Controversies surrounding the impact of the fat content of beef on human health
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Whether ‘red’ or ‘processed meat’ intake is related to adverse health outcomes in the US population and other developed countries is an often-debated concept. Beef frequently is a focus of such discussions because of its contribution to saturated fat in the diet. This chapter examines the evidence for a connection between beef intake and cardiovascular disease, and beef intake and the development of diabetes. It also reviews the fatty acid composition of beef and outlines the dietary recommendations considered best supported by the evidence.
Amy-Lynn Hall, United States Food and Drug Administration, USA
Detecting and preventing chemical residues in pig meat
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The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) new animal drug approval process evaluates veterinary drugs intended for use in food-producing animals for safety and effectiveness. As part of the human food safety evaluation, new animal drugs are evaluated for microbial food safety, toxicology and residue chemistry. The chapter summarizes the evaluation process that includes the assignment of tolerance(s), withdrawal periods and milk discard times. It also establishes the criteria for violative residues, that is, residues above the established tolerance limits which may have potential adverse health effects in humans.
Dr Virgilio Gavicho Uarrota
Advances in understanding cassava growth and development
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Understanding the physiological basis for cassava growth and development supports key strategies for the crop’s sustainable management and its genetic improvement. Key components to consider are leaf area index, plant architecture, total biomass yield, photosynthetic rate, root bulking and root quality. This chapter aims to highlight advances in understanding cassava’s fundamental physiological traits. It offers a detailed review of the growth and development of the plant’s main structural components as well as the physiology and control of carbon partitioning between source (leaves) and sink (roots) for optimizing yields. The factors which make cassava well adapted to coping with climate change are discussed, and attention is also given to understanding of the rapid post-harvest physiological deterioration of cassava’s roots, a feature that has profoundly influenced the ways that cassava is managed before and after harvest.
Roberto Roson, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, Italy
Assessing the cost of supplying water for agriculture: the food supply cost curve
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As part of a ‘Regional Initiative on Water Scarcity in the Near East and North Africa (NENA) Region’, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has been proposing a practical tool for the assessment of investment projects called the Food Supply Cost Curve (FSCC). This chapter describes the concept of the FSCC, and outlines what steps need to be taken to practically implement an FSCC-evaluation exercise. It concludes by commenting on some preliminary findings obtained at the FAO when the FSCC had been employed in some countries in the Near East and North Africa.
Dr Frederick Schreurs
Commercial products promoting plant health in African agriculture
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The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) usually delivers its products free of charge to national programmes and farmers, but in two projects described in this chapter, most costs were transferred to users through commercialization. This chapter explores the development and application of the biorational insecticide Green Muscle®, based on an entomopathogenic fungus against African locusts and grasshoppers and Aflasafe®, a registered product based on a non-toxigenic fungus that replaces aflatoxin-producing fungi in the soil biome and protects crops and users from aflatoxin poisoning. The chapter describes commercialization principles for these products, presenting a model user benefits and cost analysis of a biopesticide. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this field.
Hardev S. Sandhu, University of Florida, USA
Cultivating sugarcane for use in bioenergy applications: key issues
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Sugarcane (a complex hybrid of Saccharum spp.) has high biomass and sucrose accumulation in its stem, making it a favourable feedstock for bioenergy production. This chapter reviews the key issues and challenges faced when expanding sugarcane cultivation for bioenergy, namely, competition with food crops, loss of biodiversity, potential increase in pest problems, water, air and soil pollution, yield maximization, susceptibility to drought and cold, and the issues posed by sugarcane’s complex genome. We discuss how these issues are being addressed through research into genetic improvement, improved understanding of agronomics and improved pest management practices. Case studies from Brazil and the United States offer a brief overview of sugarcane development for energy production in these two countries.
Vijesh Krishna, Georg-August University of Göttingen, Germany; Alwin Keil, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), India; Sreejith Aravindakshan, Wageningen University, The Netherlands; and Mukesh Meena, Indian Institute of Soil and Wa
Conservation tillage for sustainable wheat intensification: the example of South Asia
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Conservation tillage (CT) is one among the prominent agronomic innovations proposed to address stagnant wheat yields in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia. A review of recent literature and an analysis of farm household datasets indicate that the magnitude of economic impact of CT wheat, albeit being generally positive, varies widely across the region. The technology is yet to become popular among the smallholders, the diffusion constraints being system- and location-specific. This chapter highlights the relevance of locally adapted CT practices and related scaling pathways to address the prevailing diffusion constraints in the diverse agro-climatic and socio-economic settings of the heterogeneous farming community.
P. Moroni, Cornell University, USA and Universit à degli Studi di Milano, Italy; F. Welcome, Cornell University, USA; and M.F. Addis, Porto Conte Ricerche, Italy
Aetiology, diagnosis and control of mastitis in dairy herds
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Mastitis is one of the most economically important diseases in dairy production. Associated costs include treatment, culling, death and decreased milk production, and cow welfare is also compromised. This chapter reviews the indicators of mastitis and the contagious and environmental pathogens which cause it. It then discusses how mastitis can be managed and controlled on dairy farms, including consideration of dry cow therapy and the use of antibiotics.
Chenghai Yang, USDA-ARS, USA
Airborne and satellite remote sensors for precision agriculture
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Remote sensing provides an important source of information to characterize soil and crop variability for both within-season and after-season management despite the availability of numerous ground-based soil and crop sensors. Remote sensing applications in precision agriculture have been steadily increasing in the last two decades due to improvements in spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions of airborne and satellite remote sensors. This chapter will provide an overview of manned aircraft–based airborne imaging systems and high-resolution satellite remote sensors that have been used for precision agriculture. Numerous airborne multispectral and hyperspectral imaging systems and high-resolution satellite sensors are discussed, and application examples are provided to illustrate how remote sensing imagery has been used in precision agricultural applications. Some challenges and future trends on the use of airborne and high-resolution satellite sensors for precision agriculture are discussed.
M. Djanaguiraman, P. V. V. Prasad and I. A. Ciampitti, Kansas State University, USA
Crop management practices for grain sorghum: an overview
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Sorghum is a versatile crop, produced in more than 100 countries. However, the productivity of sorghum in developing countries is much lower than that in developed countries, due to their non-adoption of improved crop management practices. Improving the production potential of sorghum in developing countries is of critical importance due to its implications for food security. This chapter presents a variety of standard crop management techniques, including discussion of optimum planting conditions and the management of nutrients and water, and considers how practices may differ across major sorghum-producing areas such as India, West Africa, Australia and the United States. It is concluded that greatly improved yields can be obtained by matching genotype with environment and using best management practices.
Adebayo Abass, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Tanzania; Wasiu Awoyale, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Liberia and Kwara State University Malete, Nigeria; and Lateef Sanni and Taofik Shittu, Federal Univers
Breeding cassava to meet consumer preferences for product quality
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New, high-yielding varieties have transformed cassava from a low-yielding, famine-reserve crop to a high-yielding cash crop for both rural and urban consumers in Africa. The opportunity provided by this high yield in terms of lower production cost per hectare has made cassava a potential crop for large-scale or commercial-scale production. This chapter looks at the range of uses of cassava and what this means for target properties in breeding new varieties. It reviews the range of quality preferences amongst farmers, and a range of nutritional, sensory, processing and product properties that could be used in setting future breeding priorities for cassava.
Michael Abberton, Badara Gueye, Tchamba Marimagne and Folarin Soyode, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria
Conservation and distribution of cassava
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Significant germplasm collections of cassava (Manihot esculenta) have been established in international and regional genebanks and have been used extensively by plant breeders. This chapter describes both ex situ and in situ techniques of conserving cassava genetic material. The chapter demonstrates in detail that approaches to conservation are only rarely through true (botanical) seed but rather as a field collection which is regenerated every two years, as in vitro plantlets or, in the future, cryopreservation. The chapter analyses techniques of data collection and management in genebanks and germplasm distribution. It presents the case having a large potential for in situ conservation approaches with respect to wild relatives of cassava which have hitherto been unrealised.
