robots. This chapter selectively surveys the advances in robotic automation of the processing of fish, beef, pork and lamb, as well as poultry, providing a detailed case study of the latter based on the author’s own research. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading in the field.
Agroforestry practices: riparian forest buffers and filter strips
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Riparian forest buffers are planned combinations of trees, shrubs, grasses, forbs and bioengineered structures adjacent to or within a stream channel designed to mitigate the impact of land use on the stream or creek. At the landscape level, riparian forest buffers link the land and aquatic environment and perform vital ecological functions as part of the network of watersheds that connect forest, prairies, agricultural and urban lands. This chapter is about riparian forest buffers and filter strips as agroforestry practices. Following an introduction to the concept of riparian forest buffers, then follows a section on forest buffer design and function. This discusses the distinct management zones in a riparian forest buffer, namely Zone 1: undisturbed forest; Zone 2: managed forest and shrubs and Zone 3: run-off control (grasses and forbs). The chapter concludes with sections on both special design considerations and management, and assessing buffer performance.
An overview of machine vision technologies for agricultural robots and automation
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As machine vision technology becomes ever more readily available it is of increasing value to agriculture. This chapter seeks to outline the principles that will endure as the technology changes and to point out areas in which it can be applied. After examining basic concepts of machine vision, the chapter looks at the various tools available for implementing machine vision and the tasks to which this technology can be applied. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area.
The use of microorganisms in integrated weed management
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Biological control of weeds by fungal pathogens, bacteria and viruses has been studied for more than three decades. The aim is to suppress or reduce the weed population below an ecological or economic threshold. This chapter describes the role of biopesticides in weed control, historical accomplishments in biological weed control and recently registered pathogens. The chapter then discusses new discoveries currently under development, target weed control and the role of screening and fermentation technologies, as well as looks ahead to future developments in this area.
The role of pasture in the diet of ruminant livestock
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Grazed pasture is the single most important forage feed for ruminants due to its low unit cost and widespread global availability. However, there is a growing use of arable crops in ruminant rations, which may exceed that used by humans by 2050. This chapter describes the ways in which grazed pasture provides the energy, proteins, minerals and vitamins and other nutritional factors required by ruminants. The chapter shows that the use of pasture and its by-products underpins the possibility of sustainably delivering future ruminant livestock production systems and ensuring their future role in food security.
Moving up the scale: challenges in tropical agroforestry
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From its early beginnings, agroforestry has moved from a ‘technology in search of a problem’ to a principal solution to critical global agendas, including climate-smart agriculture, agroecological intensification, land rehabilitation and payment for ecosystem services. This chapter addresses the challenges associated with agroforestry in agroecological intensification and sustainable landscapes. The chapter considers the challenge of developing policies in support of agroforestry, and the challenge of developing agroforestry at scale. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
The sustainability and ‘carbon footprints’ of conventional and alternative beef production systems
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The beef industry faces a significant challenge in producing sufficient food to supply the requirements of the growing population, while maintaining a culture of continuous improvement and reducing environmental impacts per unit of beef produced. Since the late 1970’s, the US beef industry made significant efficiency gains that improved resource use and reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and considerable opportunities exist for making greater gains in future. However, beef producers’ future access to specific management practices or technologies may be constrained by consumer perceptions.
The role of crop rotations in organic farming
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Crop rotations are defined in terms of a number of crops organized in a specific order over a defined period of time, with specific spatial arrangements and distribution in a field and landscape, that ensures the best growing conditions for all crops. Crop rotation is thus a way to utilize the performance of a single crop in a way that contributes to the whole farming system. This chapter examines the principles of crop rotation, precrop effects in crop rotations, and the nutrient effects of legumes and other rotation crops. The chapter also considers the role of rotation crops in suppressing weeds, diseases and pests and studies rotations and crop yields, as well as the challenge of designing a crop rotation. The chapter looks at measuring and modelling crop rotations, nutrient and humus balances, crop rotations on stockless farms, intercropping and crop rotations in tropical and subtropical conditions.
Advances in actuation and control in agricultural robots
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In recent years, agricultural robots have moved away from being pure sensor-carrying platforms for gathering data in the field into becoming action-delivering platforms providing physical interaction with the environment. In this chapter, the actuation methods that are most commonly used on intelligent agricultural robots in order to transform this optimal action into implement behaviour, motion, physical interaction or manipulation are discussed. These actuation methods consist of both traditional actuators that have been transformed into precision farming tools and novel actuators enabled by robotics and autonomous systems. A short introduction to each actuator is presented followed by example uses found in the agricultural domain. The chapter concludes with a case study that looks at how different actuators are used to automate strawberry production.
Developing hazelnuts as a sustainable and industrial crop
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European hazelnut (Corylus avellana) is a major species of interest for food use and one of the few economically valuable commercial tree nut crops within the Betulaceae. Cultivated mainly in Turkey and Italy, this nut crop has been introduced into cultivation around the world, and global production shows an increasing trend due to demand predominantly from the confectionery industry. This chapter reviews the development of European hazelnut as an industrial nut crop, highlighting the environmental needs for suitable cultivation of the species which has not been domesticated for as long as other major crops. Propagation and orchard management strategies are discussed focussing on the recent innovations in research including the exploitation of hazelnut biomass and the application of the precision farming strategies in the new large hazelnut orchards. There also features a section on integrated pest management. The chapter concludes with a look to future trends in research.
Tropical tree domestication in agroforestry
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Trees, whether occurring in wild stands or in agricultural landscapes, play a key role in the livelihoods of smallholders in the tropics. This chapter discusses tropical tree domestication in agroforestry, summarizing the authors’ contribution to the development of new tree crops in the tropics using agroforestry techniques. Following an introduction, a section is then included on the principles and techniques of tropical tree domestication covering identification of species for domestication, selection of ‘plus trees’ and vegetative propagation methods. The authors then provide examples of key tree species that have been targeted for domestication in the Amazon Basin (Bactris gasipaes, Calycophyllum spruceanum, Guazuma crinita and Inga edulis) and the Congo Basin (Irvingia gabonensis, Irvingia wombolu, Dacryodes edulis, Ricinodendron heudelotii, Cola acuminata, Cola anomala, Cola nitida and Prunus africana). The chapter concludes with a case study on participatory domestication of Allanblackia floribunda, a high-value agroforestry tree species in Central Africa.
The principles and processes of sorghum breeding
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This chapter provides an overview of the basic principles and processes involved in the breeding of sorghum. A number of standard field operations are described, such as crossing, emasculation and harvesting, followed by a discussion of various methods of selection and topcrossing. After describing these classical breeding methodologies, there follows an evaluation of new directions in sorghum breeding, such as the use of molecular markers and high-throughput means of phenotyping plants. These techniques are discussed in terms of the availability of technology and their economic viability. It is concluded that although classical breeding methodologies will continue to be a requirement in future, sorghum breeders will need to make use of evolving technologies if they are to be successful.
