Pesticide residues in tea: challenges in detection and control
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Tea growers require pesticides to prevent crop loss due to pest attacks, which are aggravated by climate change. As pesticides invariably leave residues, it is of utmost importance that samples of traded tea are monitored to ensure compliance to food safety standards. This chapter reviews research into the extent of pesticide residues in tea, conventional methods for determining trace levels of multiple residues in tea and the problems with these methods and advanced, rapid methods which are more suitable for ensuring food safety. We also consider food safety standards in the EU and Japan, methods of assessing the risk posed by pesticide residues and strategies for reducing the residues in tea.
Sensory evaluation of cow’s milk
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Despite advances in dairy technology, milk is still a highly perishable product with a limited shelf life. Mistakes in milk handling between cow and consumer can lead to milk quality defects and shorter shelf life. Understanding where such mistakes can occur, how to recognize off-flavors, and how to remedy quality deviations can mean the difference between retaining and losing customers. This chapter discusses the sensory evaluation of milk. We review the processes involved in the sensory evaluation of milk products, discuss the different categories and causes of off-flavours in milk, and show how sensory evaluations can be used to determine the shelf life of milk products. We also review how staff can be trained to perform sensory evaluations, and methods for preventing the flavour defects discussed.
Transportation and the welfare of poultry
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A variety of factors before and during transport of poultry affect their welfare, with impacts ranging from slight discomfort to death. This chapter begins by considering the pre-loading factors which can eventually affect the birds’ welfare during transportation, and then reviews the physiological, behavioural and psychological responses, which birds may have during transport. We then review a wide range of factors, many which act interactively, which may affect welfare during transport, including the design of containers and trailers, journey duration, noise, vibrations and stocking density. Brief consideration is then given to the effects of lairage, and the transport of hens other than adult broilers
Pathogens affecting table eggs
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The rise in consumption of infertile hen eggs, together with the simultaneous rise in egg-related foodborne pathogen outbreaks, indicates the importance of understanding the microflora on the eggshell and within the egg contents. Pathogenic microorganisms in a number of ways can contaminate eggs, and a range of microorganisms have the ability to penetrate the eggshell and survive in egg contents until consumption. This chapter begins with an overview of pathogen contamination of table eggs. The next section focuses on Salmonella spp., since these are considered the greatest safety threat in the consumption of eggs. Subsequent sections then discuss Campylobacter spp., other bacteria, yeasts and moulds.
Planting and cultivation of tea
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Originating in natural forests characterized by warm and humid environmental conditions and nutrient-rich soils, tea’s growth and yield largely depend on climatic and soil factors of the land. Frequent removal of photosynthetically active tea shoots (harvesting) and periodic removal of leaf-bearing branches (pruning) exert physiological stresses on the tea bush, and it is crucial for sustainable productivity and profitability that tea be provided with optimum growing conditions. This chapter examines in detail the process of planting and harvesting tea, including tea’s climatic requirements, planting methods, bush management practices and both manual and mechanical harvesting techniques. The chapter looks ahead to future trends, challenges and potential developments in this area.
Producing consistent quality meat from the modern pig
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Pork producers have focussed, over many years, on producing pork efficiently and sustainably, in order to satisfy consumer demand for lean pork and remain competitive. Increases in efficiency and leanness have been achieved through genetics, targeted nutrition and the use of entire males and metabolic modifiers. This chapter describes the various influencing factors that need to be considered in order to consistently produce high-quality pork in the modern pig industry. The chapter outlines the significance of visual appearance, sensory quality and protein functionality for processed pork products. The chapter presents influencing factors throughout the pig industry supply chain for the production of quality pork, as well as interventions for quality improvement, and looks ahead to future trends of research in this area.
Pasture systems for pigs
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The inclusion of pastures in outdoor pig systems contributes significantly to improving the sustainability of these farming systems. This chapter examines the characteristics of pasture pig systems, including forages and pasture management as well the effects of pasture on meat quality. The chapter also provides a detailed case study of the pasture pig system developed at the Center for Environmental Farming Systems (CEFS) in the United States. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research in the field of sustainable pasture pig systems and provides guidance on further reading in this area.