M.B. Zhang
Advances in understanding soybean physiology and growth
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Soybean is one of the world’s most widely grown and economically significant crops, having an extensive range of end uses. Understanding soybean growth and physiology is paramount to maximising its productivity and optimising its yield. This chapter highlights recent advances in understanding soybean development, and the genetic factors underpinning the molecular mechanisms that drive it. The main physiological, molecular and bioinformatic approaches used to progress this rapidly growing research area are also outlined. Outcomes that improve the understanding of soybean growth and development could aid in the targeted selection of superior varieties, helping to maximise yields in an array of environmental conditions. Moreover, using soybean as a model species can assist in improving food security, soil health and agricultural sustainability via the enhanced understanding of legume nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Optimising these processes can help in reducing the use of expensive, often polluting, nitrogen-based fertilisers in agriculture.
Dr Dr R. J. Bryson
Challenges and prospects for fungicidal control of wheat diseases
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As one of the world’s ‘big three’ cereal crops, wheat has a highly significant role to play in global food security, and therefore the prevention and management of diseases affecting wheat is of paramount importance. In this chapter, we consider the current status of global wheat production, the impact of crop loss on food security and the emergence of the current regulatory environment surrounding pesticides. We then discuss the current status of the global fungicide market, and some of the major issues in its future longevity: the development of resistance to active ingredients, the impact of legislation that may restrict or remove active ingredients from the market and the rising costs of developing new active ingredients. As a result, the highly risk-averse European regulatory environment is in danger of severely limiting innovation, and an integrated agronomic approach is necessary if we are to achieve global food security.
Frederik C. Botha, Sugar Research Australia and the University of Queensland, Australia
Advances in understanding of sugarcane plant growth and physiology
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Crop yield in sugarcane is the result of how well the source leaves can supply the assimilates needed for the growth and filling of the harvestable plant. This is the source–sink relationship, which in sugarcane is still poorly understood. This chapter discusses the significant advances made in this area in the past few decades, as well as suggesting future trends in research such as high-throughput genomic, metabolomic and phenotypic analyses that could allow refinement in crop and metabolic modelling, as well as improved breeding and production strategies.
Jean-Louis Chopart, AGERconsult, France (Section 3.2 contributed by M. T. Sall, B. Ahondokpe, and G. Walter, Senegalese Sugar Company, Senegal)
Advances in sugarcane irrigation for optimisation of water supply
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A long-standing water deficit outside the pre-harvest stage may reduce sugarcane yield and, as climate changes, irrigation presents a major challenge to improving sugarcane crop performance and extending cultivated areas. This chapter describes the water requirements of sugarcane and current irrigation practices, as well as suggesting ways of adjusting and optimising sugarcane irrigation that can make it more sustainable, including decision-making tools. The chapter includes detailed case studies of irrigation practices in Réunion Island (France) and Sénégal as examples of contrasting environments. It looks ahead to future developments and brings forward proposals for improving irrigation efficiency and sustainability for smallholders.
Dr Chengjun Wu
Advances in flood-tolerant varieties of soybean
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Flooding is a serious abiotic stress that drastically causes soybean yield loss around the world. As a result, a large number of studies have been conducted to understand soybean responses to flooding on agronomic, morphological, physiological and molecular levels. This chapter summarizes current understanding of flooding impact and the natural adaptation of soybean to flooding. The chapter also evaluates current and future flooding survival strategies, including the use of genetic engineering to improve flooding tolerance, and various agronomic techniques for the management of flooding stress. It is concluded that an integrated approach is likely to prove most effective in preventing and mitigating the effects of flooding on soybean growth and yield.
Luis Garrote, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Climate change and water resources for agriculture
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Population growth and climate change increasingly challenge water supply systems, and population dynamics, growing demands, pollution, land use changes and other factors frequently produce the failure of some water supply systems. Climate change is believed to augment the existing pressure on water resources. This chapter presents an introduction to the effects of climate change on water resources and analyses their impacts on agriculture. The chapter focuses on several major challenges: the estimation of climate change impacts on rainfed agriculture and water resources, the analysis of current and future water availability, guidelines for climate change adaptation policies in agriculture and water resources and the selection of climate change adaptation options. The chapter also includes a detailed case study analysing water availability for several Southern European basins. The chapter looks ahead to future research topics and provides some suggestions for further reading.
Georg Goergen and Peter Neuenschwander, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Benin; and Danny Coyne, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Kenya
Conserving and exploiting biodiversity in crop cultivation in sub-Saharan Africa
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Under relentless global population growth the key challenge is to increase agricultural production while preserving biodiversity and reducing the pressure on ecosystems and natural resources. As a first step, the development of sustainable agricultural practices requires thorough understanding of all biodiversity components and their interlinkages in agricultural and natural environments. This chapter outlines how the application of taxonomic expertise can successfully resolve important agricultural pest problems. The chapter describes the development of the insect collection at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and offers specific examples to demonstrate the importance of an accurate diagnosis. The chapter considers how best to exploit scientific collections, reviewing new challenges and opportunities and the importance of protecting as well as using biodiversity.
Dr William A. Dozier
Advances in understanding and improving the role of amino acids in poultry nutrition
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Dietary amino acids are central to optimizing growth performance, meat yield, and egg production of poultry. This chapter addresses amino acid digestibility coefficients for feed ingredients, digestible amino acid requirements of poultry based on production efficiency, and the role of supplementation of crystalline amino acids on nitrogen balance and ammonia output of poultry. In addition, knowledge gaps in the scientific literature related to amino acid responses of poultry will be discussed.
M. A. Price, University of Alberta, Canada
Biological types of cattle: carcass and meat quality
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This chapter describes the domestication of cattle and the origins of many breeds found in the world today. The breeds are grouped into biological types, based on their size, muscularity and propensity to fatten, and the commercial role of each type is discussed. The relationships between biological types and carcass and meat quality are examined, and the breeds are identified as repositories for specific traits of value to the beef industry. Traditional methods of improving carcass quality through phenotypic trait selection and opportunities to improve meat quality through the application of genomics are discussed.
Alexander C. O. Evans, University College Dublin, Ireland; and Shenming Zeng, China Agriculture University, China
Causes, prevention and management of infertility in dairy cows
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Reproduction and fertility are central components to successful dairy enterprises, and an appropriate management and understanding of the physiological events needed for fertility is crucial to sustainable dairy farming. This chapter discusses the physiology of the main impediments to fertility and management issues that need to be addressed in order to ensure good fertility of dairy cows. It deals with parturition and uterine health, the importance of the post-partum environment and the role of oestrus, as well as methods of establishing pregnancy and the effect of heat stress on cows’ fertility. The chapter also examines fertility of heifers and the impact of genetics on fertility, and provides suggestions for further reading in this area.
Michael Wachendorf, University of Kassel, Germany
Advances in remote sensing for monitoring grassland and forage production
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Obtaining cheap, appropriate and timely information on vegetation will be essential for sustainable and economically viable management of grassland and forage swards in the future. Remote sensing (RS) offers new possibilities to monitor vegetation repeatedly and at large scale, but so far, only a few applications exist. This chapter describes the most important sensor types, reviews the developments in sensor performance over recent decades and identifies significant advances for grassland research and practice. The development of systems with complementary sensors is presented as a promising research area, which will help to overcome the limitations of single sensors and provide better information about grassland composition, yield and quality. Thematic maps of farm fields are suggested as the central outcome of RS and data analysis. These maps could represent the relevant grassland features and constitute the basis for various farm management decisions at the strategic, tactical and operational levels.
R. Srinivasan, AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center, Taiwan
Bio-ecology of major insect and mite pests of tomato crops in the tropics
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In tropical climates, tomato production is severely constrained by insect and mite pests. The use of broad-spectrum chemical pesticides can make this problem worse, since it can eliminate the natural enemies of these pests. Changes in cropping system and the impacts of a warming climate can also alterthe damage potential of pest infestations. Understanding the bio-ecology of these pests is therefore essential to developing effective strategies to manage them. In this chapter, we review recent research on the bio-ecology of the major insect and mite pests affecting tomato crops, including aphids, thrips, whitefly, various Lepidopteran species and spider mites. In each case, we consider how the pest affects the tomato plant, the natural enemies of the pest and how global warming could impact each pest
Dr Rianto van Antwerpen
Advances in harvesting and transport of sugarcane
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The chapter describes preparation of sugarcane for harvesting, harvesting options, in-field loading and transport. It considers two harvesting systems: manual and mechanical harvesting, each of which is affected by whether the crop is burnt or not burnt immediately before harvest. The chapter explores the advantages and disadvantages of each method and suggests directions for future development in this field.