An integrated approach for the estimation of crop water requirements based on soil, plant and atmospheric measurements
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Measuring crop water requirements is an essential part of managing agricultural water in crop fields. In this chapter, we propose a research approach for the determination of crop water requirements that integrates soil, plant and atmospheric measurements. Selected methods for estimating crop water requirements (lysimetry, atmospheric, plant- and soil-based methods), their spatial scale and time frequency, and their applicability are discussed. A case study is presented for an apple orchard in South Africa, where atmospheric (eddy covariance system), plant (sap flow) and soil water content measurements (time domain reflectometry) were used to determine seasonal evapotranspiration (ET) and crop water requirements, transpiration and the extent of over-irrigation (deep percolation). Splitting ET into crop transpiration and soil evaporation allowed us to determine basal crop coefficients Kcb, which are more transferable than the Kc crop coefficients and less dependent on management practices. The chapter also provides recommendations for further research and additional literature.
Advances in breeding of chestnuts
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In the two last centuries, diseases and pests from Asia have been introduced in chestnut plantations in both Northern America and Southern Europe, jeopardizing indigenous populations and some local chestnut varieties. The societal demand for chestnut in these countries has considerably increased, and recent developments in the field of tree genome mapping and sequencing open up new perspectives for breeders with different applications which rely on knowledge of the genome. This chapter describes breeding for resistance to diseases threatening chestnut orchards and outlines a French program for breeding for ink-resistant rootstocks. The chapter then examines breeding for resistance to gall wasps, breeding for fruit quality and efforts in Japan to breed for ‘peel-ability’ of chestnuts. Finally, the chapter describes future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading.
The role of beef in human nutrition and health
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Beef is an important source of both macronutrients and micronutrients. Nevertheless, concerns have been raised regarding the effects of eating red and processed meat on human health. In this chapter, we review the nutrients available in beef and then assess the concerns raised about the health impacts of consuming red meat, particularly the suggested association between intake of red meat and the risk of cancers.
Advances in cultivation of walnuts
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Walnuts as a crop has expanded considerably in production and value over the last 30 years. There has been a shift in dominant production area from California to China. While the United States is still the world’s largest exporter of walnuts China now dominates world production. This chapter provides detailed statistics on the expansion of walnut production, examining key issues around what is now a highly diversified production environment, including blight (Xanthomonas arboricola pv. Juglandis) management and new potential methods for control. The chapter presents recent advances in molecular genetics, including marker-assisted selection, genetic relationship characterization, full genome description and genetic modification system. The chapter discusses the different expansion trajectories of several different regions in order to understand their causes. Finally, the chapter discusses opportunities for the future and provides a list of sources of additional information.
Diversity in the genetic resources of oil palm
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Oil palm planting materials are based on an extremely narrow genetic base, and it has been generally recognized that the narrowness of the gene pool is a major obstacle towards increasing yields in many crops including oil palm. This chapter discusses the rather narrow genetic base of current breeding materials and the work undertaken by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board with the aim of broadening this genetic base. The chapter examines the ways of assessing genetic diversity in oil palm, through the analysis of fruit forms and types, morphological traits and genetic markers. It also reviews the methods for the conservation of oil palm collections and the ways of utilizing germplasm in order to develop improved varieties
Agroforestry: a system for improving soil health
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Introducing agroforestry into agroecosystems can be an important method to help promote soil health by its influence on soil physical, chemical and biological properties. This chapter highlights the benefits of agroforestry systems on soil properties important for soil health. These include critical soil biological, physical and chemical properties important for maintaining and improving soil health. The chapter outlines the critical soil biological properties important for energy and nutrient transformations, as well as critical soil physical properties including soil density, porosity, water retention, pore size distributions, hydraulic conductivity, infiltration and thermal properties. The chapter shows that improving these parameters may reduce losses of sediment, nutrients and herbicides from land to water and enhance soil water storage.
The effects of carcass chilling and electrical stimulation on visual beef quality and palatability
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The conversion of muscle to meat during the rigor mortis process and the conditions under which this process occurs is most important for quality attributes of beef including colour, water holding capacity and tenderness. Electrical stimulation is used to prevent cold-induced toughening of beef, especially hot-boned meat, but is also generally applied because it is thought to enhance the ageing process and, therefore, improve tenderness of aged beef. However, indiscriminate use of electrical stimulation, combined with improper chilling, may have detrimental effects on tenderness, colour and water-holding capacity of meat. This chapter discusses the advantages of electrical stimulation and factors influencing the effectivity of electrical stimulation.
Welfare of gilts and pregnant sows
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Mismatches between the evolutionary biology of the sow and current commercial production systems give rise to welfare challenges of stereotyped behaviour development in confined systems and aggression in group housing systems. This chapter describes the welfare issues associated with individual confinement systems and examines the nature and significance of stereotyped behaviour in gestating sows. The chapter addresses the issue of hunger in the pregnant sow and drivers to adopt group housing systems for pregnant sows. The chapter has a particular focus on the importance of social organisation in sows and looks in detail at the relationship between aggression in stable groups and the method of feed provision available. Finally, the chapter examines sows in extensive systems and looks ahead to future research trends in this area, providing extensive suggestions for further reading.
The future of DNA technologies for improving beef quality: marbling, fatty acid composition and tenderness
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DNA genotyping with high-density panels and genome sequencing provide new opportunities for genetic improvement of beef quality traits by genomic selection (GS). Adoption of GS in the beef industry is lower than that in the dairy industry. Lower accuracy of genomic predictions is one of the reasons, which is associated with the difficulties to build large training populations. Nevertheless, current accuracies for meat quality traits are promising, indicating that there is potential to include then in beef breeding programmes, although more studies are needed. The information from training populations is a valuable resource for genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Current DNA technologies enable a better understanding of the genetic basis of traits of interest. Larger training populations are associated with greater statistical power for GWAS and improved genomic predictions accuracies.
Advances in robotic milking
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In recent years, growth in the number of robotic milking installations on farms has been driven by the need for better labour management and also for improved quality of life for dairy producers. This chapter reviews published research on such robotic milking systems (RMS). Aspects related to barn design, feeding management and udder health in automated systems are covered. The authors’ field observations on RMS herds in Minnesota and Wisconsin, USA, are also included. These comments cover feeding cows in RMS, milk quality and milk production using RMS and the economic considerations of implementing RMS on the farm. The authors conclude that the trend towards robotic milking is set to continue into the future and the per cent of dairy farms around the world using automation for milking their cows will further increase.
Waste management and recycling in oil palm cultivation
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In a typical palm plantation, almost 70% of the fresh fruit bunches are turned into wastes in the form of empty fruit bunches, fibres and shells, as well as liquid effluent. Until recently, most of the wastes from palm oil mills were either burnt in the open or thrown away in waste ponds or open areas. This contributed enormously to global climate change by emitting carbon dioxide and methane. This chapter reviews the technological advancements which now make it possible to convert palm oil waste products into useful energy or recycle them into value-added products to generate additional profits for the industry.
The impact of organic agriculture on diet and health
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Consumers of organic vegetables tend to consume them in higher amounts and with more concentrated phytochemicals, so any benefits of phytochemicals for human health are doubled for a typical consumer of organic food. This chapter explores the associations between organic consumption and diet choices, addressing the claimed and perceived links between organic foods and health and assessing the combined impact of a diet of organic food. Lastly, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in research in the area concerning the benefits of organic nutrition.