Kaustav Majumder, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, USA and Yoshinori Mine, University of Guelph, Canada
Composition and properties of egg white
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Eggs are the most economical and abundant source of high-quality dietary protein, and are noteworthy for both their nutritional and functional properties. This chapter provides detailed information about the structure, chemical composition and functionality of egg white. Section 2 reviews the structure of egg white, and Section3 offers an overview of the proteins in egg white. Sections 4–9 then provide a detailed review of nine important proteins. Finally, Section 10 covers carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins as minor components of egg white.
E. A. Heinrichs, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA; F. Nwilene, The Africa Rice Center, Nigeria; M. Stout, Louisiana State University, USA; B. Hadi, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), The Philippines; and T. Freitas, Universidade Federal Rio
Management of rice insect pests
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Rice farmers face many abiotic and biotic constraints in their quest to increase rice production. In conjunction with the introduction of new high yielding drought and flood tolerant rice varieties, increasing yields will require a reduction in losses to insect pests. This chapter discusses current strategies for managing rice insect pests in an environmentally sustainable manner. It reviews integrated pest management (IPM) as it applies to rice cultivation, and includes discussions of the impacts of cultural practices, conservation biological control and augmentative biological control, and the selective use of insecticides. Finally, dissemination mechanisms for rice IPM are considered.
Dr Dr Bernadette O'Brien
Chemical contaminants in milk
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Developments in analytical technology now allow the identification of some contaminants in milk that were not previously considered. It is critically important that mechanisms are devised to eliminate or reduce these contaminants below the maximum limit allowed by food safety regulations. Thus, the development, metabolization, measurement and reduction process of contaminants in milk must be understood and addressed. These processes are examined in this chapter through three case studies involving dietary iodine, veterinary medicines (specifically flukicides) and cleaning and disinfection agents containing chlorine as the active ingredient.
Per McCord, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in marker-assisted breeding of sugarcane
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Sugarcane breeding has until very recently been based solely on phenotype, and marker-assisted breeding of sugarcane remains in its infancy compared with that of row crops such as maize and soybean. A major reason for this is the complex genetics of sugarcane. This chapter reviews the uses of DNA marker technology in fingerprinting and diversity analysis of sugarcane. This is followed by a review of the development of linkage maps and initial trait/QTL mapping, including the Bru1 locus for resistance to brown rust (Puccinia melanocephala). Finally, the chapter reviews the use of newer next-generation sequencing–based technologies in sugarcane, including genome-wide association analysis and genomic selection.
Michael E. Dikeman, Kansas State University, USA
Beef carcass grading and classification
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This chapter reviews the three main beef carcass grading or classification systems used across three continents. These are used for a large proportion of beef production and processing in the world. One is the ‘EUROP’ system for EU countries, another is the USDA Beef Carcass Grading system in the United States and the third is the Meat Standards Australia system in Australia. The chapter also discusses grading in Japan.
Dr Piya Kittipadakul
Breeding cassava for higher yield
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Cassava is a root crop that adapts well to a wide range of environments. A key factor for grower decisions regarding when to plant cassava is whether a profit can be expected from the crop; increasingly, only cassava growers with high productivity can survive in the volatile price environment. This chapter reviews the strategies and factors for success in cassava breeding for higher yield, including the importance of genetic diversity and breeding schemes. There is a particular focus on Thailand, which has hosted some of the most successful breeding programmes involved in improving cassava varieties over a period of more than 40 years.
Ingrid C. de Jong and Rick A. van Emous, Wageningen Livestock Research, The Netherlands
Broiler breeding flocks: management and animal welfare
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Broiler breeders are the parent stock of broiler chickens. Appropriate management in the rearing and the production period is essential to produce a high number of fertile eggs and high-quality broiler chickens. However, research has shown that current management practices may affect the welfare state of broiler breeders, during both the rearing and the production period. This chapter describes the housing and management of broiler breeders. It then reviews the major welfare issues related to the management of broiler breeders, including feed and water restriction, excisions and the potential for management strategies to have transgenerational effects.
James Anderson, University of Minnesota, USA
Advances in disease-resistant wheat varieties
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The strategies used in breeding disease-resistant wheat are informed by the importance and frequency of the disease, availability of resistant germplasm, genetics of resistance and means of selecting for resistance. Gene mapping to identify regions of the genome controlling important traits has been an important tool for plant geneticists and breeders. This chapter includes a case study of breeding for FHB resistance, illustrating the challenges and opportunities with an episodic disease, introgression of resistance genes from non-adapted germplasm and utilization of DNA marker technology. The use of quantitative trait locus mapping and breeding programme to develop rust-resistant germplasm are also described.
B. N. Harsh and D. D. Boler, University of Illinois, USA
Branded beef programmes
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The emergence of branded beef programmes has had tremendous impact on the beef industry worldwide. As a means to ensure consumer satisfaction and as a tool for differentiation, branding strategies have changed over the years, yet the basic principles of a successful beef brand have not. This chapter will discuss the factors that define successful brands, history and growth of branded beef programmes, the effects of brands on consumer perception, changing consumer demands, including natural and organic beef, international beef branding trends and the role of technology in improving the position of branded beef programmes.
Jacqueline Jacob and Anthony Pescatore, University of Kentucky, USA
Assessing the sustainability of organic egg production
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Organic food production has increased in popularity in the last few decades, although it still remains a small portion of global food production. As questions arise about the sustainability of conventional egg production systems with regard to environmental protection and animal welfare, there has been a push to move away for the caged-rearing systems used in conventional egg production. The question arises: Do organic production systems increase the welfare of the birds and, at the same time, reduce environmental impact. Comparisons of the two broad definitions of egg production systems show that neither system is ideal. Any poultry production system has scope for improvement and thus has the potential to reduce its environmental impact and improve animal welfare.
Thushari Lakmini Wijeratne, Tea Research Institute, Sri Lanka
Assessing and reducing the environmental impact of tea cultivation
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Tea is one of the most popular beverages in the world. Consequently it has become an important plantation crop in many countries. As a perennial crop occupying a large proportion of arable land, assessing its environmental impact would benefit the economy of tea growing countries immensely. This chapter reviews the impact of the tea industry on the environment and human activity. It covers the life cycle assessment methodology tailored to tea production, covering cultivation to final waste disposal, its carbon footprint as well as all the other different on- and off-farm impacts caused by the tea industry. Further possible measures to minimize these impacts are also discussed. Two case studies address the CO2 sink/source nature of tea plantations as the cultivation stage is one of the most significant contributors to the carbon footprint of tea. There is a growing awareness of the environmental impact of any commodity on the market. Therefore, the future trends in research requirements for the sustainability of the tea industry are also briefly explained.
Paul A. Iji, Mehdi Toghyani, Emmanuel U. Ahiwe and Apeh A. Omede, University of New England, Australia
Alternative sources of protein for poultry nutrition
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Soya bean and canola meal are the conventional ingredients used to provide protein in poultry feed. However, they are relatively expensive and must be imported to many poultry-producing areas. Developing alternative protein sources for poultry nutrition will reduce the pressure on these key protein sources, as well as promote the development and sustainability of the poultry industry. In this chapter, we first review the supply of conventional protein sources for poultry, and then consider the range of alternative protein sources that might be developed, including grain by-products, oil seed and fruit by-products, pulses, algae, duckweed and certain animal protein sources. We consider how birds respond to diets containing alternative protein sources, and provide recommendations for improving the nutritive value of these alternative sources.
E.E. Large, E. Beche, D. Mutoni and A. Scaboo, University of Missouri, USA
Advances in conventional soybean breeding techniques
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Soybean cultivar selection techniques and advances in variety development continue to evolve. The planning that goes into selecting superior soybean varieties is currently complicated by changing environments, a growing global population and decreasing productive farmland. In this chapter, the most recent developments in modern conventional soybean breeding techniques are described in relation to sustainable soybean production.
David S. Buchanan, North Dakota State University, USA
Advances and constraints in conventional breeding of pigs
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Traditional methods of genetic improvement, both through selection programmes and proper use of breed differences and heterosis, have been effective in improving production efficiency. This improvement has been realized primarily in reproductive performance, growth rate and carcass composition. This chapter begins with a historical overview of advances in pig breeding from the end of Second World War. There remain needs for improvement in traits associated with efficiency, disease resistance, behaviour and longevity, and the next two sections review new approaches to genetic improvement with a focus on these traits.
Hermann Buerstmayr, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Austria; Volker Mohler, Bavarian State Research Center for Agriculture, Germany; and Mohan Kohli, Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology, Paraguay
Advances in control of wheat diseases: Fusarium head blight, wheat blast and powdery mildew
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Fusarium head blight, wheat blast and powdery mildew are among the serious damaging diseases of wheat, which are caused by fungi of Ascomycota phylum. Integrated approaches are mandatory for efficient control of all three diseases. Control measures may either contribute to reducing the abundance of inoculum (particularly ascospores or conidia) or hamper infection and/or disease development should inoculum be present. This chapter provides insight into agronomic control measures of all three diseases, including adoption of resistant cultivars. Case studies of genomics-assisted resistance breeding are also discussed. For all three diseases, in addition to genetic control, designing optimal integrated control strategies and refining real-time, site-specific decision support systems are essential.
Lukas Pfiffner and Laura Armengot, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Switzerland
Biodiversity as a prerequisite of sustainable organic farming
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Over the last century, the intensification of agriculture with high inputs of synthetic pesticides and fertilisers combined with monocrop specialisation has been detrimental to the diversity of genetic resources of crop varieties and livestock breeds, to the wild flora and fauna species and to the diversity of ecosystems. Higher levels of biodiversity can strengthen farming systems and its resilience under changing environmental conditions. This chapter gives an overview of the impact of organic farming on biodiversity. The chapter considers land-use intensity, the impact of organic farming on biodiversity, biodiversity at different spatial scales and the impact of organic farming on selected functional groups. Finally, the chapter discusses some examples of the application of functional agro-biodiversity to boost key ecosystem services on organic farms, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Young W. Park. Fort Valley State University, USA
Bioactive components in cow’s milk
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Milk contains many bioactive compounds with health benefits beyond simple nutrition. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of bioactives in milk and research on their nutraceutical properties. These include bioactive proteins such as caseins, whey proteins such as α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin and enzymes such as lactoperoxidase and lysozyme. The chapter then reviews bioactive peptides with antihypertensive, antioxidative peptides, antithrombotic and other therapeutic properties before going on to cover bioactive lipids such as conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), phospholipids and cholesterol. It concludes by discussing bioactive arbohydrates such as lactose and oligosaccharides, other bioactive compounds such as growth factors, cytokines, polyamines, nucleosides and nucleotides as well as bioactive minerals and vitamins.
S. Ivemeyer, University of Kassel, Germany; and A. Bieber and A. Spengler Neff, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Switzerland
Organic dairy farming: key characteristics, opportunities, advantages and challenges
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As the organic dairy farming sector grows across Europe, it is necessary to continuously review its various merits and challenges within the organic sector and in comparison with conventional farming methods. Drawing together empirical findings from across the Europe, this chapter summarises some of the major issues surrounding organic dairy farming, such as the effects on herd health, regulations around pasture access and different methods of calf rearing. It then considers a number of current ‘hot topics’ in this area, including the self-sufficiency of concentrated feeds and the effect of organic methods on udder health. The chapter concludes that organic dairy farming presents many potential benefits, but notes that improvements are necessary, particularly in the area of animal health. It emphasises that solutions to current problems must be site-specific, while observing that particularly successful strategies could serve as helpful models in both organic and conventional dairy farms.
Joseph E. Knoll, USDA-ARS, USA
Advanced technologies to accelerate sorghum breeding
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Sorghum is a critically important crop, yet advanced technologies for its improvement have lagged behind other crops like rice and maize. This chapter first summarizes some of the current technologies beyond conventional breeding methods that can be utilized for crop improvement in sorghum. Some of these techniques have been around for many years, while others, such as marker-assisted breeding, have only recently become widely adopted by sorghum breeders. This chapter then explores some newer technologies, some of which are already common practice in other crops, that have potential applications in sorghum, including doubled haploid breeding and transgenic technology.
Addressing nutritional disorders in cassava cultivation
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Cassava is drought-tolerant and grows reasonably well in relatively infertile soils where other crops would fail. However, production could be further increased if important soil-related constraints are addressed. In order to supply cassava plants with the nutrients required for optimal production, it is important to know about their nutritional requirements, diagnose correctly any deficiency or toxicity, and use adequate measures to correct these problems. This chapter describes these points for each nutrient. It also provides detailed discussion of the soil and nutrient management strategies most suitable for the three main cassava-growing regions: Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.
Dr Christopher J. Richards
Beef cattle nutrition and its effects on beef quality
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Previous dogmas suggested that body composition and subsequent carcass characteristics of beef cattle are primarily tied to mature body weight and fat thickness. Subsequent research suggests that marbling can occur at different stages of growth when sufficient nutrition is provided and that the relationship between total fat and marbling is not constant. Combined with increasing consumer demands and coordination within beef systems, opportunities exist to develop systems that capitalize on marbling and overall palatability at points throughout the production system to provide consumers with a high-quality, consistent beef product.
Alison R. Bentley and Ian Mackay, NIAB, United Kingdom
Advances in wheat breeding techniques
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Wheat production must be increased to meet growing demand, making it critical to increase the rate of genetic gain in wheat breeding. This chapter reviews the suit of core breeding methodologies currently applied, including methods proposed and employed for their advancement. It also discusses technologies, including genomic selection, F1 hybrids, genetic engineering, gene editing and mutation breeding, which, although not all new, offer exciting opportunities to advance wheat breeding.
Jehangir H. Bhadha, University of Florida, USA; and Bernard L. Schroeder, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Best management practices for maintaining water quality in sugarcane cultivation
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Best Management Practices (BMPs) in agricultural crops are farming methods that assure optimum plant growth, profitable yields and minimized adverse environmental effects. This chapter focusses on the achievement of BMPs in maintaining water quality for sugarcane cultivation, drawing on evidence from two well-established long-term BMP programs providing a measure of water quality management: the BMP program (SmartCane) adopted by the Australian Sugar Industry, and the BMP program adapted by growers in the Everglades Agricultural Area in South Florida, USA. The chapter addresses the importance of understanding nitrogen cycling to maintaining water quality and thereby sustainability of sugarcane production.
S. F. Ledgard, AgResearch Ruakura Research Centre, New Zealand
Assessing the environmental impact of sheep production
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Sheep production may impact locally on water, air and soil quality, as well as globally, for example contributing to greenhouse gas emissions. Sheep production can also impact biodiversity, human health via various pollutants, and community and cultural well-being. This chapter examines how life cycle assessment (LCA) can be used as a tool to quantify multiple resource use and environmental impacts. A detailed comparative case study of sheep production in France and New Zealand using LCA examines how potentially harmful emissions can be assessed and measured at each stage in the life cycle of sheep products, so that the most damaging stages can be identified and steps can be taken to mitigate them. The chapter offers indications of future trends in research in this area.
Glen Hartman, ARS-USDA and University of Illinois, USA
Bacterial and viral diseases affecting soybean production
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Pathogens of soybean include bacteria, fungi, nematodes, oomycetes, parasitic plants and viruses. Losses due to diseases are estimated to be about 14% of total soybean production. In this chapter, we review bacterial blight, pustule, tan spot and wilt, as well as a few other bacterial diseases affecting soybean. We then discuss a few of the viral diseases of soybean, namely alfalfa mosaic virus, bean pod mottle virus, soybean mosaic virus, soybean vein necrosis virus, tobacco ringspot virus and tobacco streak virus. We also consider how the impact of bacterial and viral pathogens can be decreased through management practices such as crop rotation, utilization of pathogen-free seed, better use of synthetic and non-synthetic pesticides for vector control and deployment of cultivars with resistance.
Nicola Bradbear, Bees for Development, UK
Organic and natural beekeeping, and caring for insect pollinators
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The pollination of flowering plants is crucial for the maintenance of earth’s biodiversity, and most food crops depend upon insect pollinators. Unfortunately, conventional agricultural practices tend to diminish the numbers of wild insect pollinators while increasing our need for them. This chapter introduces the numerous ways in which some bee species are managed for optimal pollination of crops, as well as for harvest of honey, beeswax and other bee products. The chapter discusses conventional, natural and organic beekeeping practices, as well as possible ways to encourage biodiversity and abundance of indigenous pollinating insects.