Agroforestry for the cultivation of nuts
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Row crop agriculture covers over 1.28 billion ha of land globally. Though extremely productive in terms of yield, annual cropping systems rely on external inputs of energy, nutrients and pesticides, leading to a suite of ecological consequences. This chapter focuses primarily on the opportunities and challenges associated with alley cropping practices involving overstorey nut crops as one element of the solution to address global needs for economically viable food production, while enhancing environmental services. The chapter examines the key challenges facing nut-based agroforestry systems, focusing on the genetic improvement of nut trees as well as the challenge of managing temporal and spatial tree and crop interactions. The chapter addresses orchard design and management, pest management in nut tree alley cropping and financial decision support tools. Finally, the chapter focuses on a number of case studies and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Production of doubled haploid lines for hybrid breeding in maize
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The production of genetically homozygous inbred lines is essential for hybrid maize breeding. There is a strong interest in the use of DH lines in research and maize breeding due to their many advantages compared to inbred lines produced by the traditional method of recurrent selfing. This chapter describes the major steps in production of DH lines in maize and present current research, from the production of haploid seed to the harvest of DH seed. The chapter reviews recent findings concerning the genetics behind haploid induction and new and more efficient methods for identification of haploids. The chapter discusses chromosome doubling protocols as well as recent research on spontaneous chromosome doubling, which may have the potential to make DH production more efficient. Finally, the chapter considers practical aspects of the cultivation of plants derived from haploid seeds as well as applications and advantages of DH lines in maize breeding, and provides detailed guidance on further reading in this area.
Improving the environmental performance of horticultural production: fruits and vegetables
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Horticultural crops (fruits and vegetables) are generally considered to have a relatively low environmental impact compared to other food types, yet there is huge diversity among crops and their impact. For fruit crops, the largest impacts occur at the farm level, most often related to machinery use, pesticides and fertilizers. For vegetables, post-harvest energy use is often a hot spot, whereas this chapter examines key findings from life cycle assessment (LCA) of horticultural crops, including a comparison between production systems. The chapter looks at the unique challenges of LCA for horticultural crops, and provides a detailed case study of the OFoot Project in Washington State, USA. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides suggested reading on the topic.
Mapping and isolation of major resistance genes in cereals
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Diseases caused by pathogenic viruses, bacteria, oomycetes, and fungi are a major threat to cereal production worldwide. However, cereal plants have evolved a plethora of disease resistance genes to combat such threats. This genetic resistance forms an essential component of plant protection and is exploited by breeders to develop crop cultivars with high levels of field resistance. Despite the importance of disease resistance for crop improvement, only a minority of the disease resistance genes has been isolated from cereal genomes and molecularly studied so far. Here, we highlight the latest advancements in cereal genomics that have facilitated the rapid isolation of cereal resistance genes. A particular focus will be given to barley and wheat, two cereal species with particularly large and complex genomes. As a case study, we will discuss the recent cloning of the wheat Stb6 resistance gene, for which several new genomics approaches have been combined.
The palm oil governance complex: progress, problems and gaps
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Oil palm expansion has delivered economic development in host countries, including indirect benefits for local infrastructure development and rural poverty reduction, and multiplier effects for the national economies. However, its development has often come at the cost of basic rights and of biodiverse, carbon-rich tropical forests, with local communities evicted from their lands and precious ecosystems destroyed. This chapter aims to decipher the current systems and structures involved in the governance of palm oil. It then considers why, despite significant improvements in the governance complex, there have been no major changes in the performance of the palm oil sector. It identifies several structural constraints which constitute governance challenges, and argues that these must be addressed in order to build more sustainable and inclusive oil palm supply chains and landscapes.
Understanding smallholders in oil palm cultivation: a case study from Sumatra
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This chapter provides insights about oil palm smallholders in the Riau province of Sumatra, Indonesia, based on two recent sets of data. Based on two surveys conducted in 2013 and in 2015, the chapter characterises smallholders’ production structures, relying on the methodological framework elaborated in 2012 by the international initiative World Agriculture Watch. After defining smallholders, the chapter describes the Sumatra surveys, data collection methods and analysis results. The chapter looks ahead towards a typology of independent smallholders and examines future trends in this area.
Doubled haploid production in wheat
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A doubled haploid is a genotype formed from haploid (n) cells through random chromosome doubling or artificially induced chromosome doubling methods. In vitro haploid production followed by chromosome doubling greatly enhances the production of homozygous wheat lines in a single generation and increases the precision and efficiency of the selection process in wheat breeding. This chapter outlines the origin and production of doubled haploids (DH), detailed procedures of DH production using anther culture and the wide cross system using maize. The chapter analyses the application of DH in wheat breeding, integration of DH with marker assisted selection (MAS) and genomic selection (GS) schemes.
Rice insect pests: biology and ecology
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Rice farmers face many abiotic and biotic constraints in their quest to increase rice production. In conjunction with the introduction of new high yielding drought and flood tolerant rice varieties, increasing yields will require a reduction in losses to insect pests. This chapter presents the knowledge and expertise of leading rice entomologists from Africa, Asia and the Americas to provide the first global coverage of rice insect pests. It presents insects based on the following feeding types: root and stem feeders, stem borers, rice gall midges, leafhoppers and planthoppers, foliage feeders, and panicle feeders. In each case, the chapter provides an overview together with a case study of a particular insect, summarizing key information such as classification, distribution, host plants other than rice, description, biology, plant damage and ecology.
The colour of poultry meat: understanding, measuring and maintaining product quality
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The colour of poultry meat is often the first thing used by consumers to assess meat quality, and so it plays a vital role in purchasing decisions. This chapter begins by reviewing the fundamentals of meat pigments, including the chemistry of haem pigments. It then considers the colours of fresh, cooked, cured and irradiated poultry meat, reviews the mechanisms of discolouration in poultry meat and discusses how discolouration can be prevented. Finally, methods for objective colour measurement of meat products are reviewed.
Zoonoses affecting poultry: the case of Campylobacter
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Campylobacter has been associated with poultry for many years. It is the leading cause of bacterial foodborne illness in developed countries, with C. jejuni and C. coli being identified in most cases in humans. These two species are also found in poultry. Campylobacter is ideally suited to the poultry niche, and can grow at the higher body temperature (42C) of birds. Campylobacter has been shown to have a negative effect on the health and welfare of the birds; evidence of host adaptation and host-specific species leads us to believe that Campylobacter is more than a commensal of chickens.
The economics of groundwater development and governance
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The last century has seen a dramatic increase in the demand for groundwater, first as a source of drinking water, and more recently for agricultural use in arid and semi-arid regions. This sudden surge in demand can be explained by several attractive properties of this resource: it is free, available on demand, suitable for precision irrigation and typically outlasts surface water stocks in times of drought. However, unregulated overdevelopment of this resource poses a threat to its sustainability. This chapter presents a number of different approaches to groundwater governance: the idea of a public monopoly, direct governance, a contingency approach and the possibility of collective action. Socioeconomic theory is used to evaluate the appropriateness of these approaches in different contexts. It is concluded that there is no universal method of governing groundwater economies; the appropriate approach will depend on both the nature of the society and the nature of the aquifer.
Zoonoses associated with pigs
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Zoonoses are defined as diseases and infections that are transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans. Major food animal species occupy a special position within the framework of zoonotic disease. This is particularly the case in developed societies, where direct livestock contact has become relatively rare, and where for much of the population the food supply has become the predominant route of exposure to livestock associated pathogens. This chapter provides a broad overview of the zoonotic hazards associated with pigs. Emphasis is given to the agents and pathways which most contribute to zoonotic risk, and to how these risks may be modulated by changing conditions at the human-swine interface.
Advances in statistical methods to handle large data sets for GWAS in crop breeding
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One of the most important statistical methods of handling large data sets for genome-wide association mapping (GWAS) is quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis. Two approaches to QTL analysis are linkage analysis (LA) and linkage disequilibrium (LD) mapping. Even though association and linkage mapping are viewed as fundamentally different approaches, both methods try to make use of recombination events. This chapter discusses some of the main challenges for GWAS studies with large data sets. This chapter describes both single-locus and multilocus association models, before going on to discuss high dimensional data space in GWAS, the significance threshold for association, and dimensionality reduction methods. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this field.
Maintaining soil health in oil palm cultivation
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Many existing oil palm plantations were set up after clearing equatorial and tropical rainforests. In tropical forests, the topsoil is where the fertility lies due to its physico-chemical properties, developed through an accumulation of organic matter and intense biological activity. In the first four years after felling the properties of this topsoil change rapidly, but it has been reported that the topsoil then evolves towards a new, stable chemical state. A central challenge is therefore to ensure that this new stable state possesses the properties that enable high yields. In this chapter, we consider the key issues and challenges involved in maintaining soil health. We then review the effects of management practices in oil palm plantation on soil health, and consider the potential benefits of biomass recycling.
Improving soil health and crop nutrition in oil palm cultivation
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Soil health is increasingly regarded as a key factor in oil palm nutrition and productivity. This chapter presents the current state of knowledge about soil and nutrient management through several examples of efficient and productive oil palm cultivation. The chapter highlights the challenges which still need to be addressed in order to make the crop more sustainable in the long term while considering some new concepts in agricultural development. The chapter also considers the emerging tools provided by the fast evolution of new technologies such as sensors and drones, and the tremendous possibilities introduced by molecular biology backed by the amazing increase in calculation capacity and information flows. The chapter considers key issues relating to soil fertility, nutrient management, mineral nutrition and planting materials, and focuses particularly on issues affecting smallholders.
Wheat genetic resources: global conservation and use for the future
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The importance of wheat to the global food supply means that many institutions across the world hold collections of wheat germplasm to study and preserve wheat genetic material. This chapter describes a global ex situ conservation strategy to assess the status of wheat genetic resources held by institutions, identifying major germplasm collections from existing public databases and targeting institutions holding unique accessions of wild relatives. Drawing on information from the surveys, the chapter identifies areas for global action. These include regeneration of old accessions, safety duplication of collections, a comprehensive global information system to enhance the use of conserved germplasm, global rationalization of accessions and filling gaps. The chapter concludes that ex situ collections, currently underutilized, represent significant pools for the future improvement of wheat. With new tools from genomics, exploitation of these collections is likely to increase, but there is an urgent need to better secure their conservation.
Advances and challenges in strawberry genetic improvement
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The commercial strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) is a popular temperate fruit that is both nutritious and widely appreciated for flavour. The purpose of this chapter is to highlight some of the newest innovations in strawberry production with particular emphasis on genetic improvement of the crop. The threats and solutions to sustainable strawberry production are presented. The trend for developing more robust and sustainable strawberry cultivated varieties via genetics is discussed in detail and a number of technologies put forward including high-throughput genotyping and quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis, targeted sequence capture, third-generation sequencing and Expression QTL. High-throughput phenotyping is also covered, which is an increasingly important area of interest, both to improve breeding through traditional selection and for integration with genomics data for discovery. The chapter concludes with a look to future trends in research.
Palm oil and health
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Palm oil is often criticized for its supposed effects on human health, due to its high saturated fatty acid content. However, it is this high saturated fatty acid content (50%) which makes it a solid oil, and therefore a good technological alternative to partially hydrogenated trans fatty acids. Palm oil has therefore enabled a reduction in the intake of trans fatty acids. This chapter reviews the effects of palm oil consumption on human health, including its effects on cardiovascular risk markers such as fasting lipids and lipoproteins and post-prandial plasma lipids and lipoproteins. The evidence for a connection between cardio-vascular problems and consumption of saturated fatty acids more generally is also considered. We argue that there is a lack of good epidemiological data showing the adverse role of palm oil consumption in cardiovascular disease, and that there is a place for palm oil in a healthy, balanced diet.
Welfare of pigs during finishing
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Finisher pigs, those of a post-weaning age kept for slaughter, make up the majority of the world pig population of approximately 1 billion. The intensive production system for post-weaned pigs is characterised by higher animal density, larger farms, use of concentrated foods and control of the production environment, particularly temperature, humidity and lighting. This chapter explores the relationship between nutrition management and the welfare of finishing pigs and the links between physical and social environment and welfare of finisher pigs. The chapter addresses the importance of environmental enrichment and ways to avoid tail-biting behaviour. Finally, the chapter describes methods of practical welfare assessment of finisher pigs and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Wheat crop modelling to improve yields
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Crop simulation models are robust tools for scientists, farmers and policymakers that can be used to develop practices and strategies to increase agricultural productivity and sustainability on a local, regional or global scale under conditions and treatments difficult or impossible to test using solely field experimentation. Crop models are increasingly being used to explore solutions to issues such as global food security, climate change impact assessment and adaptation, nitrogen fertilization, irrigation and seasonal variability management. This chapter examines the experimental data sets, dynamic modelling processes and fundamental applications of current wheat (Triticum spp.) crop models, as well as future trends and challenges of wheat crop modelling.
Challenges and opportunities in pear breeding
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Although pear (Pyrus spp.) is an economically important fruit worldwide, pear cultivars and production practices have been among the slowest of the temperate fruits to change to meet modern consumer demands and labor-efficient orchard realities. In the United States, the majority of the pear orchards are low-density plantings with large trees of long-standing cultivars that can reach up to 15 feet in height. Large vigorous trees require difficult and labor-intensive management, and are non-sustainable and inefficient in terms of application of inputs such as water, pesticides, and bio-regulators. This chapter addresses the challenges and opportunities in pear breeding. Starting with sections on both pear cultivars and pear rootstocks, there then follows a discussion on germplasm resources. Breeding techniques and improvement of particular traits is then considered including dwarfing, precocity, cold hardiness, fire blight resistance, tree architecture, and self-incompatibility. The chapter concludes with a discussion on future trends in this field of research.
Life cycle assessment (LCA) of palm oil in practice: the example of Malaysia
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Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool for evaluating the environmental impact of a product or process throughout its entire life cycle. This chapter reviews the application of LCA methodology to assess the environmental impact of the production of crude palm oil (CPO), including the impact of land-use change from logged-over forest to oil palm production. It assesses ways of mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from oil palm cultivation such as ways of reducing methane and the use of biogas capture technologies.
Certifying sustainability in oil palm cultivation
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In recent years, transnational private regulations, aimed at implementing sustainable development principles, have emerged across several commodity sectors. To address the growing environmental and social concerns raised by oil palm expansion, the sector has adopted voluntary sustainability standards led by industry and civil society, as well as national standards and regulations implemented by the main producing countries. This chapter presents these sustainability initiatives as well as addresses some important limitations on them, due to the increasing complexity of the regulatory framework, the market segmentation associated with a growing demand for non-certified palm oil from emerging countries and the unresolved issues of smallholders’ inclusion in certification. The chapter suggests a way forward for sustainability certification, which includes strengthening global cooperation and including smallholders in the process, and looks ahead to future research in this area.