Georgios Arsenos, Angeliki Argyriadou, Sotiria Vouraki and Athanasios Gelasakis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Organic sheep and goat farming: opportunities and challenges
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Organic goat and sheep farming is a highly diverse type of production throughout Europe and other continents. Current practices are geared to achieve a number of objectives, including sustainability and high standards of animal welfare. This chapter aims to characterize organic goat and sheep farming and illustrate the diversity of systems, with a special focus on European countries. The chapter discusses a range of challenges faced by organic sheep and goat production together with some of the ways in which these challenges can be addressed. Challenges examined include nutrient deficiencies, parasitic diseases, udder diseases, lameness, claw and leg problems. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Dr Dr Frédéric Normand
Advances in understanding mango tree growth and canopy development
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The mango tree canopy acts not only as a carbohydrate factory, through photosynthesis, and as a support for reproduction; it is also the place where vegetative growth occurs and the tree develops. The spatial and temporal proximity of vegetative and reproductive growth in the mango tree canopy leads to complex interactions. This chapter reviews the current state of knowledge on vegetative growth and deciphers these interactions, in order to inform more efficiently cultivation practices and future research. It presents the architectural model of the mango tree. The basic structural entity, the growth unit, is then defined and its morphology, growth and development are reviewed. The chapter then discusses the relationships between the growth unit and canopy development, along with the effects of environmental and endogenous factors on tree phenology. Finally, the interactions between vegetative and reproductive growth are described, leading to a complex picture of the mango tree canopy.
Wensheng Hou, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China
Advances in the genetic modification of soybeans
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Transgenic soybean holds a significant share of the soybean market. However, the traits improved by genetic modification of soybean so far remain limited, with herbicide tolerance being the primary trait exhibited by genetically modified (GM) soybean. Several other agronomic traits could be usefully improved, such as insect resistance, oil composition and amino acid composition. Valuable genes and efficient transformation systems are the key requirements for the improvement of GM soybean. In this chapter, we describe recent advances in the genetic modification of important agronomic traits of soybean, and review the genome editing technology available.
Dr Dr Alfredo J. Escribano
Integrated crop-livestock systems with agroforestry to improve organic animal farming
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The International Federation of Organic Movements (IFOAM) has established four fundamental principles which underpin organic farming. One way of achieving these principles is the use of integrated crop-livestock systems, which is very common for well-balanced organic systems with animals. This chapter reviews types of such systems, with a focus on agroforestry systems, their potential environmental and economic benefits, their contributions to animal health and welfare, as well as challenges in implementing and managing such systems whilst ensuring a high animal health and welfare level.
Dorothy McKeegan, University of Glasgow, UK
Beak trimming of laying hens: welfare costs and benefits
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Beak trimming is a procedure routinely applied in the egg industry to prevent feather pecking and cannibalism. The traditional method of trimming by application of a hot blade (HB) has been superseded by infrared (IR) beak trimming. Both methods are associated with acute pain, but there is evidence that IR trimming has welfare advantages over HB trimming. Injurious pecking in laying hens remains a complex and intractable problem and unpredictable pecking outbreaks are more likely and more severe in intact beak flocks. Beak trimming is still the most effective preventative strategy available and, while it remains the case that we cannot reliably control injurious pecking under commercial conditions, the welfare costs imposed by IR beak trimming are probably justified.
J. P. Hill, Fonterra Cooperative Group, New Zealand
Assessing the overall impact of the dairy sector
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Dairy is the number one agricultural commodity by value, provides livelihoods for 1 billion people and is key to enriching diets the world over. Yet, global consumption of dairy falls short of national dietary guidelines. Increasing dairy consumption to match dietary guidelines could save billions of dollars in health budgets and help reduce the incidence of non-communicable diseases. Dairy is responsible for 2.7% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, but farming practices can reduce this figure. Milk production uses 1 billion Ha of the Earth’s land, but headline statements about land use or GHG mask a level of detail crucial to understanding debates about diet and sustainability. This chapter examines the socio-economic impact of dairy on livelihoods and nutrition as well as its ecological impact, arguing that a balance must be struck between reducing dairy’s environmental impact and increasing milk consumption. The chapter explores global frameworks for sustainable production.
Shichen Zhang
Advances in pest-resistant varieties of soybean
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A number of insect pests have been threatening soybean production in North America, including lepidopteran defoliators, coleopteran defoliators and hemipteran sapsuckers. Among various control methods, host-plant resistance has been of the greatest interest as it is economically and environmentally friendly. This chapter will review recent advances in research on improving soybean with host-plant resistance in North America, and discuss challenges of developing highly insect-resistant cultivars with competitive yield performance. The chapter will cover attempts to genetically engineer soybean with Bt insecticidal protein genes as well as gene pyramiding in order to gain broad and durable resistances against multiple insects. The chapter includes a review of future trends and points the reader towards further reading in this area.
L. G. Smith, The Organic Research Centre and Cranfield University, UK; and A. G. Williams, Cranfield University, UK
The effects of organic management on greenhouse gas emissions and energy efficiency in livestock production
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The central objectives of organic farming are reducing external inputs and increasing long-term sustainability. Whilst there may be local improvements in resource efficiency, the extent to which organic livestock systems contribute to net greenhouse gas mitigation and fossil energy efficiency gains depends on the livestock type, the unit of comparison and the system boundaries in time and space. This chapter explores these factors and gives examples of where organic systems could be improved. It also considers soil carbon sequestration in organic livestock systems. Three individual case studies are presented to show how organic producers are implementing measures to improve environmental efficiency in practice. Challenges and opportunities for the sector are discussed from research, farm practice and regulatory perspectives.
Yinglong Chen, The University of Western Australia, Australia; Northwest A&F University, China; Ivica Djalovic, Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Serbia; and Kadambot Siddique, The University of Western Australia, Australia
Advances in understanding grain legume physiology: understanding root architecture, nutrient uptake and response to abiotic stress
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Root system architecture (RSA) influences root foraging and resource uptake from the soil and thus determines plant growth and productivity in grain legumes. Understanding RSA, nutrient uptake and its response to drought and other abiotic stresses is vital for breeding super genotypes for efficient water and nutrient acquisition and with enhanced adaptation to edaphic stresses. This chapter describes the role of root architecture in plant health, available approaches for measuring root architecture, variability of RSA traits across genotypes and its implications for breeding drought-resistant varieties. The chapter explains how combined root phenotyping, non-destructive imaging, root model simulations and molecular techniques can serve as tools in breeding legume genotypes with optimised root system for enhanced adaptation to target environments.
Charley Richard, Sugar Processing Research Institute and the New York Sugar Trade Laboratory, USA
Analysing the processing quality of sugarcane
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Sugarcane, belonging to the genus Saccharum, is a grass grown in many tropical and subtropical areas of the world. As industries attempt to achieve sustainability in sugar production and in the production of current and potential by-products from sugarcane, knowledge about its compositional traits will become increasingly important. In this chapter, we discuss the composition of the whole sugarcane plant, the sugarcane juice and sugarcane fibre and bagasse. We review how composition varies among and within species of sugarcane, and among commercial varieties. We then cover sucrose extraction methods, sustainable production and harvesting practices, quality parameters and grower payment schemes.
Mette Vaarst, Aarhus University, Denmark
Rethinking and engaging with animal health in organic farming
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The organic principle of health highlights ‘the wholeness and integrity of living systems’. It is not simply the absence of illness, but the maintenance of physical, mental, social and ecological well-being. We often articulate health as simply ‘disease freedom’. However, this chapter argues that if we see ‘resilience’ as a key component of health, we focus more on how we can meet the species-specific needs and challenges of each animal species, both as individuals (physical and mental well-being), as groups (social well-being), and in their surroundings and their landscapes in many different contexts (ecological well-being). The human responsibility towards animals is to understand their natural needs, organize the surroundings to allow the animals to meet them and at the same time be ready to intervene to prevent or stop suffering. The chapter gives practical and research-based examples of how to support the different aspects of animal health.
Christopher Preston, University of Adelaide, Australia
Assessing and minimizing the environmental effects of herbicides
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Herbicides are widely used to control weeds; however, they can have other effects on the environment. Herbicides can move from the site of application through spray drift, volatilization from surfaces, surface run-off or leaching to groundwater. This chapter examines the sources and fate of herbicides in the environment and the environmental effects of herbicides. It also addresses the ways in which the environmental effects of herbicides may be managed and reduced, including the use of herbicide substitutes and mitigation of herbicide effects, and looks ahead to future trends in this area of research.