Advances in the genetic modification of oil palm
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Transgenic crop modification uses recombinant DNA methods to alter gene expression in order to create new varieties for breeders that may be either difficult or impossible to produce using conventional approaches. Over the past few decades, transgenic methods have been successfully applied to develop genetically modified (GM) varieties of the major oilseed crops. In this chapter, the research efforts for production of GM oil palm plants over the past 20 years will be reviewed. Although these efforts have yet to result in stable lines of commercially useful GM varieties of oil palm, there are good prospects that the greatly improved knowledge of genomics coupled with advanced technologies such as genome editing will be successful in the future.
Advances and challenges in apple breeding
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Breeding new apple varieties is a costly and time-consuming endeavour, often selecting for consumer-preference traits at the expense of other traits of agronomic importance. However, combining both sustainable cultivation with market acceptability is a goal that if achieved would benefit growers, consumers and the environment. This chapter summarises the current status of apple breeding and genomics research, taking a forward look at the key factors that may improve the selection efficiency within apple breeding programmes to simultaneously enhance both resource-use efficiency traits and resilience to biotic and abiotic stress. The chapter discusses how coupling enhanced automated phenotyping, rapid cycling through generations, genome-assisted selection and genome editing using CRISPR-Cas9 would improve breeding programme productivity. Also covered are advances in genetic characterisation of key rootstock traits, for example, selection of traits which lead to reduction in inorganic nitrogen application, may result in more sustainable cultivation.
Weed-plant interactions
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Crops or desired plant species co-occur with undesired species, and the co-occurring species thereby come to be classed as weeds. This human-imposed classification is based on the perception that there is an interaction that results in some negative effect of the weed on the crop or desired species. This chapter offers an evolutionary perspective on crop–weed interactions and examines the nature of shared resource pools between desired crops and weeds. The chapter addresses the effects of direct competition between weeds and crops for resources, the indirect effects of competition and the spatial and temporal dynamics of crop–weed interaction.
The use of unmanned aerial systems (UASs) in precision agriculture
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The rapid development of small unmanned aerial systems (UASs) in recent years has triggered considerable interest in their application for precision agriculture. The decreasing cost, the ultra-high spatial resolution and the increased flexibility of image acquisition have made UAS remote sensing an ideal technique for identifying, at close-to-real-time, field patterns. This chapter provides an overview of UAS platforms and sensors, and flight planning and imagery acquisition, before moving on to consider stitching and ortho-rectification in UAS image processing. The chapter reviews the applications of UAS imagery and methods of image analysis and incorporates a detailed case study. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Advances in disease-resistant oil palm varieties
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This chapter describes advances in the breeding of disease-resistant varieties of oil palm, presenting the key issues associated with oil palm disease resistance, including the usefulness and sustainability of resistance and the agricultural practices required to enable it. The chapter focusses on the achievement of resistance to three major diseases of oil palm: Fusarium wilt, Ganoderma basal/upper stem rot and bud rot. The chapter looks ahead to potential future developments in the field of oil palm disease resistance.
Optimizing pest management in fruit cultivation
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Tree fruit growers in temperate regions have faced challenges in managing the complex of arthropod pests present in these systems because of increasing pesticide regulatory restrictions, public concerns about food safety and environmental quality, and resistance to older pesticides by key pests. Growers are attempting to adopt newer tactics such as reduced-risk (more selective) pesticides and increased reliance on sampling and monitoring techniques plus pheromone-based mating disruption, but these are more expensive and require more time and precise use patterns. In addition, most previous integrated pest management protocols were designed for management programs based on the use of older conventional pesticides. As this chapter shows, a more current and practical approach stresses a basic understanding of pest biology and development, which can be used in predictive models to support the effective use of more selective crop protectants and other sustainable tactics, such as mating disruption and biological control.
Weed management in organic crop cultivation
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Managing weeds in organic production systems is critical to the economic success of organic farmers, as well as long-term ecological sustainability. Problems with weeds are a major reason why organic operations fail, or never get started. This chapter provides an overview of the range of tools and tactics that can be used to contend with weeds in organic systems and describes the integration of several tools and tactics. The chapter presents several organic farmer case studies to illustrate different types of weed management plans. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in scientific research that will help organic farmers manage weeds while conserving and building soil resources.
Waste management in egg production
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Waste management is an essential component of an egg production system, affecting the environmental impact of production, food safety, worker safety, and animal health and safety. Manure, animal mortalities , and egg washing and processing wastewater are the major types of waste generated in an egg production facility. In this chapter, the characteristics of manure, poultry mortality and egg washing wastewater are discussed. Various methods and technologies for treating and managing these waste streams are then presented, including anaerobic digestion, aerobic treatments and thermochemical processes. The application of poultry waste products as fertilizer is also considered.
The role of crop rotation, intercropping and tillage practices for foliar disease management of wheat and barley
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The great majority of modern agro-ecosystems comprise rotations of a small number of crop species where each year’s crop is a genetically uniform monoculture. The narrow genetic basis for disease resistance in modern cultivars increases the potential for pathogens to overcome this resistance and attack a large number of plants at a similar state of development. In this chapter, we present a number of strategies for limiting foliar disease development in wheat and barley. We discuss how crop rotations with non-cereal species can substantially reduce inoculum sources for residue-borne cereal leaf diseases. Further strategies, such as intercropping, gene deployment and conversation tillage, are then presented, with discussion of the effectiveness of each strategy against particular foliar diseases. It is concluded that there is potential for residue-borne cereal leaf diseases to be managed under conservation tillage via crop rotation, fungicide application and careful choice of variety.
The rumen microbiota and its role in dairy cow production and health
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Ruminants have a complex microbial community inhabiting their gastrointestinal tract. In particular, rumen microbiota converts lignocellulose material to nutrients and energy, which dictate to the animal’s performance through a host–microbe symbiotic relationship. Owing to their significant role in ruminant agriculture, rumen microbes have been extensively studied since the 1950s, and progress in this research has accelerated by the application of molecular biological techniques since late 1990s. This chapter summarizes current knowledge about rumen microbial diversity, ecology, function and relationships with host phenotypes. Further, it covers current trends and innovations, including ‘omics’ approaches and applications to study rumen microbiota, which have enabled us to identify rumen microbiota in depth and uncover new insights into the structure and function of this complex microbial community. Finally, knowledge gaps and future directions for research into rumen microbiota and its importance in animal production and health are addressed.
Variety selection in wheat cultivation
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Variation among wheat plants serves as the raw material for varietal development or plant breeding, allowing the selection of plants which are suited to particular environments, management methods or markets. The superiority of an identified line is normally validated through a series of trials, and once established the new variety is registered and released for cultivation by a competent authority. In this chapter, we review the methods used to develop new varieties of wheat, including both traditional breeding and modern molecular breeding using marker-assisted selection, genomic selection and next-generation phenotyping. We also consider the criteria used by both plant breeders and farmers to select between available varieties.