P. J. Bramel and H. D. Upadhyaya, Global Crop Diversity, Germany and International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India
Conserving and characterizing the genetic diversity of grain legumes
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An increase in the production and marketing of grain legumes would help to diversify diets and improve human nutrition, as well as contributing to the sustainability of cropping systems and long- term soil health. However, the projected impacts of climate change and the current local adaptation and use of these crops pose challenges to increasing production. One of the key resources for meeting these challenges through crop improvement will be the genetic diversity conserved ex situ in genebanks and in situ with farmers or in protected areas. This chapter reviews global strategies to assess the status of the major grain legume genetic resources held in ex situ collections, develop a vision of a more secure global system of conservation, and identify high- priority actions to facilitate the establishment of this global system. As an example, we focus on the characterization and exploitation of the genetic resources of chickpeas and pigeon peas.
K. K. Jena and G. Ramkumar, International Rice Research Institute, The Philippines
Breeding strategies to improve rice yields: an overview
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This chapter examines three different major strategies designed to break the ‘yield barrier’ so that rice production keeps up with population growth: new ideotype breeding, heterosis and green super rice. The chapter shows that exploring the genetic diversity of wild Oryza species may lead to identification of novel and superior alleles, which may have been ignored during the process of crop domestication. The chapter describes the traits determining rice yield: number of grains per panicle, panicle size and branching, and grain weight. It shows that by deploying a particular gene or gene combinations in the breeding programmes, desired phenotype and yield enhancement of rice can be achieved. Molecular markers for marker-assisted selection processes to pyramid yield-related genes are also discussed in this chapter, which suggests future trends for research to enable a second ‘green revolution’.
Dr Mainaak Mukhopadhaya
Advances in genetic modification of tea
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Due to its botanical characteristics, genetic improvement of tea is slow. Its high gestation period, the difficulty of producing homozygous lines, and the non-availability of mutant genotypes and a mapping population are all hindrances to development. This chapter describes and evaluates the potential of genetic transformation as an alternative for varietal improvement of tea, via the deployment of agrobacterium and particle bombardment. The chapter describes in detail progress global progress on research into transgenic tea.
D. L. Hopkins, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Centre for Red Meat and Sheep Development, Australia
Ageing, physical and chemical methods for improving tenderness and palatability of beef
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The biochemical understanding of tenderization has helped in the design of more targeted approaches to improve beef tenderness through the utilization of specific enzymes. There has also been development of technologies such as SmartStretch™ and the Pi-Vac Elasto-Pack System®, which offer industry scope to improve the tenderness of specific muscles, and there is scope to combine technologies as these techniques have the potential to reduce the time required to age beef to reach acceptability thresholds. Other technologies such as pulse electric field and high-pressure processing may have specific application in the future, but scaling up the technology is a significant challenge. To meet consumer demands, grading systems that go to the cut and even muscle level are required so that the inherent variation within and between carcasses can be accounted for and value maximized.
Mette Vaarst, Aarhus University, Denmark; and Stephen Roderick, Duchy College, UK
Setting the scene: the continued drive to improve organic animal farming
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All the elements of current global development – urbanization, industrialization, population growth, food insecurity, environmental degradation, climate change and other universal issues – call for more equitable and balanced agricultural systems, including new and innovative ways of keeping and integrating animals into our food production systems. This chapter is ‘only’ the introductory chapter which explains the ‘logic’ behind the composition of this book and highlights the key issues which the various authors described, analysed and discussed in their chapters. The chapter highlights important points made in the book Improving organic animal farming, addressing both key farm animal species as well as species less frequently discussed until now, such as fish and bees. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Professor Professor Robert van Barneveld
Advances in understanding pig nutritional requirements
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Linking advances in our understanding to sustainable production of pig meat requires a more lateral perspective centred on the primary drivers of sustainability. This chapter considers advances in nutritional requirements and metabolism and how these contribute to sustainable production of pig meat, including the need to maintain sow body condition throughout gestation and lactation and ways of reducing variation in pork production systems. The chapter examines strategic use of metabolic modifiers and the importance of matching nutrient requirements to pig diet specifications and optimising gut health and nutrient utilisation capacity. The chapter provides a useful overview of understanding the interaction between nutrition and pig health.
Maria Hilda Pérez-Barraza and Jorge Alberto Osuna-Gracia, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales Agrícolas y Pecuarias, Mexico
Advances in understanding flowering, pollination and fruit development in mangoes
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The number of flowers produced by a mango plant is determined a year before production via induction, initiation and floral differentiation processes. The number of fruits will depend the success of the pollination, fecundation and fruit set processes. This chapter addresses flowering, pollination and mango fruit development, beginning with vegetative shoot formation and then the plant’s induction, initiation and floral differentiation. The chapter analyses the genes governing the flowering process and the processes of pollination and fertilisation. It suggests future research trends in this area and recommends further reading on the subject.
Markus Rodehutscord, University of Hohenheim, Germany
Advances in understanding the role of phytate in phosphorus and calcium nutrition of poultry
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In plant seeds, the primary storage form of phosphorus (P) is phytic acid (InsP6), which is usually present in salt form (phytate). Utilization of P from InsP6 and lower forms of InsPx by animals requires stepwise cleavage of P from the inositol ring by phytases. In broiler chickens, the potential to utilize InsP6-P is very high. However, degradation of InsP6 in the gastrointestinal tract is variable and affected by supplements of calcium, P, and other dietary factors. Fine adjustment of feed ingredients and supplements of P, calcium, and phytase are crucial for practical feed formulation to be sustainable through high utilization of InsP6-P and low inclusion of feed phosphates. The potential of turkeys to utilize InsP6-P is lower compared to broiler chickens.
Eliot M. Herman, University of Arizona, USA
Allergens in soybean
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Soybean protein is one of the most significant sources of food allergens and intolerance, causing both IgE-mediated allergy and food protein-induced endocolitis syndrome (FPIES). This chapter first discusses the mechanisms causing allergies and infantile food intolerance. It reviews what we know about adverse food responses, the gut’s response to food and the individual soybean proteins that elicit an immunological response. The chapter also discusses how to reduce allergens in soybean plants as well as the particular problem of intolerance in salmonids with implications for aquaculture.
David R. Walker, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in disease-resistant varieties of soybean
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Soybean yields worldwide are reduced by a variety of diseases. Advances in breeding techniques have facilitated the development of soybean cultivars with broader and more durable resistance, but continued reliance on a small number of major resistance genes remains a concern. Introgression of resistance genes from unadapted germplasm sources with a reduced risk of linkage drag has become more efficient with marker-assisted selection. Advances in DNA sequencing and other technologies have made it possible to identify novel resistance loci and candidate genes. This chapter summarizes what is currently known about resistance to some of the major diseases affecting soybean production, particularly in North America, and genes that condition resistance to those diseases.
Dr Fouad Maalouf
Developing improved varieties of faba bean
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The faba bean is an important cool-season food legume crop grown under different cropping systems for dry grain and green pods, animal feed and a green manure worldwide. This chapter presents the major research achievements in producing new varieties of faba bean tolerant of heat, drought and herbicides and resistant to broomrape, disease and high nitrogen fixation. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in research in this area.
Roger L. Monk, formerly DuPont Pioneer, USA
Advanced testing, multiplication and release of new sorghum varieties
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The release of a new sorghum variety or hybrid is the culmination of many years of breeding and evaluation. This chapter describes the hybrid advancement process, including ways of increasing the parent lines for hybrid production and the guidelines that must be followed to ensure high-quality seed. The chapter also examines procedures for registration, certification, plant variety protection and plant patenting. This chapter focuses especially on hybrid evaluation and release.
D.Z. Skinner, USDA-ARS, USA
Advances in cold-resistant wheat varieties
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Winter wheat is planted in the autumn and must survive the winter months before being harvested the following summer. Winterhardiness is therefore of paramount importance to the survival of the crop. This chapter reviews recent advances in our understanding of the transcriptomic and genetic basis of the wheat plants’ response to low, above-freezing temperatures and to sub-freezing temperatures. We show that wheat plants enact numerous transcriptomic and metabolic networks in response to low temperatures, and that the response is exquisitely tied to the nature of the cold stress, the developmental status of the plant, the part of the plant and the time of day of the onset of low temperature.
K. R. Latha and L. Vimalendran, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India
Improving the cultivation of pigeonpea
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Production of pigeonpea is constrained by agronomic management techniques such as improper methods of sowing, incorrect sowing time, inadequate seed rate, insufficient weeding, imbalance of fertilization, inadequate intercultural operations, insufficient irrigation and inadequate use of fertilizers. Low plant densities, low soil fertility, insufficient weeding and insufficient/ inappropriate use of fungicides and herbicides may also be constraints. This chapter analyses integrated crop management techniques for pigeonpea with an emphasis on efficient fertilizer and water use to maximize sustainable yields. The chapter examines the role of weed management and the potential contributions of pigeonpea hybrid cultivars, early maturing pigeonpea varieties, as well as rabi and summer pigeonpea. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area.
B. B. Singh, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, India
Breeding improved varieties of cowpea
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Cowpea is an important source of nutritious food and fodder and it is grown as an integral component of various cropping systems in the semi-arid tropics and sub-tropics covering over 65 countries. This chapter describes existing cowpea programs and past challenges, with a particular focus on cowpea breeding at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA). The chapter gives an account of the most important examples of progress made to date, including cowpea international trials, and suggests future lines of research for the future.
Heng Ye, Babu Valliyodan, Li Song, J. Grover Shannon, Pengyin Chen and Henry T. Nguyen, University of Missouri, USA
Advances in the drought and heat resistance of soybean
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Drought combined with heat is the major abiotic stress that threatens crop production. Climate changes are anticipated to intensify the occurrence of irregular precipitation patterns worldwide, which will further negatively affect crop production and food security. The success of soybean improvement under drought and heat stress depends on the discovery and utilization of genetic variations present in the germplasm. Identification of genetic diversities for traits related to drought and heat tolerance have helped identify genetic resources in soybean. In this chapter, advances in drought and heat tolerance in soybean are summarized by highlighting the genetic diversity and quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with the traits contributing to drought and heat tolerance. In addition, genomic resources that can facilitate a better understanding of phenotype-genotype association and formulate genomic-assisted breeding strategies are discussed.
Julius van der Werf, School of Environmental & Rural Science, University of New England, Australia; and Andrew Swan and Robert Banks, Animal Genetics and Breeding Unit, University of New England, Australia
Advances in sheep breeding
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This chapter summarises early developments in sheep breeding programmes, with the main emphasis on the Australian industry. It will examine common current breeding practices such as objective trait measurement, flock genetic evaluation and the development of breeding objectives based on rational economic analysis. The chapter shows that breeding programmes for dairy, meat and wool sheep differ in how well the main breeding objective traits can be measured on breeding animals. This has a major impact on the rate of genetic progress that can be achieved as well as on the economic sustainability of technologies such as progeny testing, artificial insemination and genomic selection. The chapter mainly focuses on wool and meat sheep breeding programmes, with a discussion on the implementation and adoption of genetic evaluation systems, the development of breeding objectives and the recent developments towards uptake of genomic selection.
Bogdan A. Slominski, University of Manitoba, Canada
Advances in understanding and improving the role of enzymes in poultry nutrition
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This chapter reviews the current status of research on feed enzymes with an emphasis on identifying the key challenges researchers face in terms of current trends in enzyme development, mechanism(s) of action and enzyme efficacy. It also addresses new research directions and the development of consensus protocol and/or research approaches to prevent potential duplication of effort and to aid coordinated research and collaboration. Sections cover the key drawbacks and opportunities in the application of phytase, non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) and NSP enzymes, β-mannanase, supplemental α-amylase and protease, with a focus on achieving effective use of feed ingredients and more sustainable production of poultry meat.
Dr Laurent Bedoussac
Grain legume–cereal intercropping systems
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There is currently renewed interest in intercropping in Europe in order to achieve sustainable, ecological or eco-functional intensification of agricultural production, particularly in organic farming. This chapter summarises data from over 50 field experiments undertaken since 2001 on cereal–grain legume intercropping in 13 sites in Southern and Western France as well as in Denmark using spring and winter cereal–grain legume intercrops. The chapter addresses the effects of intercropping on yields and quality, the agronomical performance of intercropping and cultivation practices in intercropping.
Y.-C. Lee, R. Lemes Hamawaki, V. Colantonio, M. J. Iqbal and D. A. Lightfoot, Southern Illinois University, USA
The use of marker-assisted selection in developing improved varieties of soybean
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Marker-assisted selection (MAS) for soybean improvement is based on over two thousand mapped loci. In genetics databases there are thousands of mapped loci that underlie quantitative traits, oligogenic traits and simple traits. This chapter describes examples of methods for developing and using DNA markers derived from genomic sequences for monogeneic, oligogeneic and polygeneic traits, together with examples of successful mapping, fine mapping and gene isolation. The chapter examines ways in which marker-assisted selection can be used to isolate and select desirable traits in soybeans.
T. Vuong, University of Missouri, USA; and D. Walker, USDA-ARS and University of Illinois, USA
Advances in marker-assisted breeding of soybeans
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This chapter reviews key developments in marker-assisted breeding of soybean. It begins by discussing types of molecular markers such as simple sequence repeats (SSRs) and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs). It then discusses marker assays and genotyping platforms for marker-assisted selection, including SSR marker genotyping and developments in high-throughput genotyping. The chapter then reviews applications of marker-assisted selection in soybean breeding to deal with biotic threats such as nematodes, rusts and aphids, abiotic threats such as salinity, as well as aspects of quality such as fatty acid composition. The chapter concludes by looking at developments in genomic selection.
John O. Ojiem, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kenya
Improving cultivation practices for common beans
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The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is perhaps the world’s most important, and the most widely cultivated grain legume. It serves as a food security crop and meets more than 50% of household dietary protein requirements, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. In addition, common bean contributes to household cash income, and is believed to play a significant role in the management of human health, particularly reduction of blood cholesterol levels and combating heart diseases, cancers and diabetes. However, its productivity is poor in most of the major growing regions. This chapter examines the major production constraints and how these can be addressed to improve productivity, from an integrated crop management (ICM) perspective. In particular, cropping system, integrated pest management, major pests and diseases and control strategies, water management, integrated nutrient management, liming, and foliar fertilization are discussed.
Elizabeth Ryan, Colorado State University, USA; Indi Trehan, Kristie Smith and Mark Manary, Washington University, USA
Dietary health benefits, phytochemicals and anti-nutritional factors in grain legumes
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Legumes are a significant source of essential nutrients including dietary fibres, proteins, dietary minerals, and carbohydrates. Abundant in both soluble and insoluble fibre, legumes support colonic and overall health. The chapter describes the impact of grain legume consumption on inflammation, the health benefits of dietary fibre, and possible connections between dry grain legume consumption and carcinogenesis. The chapter explores the relationship between grain legume consumption and gut health, analysing the phytochemical content of grain legumes as well as possible chemical toxicant exposures from grain legume consumption.
Z. A. Pretorius, University of the Free State, South Africa; M. Ayliffe, CSIRO Agriculture and Food, Australia; R. L. Bowden, ARS-USDA, USA; L. A. Boyd, National Institute of Agricultural Botany, UK; R. M. DePauw, Advancing Wheat Technologies, Canada; Y.
Advances in control of wheat rust
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Rusts are feared diseases of wheat. Despite the many resources invested into genetics of rust resistance, the lack of durability of resistance in wheat and the availability of low-cost fungicides have led to widespread reliance on chemical control. This reliance is unsustainable in the long term and requires continued research in the management of wheat rusts. This chapter describes advances in wheat rust control. Critical concepts involved in studying the wheat rusts are pathogen and host genetics, host–pathogen interactions, epidemiology and management strategies. The overarching goal of research is to use collective knowledge of these aspects to achieve durable rust resistance through application in selection and breeding.