Balancing oil palm cultivation with forest and biodiversity conservation
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With the formation of the Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil, environmentalists and consumers anticipated a decrease in the indiscriminate destruction of tropical rainforests. Ten years later, thousands of hectares of tropical rainforests continue to be cleared for oil palm plantations in the tropical world and endangered species are being lost in the process. This chapter, based on six years of collaboration between Copenhagen Zoo, Malaysia, and United Plantations Bhd in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, describes how measuring, monitoring and managing the environmental impact of plantation operations are key components in sustainable palm oil production. The chapter examines operational impacts of oil palm cultivation on both biodiversity and abiotic factors, as well as outlining methods of biological pest management. The chapter recommends that dedicated companies develop environmental divisions at estate level in order to ensure that biodiversity concerns are integrated into standard operational procedures.
Variable-rate application technologies in precision agriculture
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The approach of precision agriculture (PA) can be viewed as cyclical in nature, involving data collection, development of management plans, implementation of those plans in the field and evaluation of the effort. This chapter examines the characteristics of variable-rate application (VRA) control systems, before going on to consider the implementation of both liquid and dry VRA systems. The chapter reviews a number of detailed VRA case studies and summarizes the current status of research in this field. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in the area.
The use of exogenous enzymes to improve feed efficiency in pigs
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Exogenous feed enzymes have been in commercial use in swine diets for almost 30 years. This chapter focuses on the use of three classes of enzymes: NSP’ases, phytases and proteases. We review the evidence that their use is beneficial, and suggest likely mechanisms of action based on the evidence available to date. Lipolytic enzymes are also considered.
Viruses affecting poultry
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Infectious diseases, particularly those caused by viral pathogens, pose one of the most serious threats to the growth and sustainability of the global poultry industry. The industry relies heavily on vaccination-based control strategies, but there are important challenges for this approach, such as the immunosuppressive effects of some viral pathogens and the increasing diversity of pathogens. This chapter reviews viral diseases affecting poultry, including the four most significant viral diseases in terms of their widespread distribution, effect on avian health and role in producing economic losses. For each disease, symptoms, diagnosis and control measures are discussed. The major threats to vaccination-based strategies are reviewed, and some potential responses are considered.
Understanding and improving the shelf-life of eggs
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The shelf-life of eggs is determined by various government and industry agencies, as well as by retailers. It is based on the internal quality of the eggs and their microbiological safety. The avian egg possesses many intrinsic anti-microbial properties that are designed to ensure the safety of the developing chick. However, these same properties also protect the consumer of the egg. Many factors influence the internal quality and the microbiological safety of eggs, and this chapter takes a look at these factors. This chapter discusses technologies for increasing the shelf-life of eggs. Of primary importance is the handling and storage of eggs. This chapter also discusses the issue of coatings to increase shelf-life.
The use of agricultural robots in weed management and control
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Weed management and control are essential for the production of high-yielding and high-quality crops, and advances in weed control technology have had a huge impact on agricultural productivity. Any effective weed control technology needs to be both robust and adaptable. Robust weed control technology will successfully control weeds in spite of variability in the field conditions. Adaptable weed control technology has the capacity to change its strategy in the context of evolving weed populations, genetics, and climatic conditions. This chapter focuses on key work in the development of robotic weeders, including weed perception systems and weed control mechanisms. Following an extensive introduction, the chapter addresses the challenges of robotic weed control focusing on both perception systems, which can detect and classify weed plants from crop plants, and also weed control mechanisms, covering both chemical and mechanical weed control. A case study of an automated weeding system is provided.
Advances in understanding fruit tree growth
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Owing to the importance of photosynthesis to the efficient functioning of plants as solar energy collectors, scientists have been intensively studying the process of photosynthesis for more than 100 years, with the hope of increasing its efficiency. There is substantial evidence that fruit trees distribute their nutrient resources and photosynthetic competency, and adjust the angles of leaves in different parts of their canopy to optimize use of resources and sunlight as it passes through a tree canopy. This chapter examines the factors that influence photosynthesis in fruit trees, as well as the four key principles governing the distribution and use of photosynthates. Finally, the chapter looks at the features of fruit tree canopy architecture.
Agroforestry for fruit trees in Europe and Mediterranean North Africa
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Although fruit trees are considered as high value for agroforestry and are the primary driver of agroforestry adoption worldwide, they are still underrepresented in agroforestry systems in temperate regions compared to the tropics. This chapter illustrates the large diversity of fruit tree-based agroforestry in Europe and in the Mediterranean North Africa, including the oases regions. The chapter then describes the most represented species-based (apple, olive) and emblematic place-based (arganery, oasis) agroforestry systems in these regions. Finally, the chapter details some biological and agronomical specificities of fruit trees that have to be considered when implementing performant fruit tree-based agroforestry systems, and presents updated work on how current trends in both fruit tree cultivation and agroforestry may converge into the design of agronomically and ecologically sound fruit tree-based agroforestry systems.
The role of grasslands in biogeochemical cycles and biodiversity conservation
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Grasslands have a multifunctional role in producing forage for animal production systems while providing a wide array of ecosystem services, including the regulation of biogeochemical cycles and the maintenance of biodiversity which are of utmost importance for agriculture and society as a whole. This chapter provides an overview of current knowledge on the roles of grasslands in regulating the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycles and conserving biodiversity. The chapter describes the ways in which environmental roles of grasslands are driven by nutrient management, frequency and timing of utilization, type of utilization (mowing or grazing), the lifespan of the grasslands and their position and diversity in the landscape. It then explains how different grassland types are necessary to target multiple services because the services of food production, carbon storage in soils, regulation of the N cycle and biodiversity conservation are maximized at different levels of grassland intensification.
Tea cultivation under changing climatic conditions
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Predicted climate change is likely to pose a major threat to normal tea cultivation. This chapter reviews the effects that climate change is likely to have on which regions are suitable for tea production and the duration of the plucking period. We consider how tea production might be improved by temperature increase and CO2 elevation, but also discuss the negative effects of heavy rains, frosts, the proliferation of pests and diseases and soil degradation. We suggest that tea quality is likely to deteriorate due to the imbalance in the ratio of free amino acids to polyphenols. Appropriate planning for adaptation and mitigation needs to be developed and extended for sustainable development of the tea industry. The adaption and mitigation strategies should have three levels: government policy, R&D for new technologies and techniques and community involvement and technology extension, which should be integrated and implemented immediately.
Understanding the effects of handling, transportation, lairage and slaughter on cattle welfare and beef quality
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Handling, transport, lairage and slaughter are stressful for cattle, and can affect the quality of the beef produced. This chapter considers the complexity of each stage of pre-slaughter management arising from the interactions between different types of cattle, different physical environments, the manner in which cattle are handled and the methods used for slaughter. The effects of pre-slaughter management on beef quality, including the risk of dark, firm, dry meat and bruising are reviewed in this chapter. Further, this chapter discusses the main factors during transportation, which have been identified as affecting animal welfare and meat quality. Finally, an overview of the extensive research on how handling and slaughter can be optimised is presented.