Prof. P. Zhang
Advances in genetic modification of cassava
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Until recently, hybridization was used to breed new varieties of the common tropical and subtropical crop cassava, but changes in global climate, food security and industrialization have accelerated the breeding of new cassava varieties with increased nutrition, high stress resistance and starch content. Genetic engineering shows great potential for cassava, particularly for enhancing starchy storage root development, starch accumulation, health-promoting components, and stress response and regulation. This chapter describes recent progress relating to transgenic modification of cassava. As a vital component of an integrated breeding system, genetic engineering, together with functional genomics, proteomics, marker-assisted selection and traditional hybridization, has greatly promoted the efficiency of cassava production. The chapter also addresses how future research on cassava can strengthen food security, commercialization and bioenergy development.
Pekka Huhtanen, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden
Advances in feeding grass silage
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Grass silage is the main forage source during indoor feeding periods in many temperate regions. The digestibility and energy concentration of silage are mainly determined by the maturity at harvest, but changes in carbohydrate and nitrogen fractions during fermentation process can markedly modify the profile of nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract and also influence intake potential. This chapter reviews research on factors affecting nutrient supply from the digestive tract in animals fed a grass silage–based diet. The chapter examines the effects of energy and protein supplementation on production responses, taking into account nitrogen and methane emissions. The chapter highlights recent developments in the big bale system that has become popular especially in Northern Europe and looks ahead to future trends in this area.
Dr Barbara Frűh
Organic pig farming: key characteristics, opportunities, advantages and challenges
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Organic pig production strives to provide housing and management conditions that guarantee a high level of animal health and welfare, sustainability, a closed soil–plant–animal cycle and produce high-quality products. This chapter discusses how housing of organic pigs affects welfare and the environment, and outlines how organic production systems are desperately in need of alternatives to feedstuffs that are in direct competition with human nutrition. The chapter examines why certain breeding goals should be adapted to organic conditions, and which health problems are typical for organic housing systems. Finally, the chapter shows how waiving of castration could be a challenge but also a chance for organic pig production and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Junming Li, Institute of Vegetables and Flowers – Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), China
Advances in marker-assisted breeding of tomatoes
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Tomato is one of the most important vegetable crops in the world. This chapter describes the process of marker development and how this can be used to improve tomato breeding. The chapter discusses the techniques of marker-assisted selection (MAS) and genomic selection (GS) to identify and exploit specific traits in tomato.
S. Adjei-Nsiah , International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Ghana ; and B.D.K. Ahiabor , CSIR-Savanna Agricultural Research Institute, Ghana
Soil and nutrient management in grain legume cultivation
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Due to their role in improving soil fertility, grain legumes can be integrated into farming systems as part of soil fertility management. This offers a potential pathway towards sustainable intensification. In this chapter we focus on how to maximize biological nitrogen fixation and yields of grain legumes through soil and nutrient management options. We review existing literature on optimal conditions for legume cultivation and biological nitrogen fixation in grain legumes, and then discuss recent studies in biological nitrogen fixation in the Guinea Savanna zone of Ghana. We conclude by considering future trends in grain legume research.
Stephen Roderick, Duchy College, UK
Pastoralism and organic animal farming: are they complementary?
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A general absence of reliance on purchased inputs as well as a focus on natural pastures and free-ranging animals prompts comparison between pastoralism and organic farming. Pastoralism frequently occurs in the marginal lands that can be found where humans and herds of domesticated animals living in a form of symbiotic relationship, utilising nutritional resources that would otherwise be unavailable for other forms of food production. This chapter discusses some of the key characteristics of pastoralism and explores in detail how these systems complement and conflict with the traditional view of what constitutes organic animal production. The chapter examines pastoral management strategies, compares pastoralism with commercial ranching and contrasts breeding strategies. The chapter looks at the opportunities for animal health promotion and considers the question of whether pastoralism provides good animal welfare. Finally, the chapter examines opportunities for integrated systems, impacts of pastoralism on biodiversity and provides guidance on further reading on the subject.
Don W. Morishita, University of Idaho, USA
Weed management in grain legume cultivation
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The importance of managing weeds in a grain legume crop is critical for obtaining optimum yield. All grain legumes are relatively poor competitors with weeds and thus are prone to yield reductions when grown in the presence of weeds. This chapter outlines the nature and challenges of weed interference and methods of weed control, as well as offering two detailed case studies. The chapter demonstrates that a combination of practices, such as cultivar selection, planting date, tillage system, in-crop tillage or cultivation, and/or herbicides are needed to increase the likelihood of successful weed control.
Phillip Jackson, CSIRO, Australia
Advances in conventional sugarcane breeding programmes
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All sugarcane cultivars currently grown throughout the world arise from breeding programmes which have used a reasonably similar approach sustained over many decades. This comprises a continuous pipeline of operations of regular (usually annual) crossing among selected parent clones to produce large populations of seedling clones, followed by selection of these clones in successive stages of field trials for usually 9–12 years for important traits. This chapter outlines the history and structure of sugarcane breeding programmes as context for considering efforts to advance rates of progress. It reviews studies conducted in the last 30 years to improve many specific aspects of operations in sugarcane breeding programmes. Finally, it describes emerging concerns about whether current rates of genetic gain in sugarcane are optimal, and suggests some avenues for faster gains.
Dr Dr Jean Claude Rubyogo
Variety selection and seed quality management in grain legume cultivation
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A key aspect of grain legume crop cultivation is selecting and being able to access the seed of the right type and quality. This is becoming more challenging as grain legumes become cash crops and smallholder farmers transition from subsistence farming to market-oriented production. This chapter discusses the challenges of legume variety selection and seed quality management as well as how they can be addressed, for example through participatory varietal selection (PVS). It includes case studies on improving seed selection and quality management in practice in sub-Saharan Africa.
Velmurugu Ravindran and Mohammad R. Abdollahi, Massey University, New Zealand
Advances and future directions in poultry feeding: an overview
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The poultry industry has witnessed remarkable advancements in recent years. This chapter provides a discussion of the advances and future directions in the poultry feeding. Advancements include defining nutrient requirements, composition and ingredient quality, better feed formulation and the advent of additives. It also discusses the developments in feed processing and phase feeding. Future directions include sustainability, ingredient quality, antibiotic-free nutrition, crystalline and synthetic amino acids, feed enzymes, chick nutrition and growth models. Optimal feed processing and the related hygiene practices are discussed briefly. The chapter then discusses future trends in poultry feeding. The chapter concludes with a section dedicated to further information on these topics, in order for the readers to expand their knowledge.
Shoba Sivasankar, Former Director, CGIAR Research Program on Grain Legumes
Developing drought- and heat-tolerant varieties of grain legumes
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Despite the complexity imposed by the polygenic nature of plant tolerance to drought and to heat, significant strides have been made in understanding the underlying response and adaptation of plants to these stresses. Together with advanced and accessible technologies such as next-generation sequencing and precision phenotyping, this has enabled the assembly of molecular and physiological tools in grain legumes that would support the development of tolerance through traditional and molecular breeding. This chapter provides an overview of physiological, biochemical and molecular responses and adaptation mechanisms to drought, and to heat, with specific examples from grain legumes. The chapter examines the challenge of developing tolerance to drought and to heat, examining traditional breeding and the utilization of natural genetic diversity, and efforts towards molecular breeding including the identification of genetic associations and quantitative trait loci. Finally, the chapter considers functional genomics studies on stress-relevant candidate genes or gene families and suggests further reading on the topic.
Fred J. Muehlbauer, Washington State University, USA; and Ashutosh Sarker, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), India
Improving cultivation of lentil
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Lentil is an important food legume in the semi-arid regions of the world where it can be grown successfully on limited soil moisture and in relatively poor soils. This chapter describes agronomic practices used in lentil-producing countries, addressing methods of land preparation, sowing, harvesting, threshing and cleaning. Procedures used in developed countries where the crop is entirely mechanized are also included. The chapter suggests improvements to seed supply systems, seed varieties, planting methods, weed control, and harvesting methods.
Dugald C. Close and Sally A. Bound , University of Tasmania, Australia
Advances in understanding apple tree growth: the manipulation of tree growth and development
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Recent research and development has investigated the factors influencing apple tree growth, with the ultimate aim of helping apple growers provide the market with fruit which is consistent in quality and which exhibits the features that consumers value, such as firmness, juiciness, colour and appropriate sugar–acid balance. This chapter offers a detailed review of how different interventions after planting allow the manipulation of apple tree growth and development. It then provides discussion of two case studies which show the importance of this factor, and illustrates how it can interact with choice of rootstock and planting system to optimize yield.