The use of molecular genetic information in genetic improvement programmes for pigs
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Genetic improvement of pigs has been achieved by selection of individuals for breeding based on estimated breeding values (EBV), derived using phenotypes for important traits. Ideally, phenotypes on the individual itself and its relatives are utilized in order to obtain the most accurate estimate of the breeding value of the individual. However, there are multiple challenges and limitations associated with these phenotype-based programs. Many of these can be overcome by using molecular information to help predict breeding values and inform selection decisions. This chapter describes how molecular genetic information can be used to enhance selection programs in pigs, what is required to develop such information, and what strategies are available for the use of molecular information in breeding programs. Example cases, challenges and future prospects are also reviewed.
The proteins of milk
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Milk and milk processing have been researched for many years and, today, milk proteins are probably the best characterized of all food proteins. This chapter provides an overview of major and minor milk proteins, the methods used to prepare milk protein fractions in the laboratory and the milk protein products that are produced on an industrial scale.
Tree planting and management in agroforestry
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Agroforestry seeks to increase the productivity of the farm and help create resilient landscapes. The pattern of tree planting and tree management play an important part in the sustainability of an agroforestry system, as they determine the intensity of competition between trees and crop and the quality and quantity of wood production. This chapter focuses on the plantation and management of temperate agroforestry systems combining timber trees and herbaceous crops. The chapter covers choice of tree species, techniques of tree planting, plantation maintenance and approaches to tree pruning and thinning. Finally, the chapter explores future research trends in this area.
Using genetic selection in the breeding of dairy cattle
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There has been a huge increase in the productivity of dairy cows over the last half a century, with the yield per cow more than doubling. This is substantially due to the use of genetic selection in dairy cattle breeding programmes. In this chapter, we review the use of artificial insemination (AI), progeny testing, embryo transfer and in vitro fertilization in breeding programmes. We then discuss how traditional progeny testing schemes are being replaced by genomic testing, resulting in a halving of the generation interval and a doubling of the rate of genetic gain. Finally, we review the objectives of breeding programmes, noting the move from focusing exclusively on production traits to an emphasis on other traits such as those related to health, fertility, functionality and feed efficiency.
Global positioning systems (GPS) for agriculture: an overview
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The essence of a global positioning system is the ability to define a location anywhere on Earth in terms of three coordinates. The calculation is performed in terms of Cartesian axes including one through the poles, but the result is transformed into local coordinates that include height. This chapter introduces the use of global positioning systems in agriculture, explaining how the system works and focussing on ways in which accuracy can be improved. The chapter examines the use of a peer-differential system and looks ahead to future developments in this area, providing detailed guidance on where to find further reading on the subject.
Use of grassland for bioenergy and biorefining
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High-yielding, intensively managed, agriculturally improved grasslands provide biomass with qualities suitable for anaerobic fermentation and biorefining. Biomass from semi-natural grasslands or from landscape conservation areas has higher lignin content. It is suitable for combustion or pyrolysis, but requires pre-treatment before fermentation or hydrolysis to break down the cellulosic fibre. This chapter begins by reviewing grassland types, categorizing them according to their potential for biomass production. The next section details the options for use of grassland biomass, and covers biogas, combustion, pyrolysis and gasification, enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation to ethanol, and biorefining. Finally, we discuss the future prospects for the use of grassland biomass in bioenergy applications.
The potential role for tea in combating chronic diseases
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Tea, made from the leaves of the plant Camellia sinensis, Theaceae, is a popular beverage worldwide. For the past 30 years, tea has been studied extensively for its beneficial health effects in the prevention of cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and neurodegenerative diseases; reduction of body weight; and alleviation of metabolic syndrome. Whereas results from laboratory studies on these effects are strong, human studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects only in certain diseases in individuals who consume three to four or more cups of tea daily. This chapter reviews these beneficial health effects of tea, the possible mechanisms of actions of tea constituents, and the relevance of laboratory studies to human health.
The influence of gut microbiome on developing immune and metabolic systems in the young pig
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The immune and metabolic systems of young piglets develop after birth, and the rate and type of development are strongly associated with the rate and type of colonisation of the intestine with bacteria. This chapter describes the enteric and mucosal immune systems of pigs and presents evidence from experimental studies of the links between the immune system and microbiota. The chapter describes the microbiome and metabolism of pigs and highlights its importance in the development of pig immune systems.
Understanding sheep behaviour
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The most important features of the behaviour of sheep are their marked sociality and the formation of a bond between mother and young. Sheep show a strong need to stay with their flock mates and become very distressed when isolated. Under farm conditions the social environment is mainly controlled by humans, and sheep are usually maintained in single-sex groups of similar age or size, the main exceptions being male–female groups at mating and the mother–young dyad. Separating lambs from their mother at an early age and rearing them with artificial milk is also a frequent practice. This chapter examines the importance of understanding sheep sociality, sexuality, mother–young bonding to sheep welfare, as well as describing the impact of environmental conditions on sheep behaviour.
A lesser-known pathogen of wheat: Bipolaris sorokiniana
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The filamentous fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana (teleomorph Cochliobolus sativus) is a necrotrophic cereal pathogen of significant concern in the warm, nontraditional wheat cropping regions of Southern Asia. B. sorokiniana is also recognised as the predominant causative agent of the disease complex Helminthosporium leaf blight (HLB), comprising both B. sorokiniana and the tan spot pathogen Pyrenophora triciti-repentis. B. sorokiniana is the major constraint on wheat production in the Eastern Gangetic Plains within India, Nepal and Bangladesh and is causal to significant reductions in grain yield and quality. While efforts to identify host resistance have made headway since the early 1990s in establishing partial cultivar resistance, there remains a considerable gap in our understanding of the disease, the pathogen and the traits and mechanisms governing resistance. In the following section, we review the current status of understanding of wheat diseases caused by B. sorokiniana and their impact in the field and highlight knowledge gaps that remain unaddressed.
Sweetpotato genetic resources: today and tomorrow
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The sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) is the sixth most important food crop on a global scale. While China accounts for about 80% of global production, Nigeria, Uganda, Indonesia and Tanzania are also large producers of sweetpotato. The chapter examines the origin and dispersal of sweetpotato, including archaeological data for the early distribution of the crop, before moving on to considering its general botany. The chapter considers in vitro germplasm storage in sweetpotato genebanks, as well as issues of quality control. The chapter looks at the importance of managing sweetpotato crop wild relatives (CWR) and examines plant quarantine and phytosanitary issues and the status of genebanks under international treaties. The chapter considers a number of specific issues associated with sweetpotato germplasm. Finally, the chapter looks at the application of next-generation sequencing to sweetpotato and its CWR, before looking ahead to future trends in this area.
Understanding pig behaviour
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The behavioural patterns of domesticated pigs are well conserved from their ancestors. This suggests that the underlying motivational systems are similar to those of wild boar and feral domestic populations. This chapter describes how commercial conditions, whilst providing some welfare benefits, can constrain behavioural expression. The chapter reviews the behavioural ecology of pigs, introduces the concept of behavioural needs and considers the developmental and additive genetic basis behind individual differences in behaviour. It looks ahead to future trends in research in this area and provides suggestions for extensive further reading on the subject.
Agroforestry practices: silvopastoralism
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Silvopastoralism is a traditional agroforestry practice that is still managed across the world for raising livestock in lands that often include a combination of grass understorey with a sparse cover of trees and/or shrubs. The woody component plays multiple roles such as forage resource, shading and sheltering for livestock and delivering wood, firewood, cork and tannings, among other goods. This chapter firstly describes silvopastoral systems from around the world. It goes on to stress the importance of trees for livestock production. A section is also included on the role of trees for biodiversity and ecosystems services as in recent times silvopastoral systems have been valued for their contribution to carbon sequestration, water quality and biodiversity conservation. The chapter concludes with how to design and manage silvopastures and a look to future trends in research, providing a list of priorities for silvopastoralism going forward.
The emergence of antibiotic resistance in poultry farms
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The use of antibiotics in poultry farming has enhanced production via effectively controlling infectious diseases and promoting growth of birds, allowing the industry to cope with the increasing consumer demands and provide safe and affordable products. However, the use of antibiotics results in the selection of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including established animal and human pathogens. The emergence and proliferation of resistant pathogens and the cognate decrease in the efficacy of antibiotic therapy pose a concrete risk to public health and sustainable farming. Consequently, the need to tightly regulate the use of antibiotics in poultry farming has been highlighted as a pre-emptory necessity.
Understanding and preventing spoilage of cow’s milk
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Milk spoilage is essentially a result of inadequate control of the growth of microorganisms, combined with the activity of enzymes which have found their way into milk from production and processing environments. Microorganisms have developed strategies to survive and thrive in cold (psychrotrophic) as well as in hot (thermophilic) conditions, with some even surviving pasteurization by forming spores. Preventing spoilage is a question of preventing contamination through hygiene and sanitation, proper cooling and understanding the conditions specific to the processes leading to the wide variety of dairy products and ingredients. This chapter examines possible causes of milk spoilage and describes strategies for preventing spoilage during both the production and processing phases. It also examines future trends in this area, including the prospect of better detection and typing methods for identifying problem areas as well as improved technologies for ensuring milk quality all along the value chain.
Trends in the development of herbicide-resistant weeds
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Since the mid-1940s, herbicides have been the most cost-effective and efficient method of weed control for agronomic crops. Today, herbicide-resistant weeds, in combination with a decline in industry discovery programmes and a cessation in discovery of new herbicide sites of action, threaten the continued utility of herbicides. Weeds have evolved resistance to 160 different herbicide-active ingredients (23 of the 26 known herbicide sites of action) in 86 crops and in 66 countries. This chapter reviews the various kinds of herbicide resistance, and then considers resistant weeds by site of action, crop, region and weed family. It considers the available strategies for managing herbicide-resistant weeds, but concludes that although herbicides are likely to remain the backbone of agronomic weed control for the next 30 years, their utility will steadily decline, and we need to begin working on new weed control technologies that will eventually replace herbicides.
The nutritional and nutraceutical/functional properties of mangoes
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Mangoes can be considered a major source of bioactive compounds, notably vitamin C, phenolics (mainly gallic acid) and carotenoids, among which many are provitamin A. This chapter describes the claimed health benefits associated with the antioxidant properties of these compounds, which potentially encompass protection against cardiovascular diseases, metabolic diseases and cancers. The chapter examines specific cell, animal and clinical studies that suggest mango pulp, juice and extract are effective against metabolic diseases and certain forms of cancer. The chapter considers levers that can be used to increase bioactive compounds in mangoes either before or after harvest, and includes a case study on the use of pulsed light to increase concentrations of vitamin C, carotenoids and phenolics.
The integrated management of bud rot disease and Phytophthora palmivora in oil palm
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This chapter provides an overview of research on oil palm bud rot disease which severely affects palm oil production in Central and South America. The chapter reviews the approaches adopted in identifying the causative agent and managing the disease. The chapter describes recent research undertaken by the Colombian Oil Palm Research Centre (Cenipalma) to show Phytophthora palmivora as the causative agent of bud rot, as well as strategies it has developed for controlling its spread throughout oil palm stands. The chapter shows how an understanding of disease biology is critical for developing a successful integrated pest management programme.
The genetic diversity of mangoes
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This chapter provides a list of the principal mango cultivars, selected on the basis of their local and global importance. The description of cultivars is based on evaluations conducted by Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Miami, Florida. The data reflects some 30 years of research. Description information includes origin and information on tree form and vigour. The chapter also includes photographs of principal mango cultivars.
Insect pests affecting oil palms
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Monocultures – including oil palm – are known to induce strong parasitic pressure. Coleoptera and Lepidoptera are the main insect pests affecting oil palms in all continents where it is cultivated. This chapter offers an overview of the major types of oil palm pests (23 species) that have been selected from among the most damaging groups in Latin America, West Africa, South East Asia and the Pacific as examples for illustrating the relationships found between the oil palm and herbivorous arthropods, before looking ahead to future research trends in the study of oil palm pests.
The effect of cultivation techniques on tea quality
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The profitability of tea production depends on whether the type of tea produced has the right quality that is acceptable to consumers. However, sensory evaluation of tea alone has been criticized as subjective. This chapter examines the environmental and agronomic factors lying behind tea quality, addressing the chemical quality parameters of tea, the relationship between black tea quality and specific cultivars, the effect of environmental factors such as altitude and temperatures and the relationship between tea quality and agronomic inputs.
Understanding and improving immune function in sheep
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The prevention and control of infectious diseases of sheep can be achieved in a number of ways, including disease screening programmes, implementation of biosecurity measures, chemotherapeutics and vaccination. This chapter describes common diseases of sheep and some commonly used vaccines, and explains why the identification of immunological correlates underpins vaccine design. Focussing on ovine enzootic abortion (OEA) as a case study, the chapter reviews the current capability to study immunology in sheep, discusses barriers to progress and identifies future opportunities for applications of immunology to improve sheep production.
The contribution of environmental enrichment to sustainable poultry production
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Environmental enrichment comprises stimuli added to the poultry housing environment to enhance the biological adaptation of the birds and improve their welfare. By promoting species-typical behaviour, it has the potential to reduce the risk of harmful behaviours and health conditions, and to guide birds to use the available resources more uniformly. Environmental enrichment may also promote positive emotional states and enhance the birds’ ability to cope with unpredictable environmental changes. In this chapter, we review environmental enrichment strategies that are relevant to commercial meat poultry production, their benefits in terms of the behaviour and welfare of the birds and their potential for contributing to more efficient and sustainable production models. Potential risks or problems that may arise when environmental enrichment is not appropriately implemented are also discussed, finishing with discussion of current gaps in knowledge and concluding remarks.
A balanced approach to commercial poultry breeding
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Balanced selection aims to move all of the relevant traits of a breed in the direction of the preferred response. This approach takes into account performance traits of growth, yield and feed conversion, but also gives weight to fitness traits such as fertility, hatchability and early chick survivability. This chapter reviews a balanced selection approach as applied to poultry breeding. It begins by discussing resource allocation during rearing to help birds meet their genetic potential, and then reviews how selection programmes for the breeding of poultry have evolved over time. Subsequent sections discuss the pedigree lines leading to commercial products (pipeline genetics), the molecular methods used to guide selection and the connection between balanced selection and improvement of animal welfare.
Traditional animal breeding of cattle to improve carcass composition and meat quality
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Genetic selection for carcass attributes such as marbling and tenderness is relatively new compared to selection for growth traits. Estimated breeding values (EBVs) allow for the comparison of animals for their genetic potential as parents for a given trait. This chapter reviews the role of EBVs, how they are calculated and their use in selection for carcass composition and meat quality.