Recent molecular technologies for tackling wheat diseases
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There is a growing need to improve the management of wheat diseases if wheat production is to keep pace with a growing population. This chapter reviews the array of technologies and new methods available to improve resistance to wheat diseases. These techniques include SAR, ISR, the application of Effectors, Transcription factors, PR protein, RNAi, VIGS, Plantibodies, Genome editing, Genome wide selection, MAS, Tilling population, Gene cassettes and epigenetics.
Methods for detecting pathogens in the beef food chain: an overview
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The main food-borne pathogens of concern in the beef chain are Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and Salmonella; other pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes and Campylobacter spp. may also be present. Furthermore, the occurrence and development of antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) pathogens in the beef chain is a public health issue. Traditional culture-based methods are laborious and time consuming. Rapid methods, including nucleic acid-, immunologic- and biosensor-based techniques can be very sensitive and specific and provide more timely information regarding the presence of pathogens in the beef chain. This chapter reviews these methods, as well as recent advances in next-generation sequencing technologies.
Preventing spoilage of poultry meat
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The shelf-life of fresh poultry meat is determined by the level of contamination of processed meat by spoilage microorganisms, storage temperature and storage atmosphere. This chapter looks at the various ways by which to extend the shelf-life of poultry meat: vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging; bacteriocins, herbs and spices; high hydrostatic pressure and electrolyzed water. The chapter also says that low-dose irradiation, non-thermal dielectric barrier discharge plasma systems and oxygen absorbers are some of the techniques used to reduce microbial contamination and improve the shelf-life of poultry systems.
Packaging systems for beef retailers and their effects on visual quality and palatability
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Packaging is one of the most vital processes in beef production, but is often overlooked by beef researchers. In addition to protecting the product, packaging is largely responsible for maintaining myoglobin in the bright red, oxygenated state in the retail case as expected by American consumers. However, retail beef packaged in the traditional, aerobic overwrap has issues with discolouration and short shelf life; thus, more protective options, such as vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging, have been implemented by some retailers. The future of beef packaging will not only protect beef but also actively inhibit oxidation and microbial growth and perhaps communicate with the processor and consumer about the quality of the packaged beef.
Progress in understanding fungal diseases affecting sugarcane: smut
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Amongst the relevant issues impacting sugarcane agricultural practices are fungal diseases, such as sugarcane smut, that constitute a worldwide threat to the cultivation. Smut is caused by the biotrophic fungus Sporisorium scitamineum. After providing a historical perspective on the disease, this chapter will present an overview of data gathered over the past few years using ‘omics’ techniques (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics) in combination with functional studies performed to identify candidate genes involved in the interaction. The chapter will discuss different aspects of the knowledge generated for each pathosystem and will consider data from various studies aiming at deciphering the molecular cross-talking between host and pathogen along with new trends and recurring issues in the study of smut disease.
Rainwater and floodwater harvesting for crop irrigation
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Rainwater and floodwater harvesting are environmentally-friendly ways to utilize rainwater and surface runoff for irrigation, water storage and groundwater recharge. Water harvesting (WH) can also reduce flooding and soil erosion risk and can diminish impacts of climate change. This chapter discusses the role of rainwater harvesting, methods for rainwater harvesting and their application, as well as the water storage and floodwater harvesting systems.
The use of allelopathy and competitive crop cultivars for weed suppression in cereal crops
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Due to the rise of herbicide resistance, diverse weed management tools are required to ensure sustainable weed control. This chapter focuses on competitive cereal crops and cultural strategies for weed management, including the use of weed-suppressive cultivars, post-harvest crop residues, and cover crops for management of the weed seedbank and eventual weed suppression. It also addresses factors influencing the effect of allelopathy on weeds, including soil and environmental conditions which limit or intensify the efficacy of allelochemicals. The response of some weeds to secondary metabolites released by living cereal crops and/or crop residues (selectivity) is also reviewed. Finally, recommendations are given for future research, aiming to address the knowledge gap regarding the fate of these compounds in the environment and their role in important physiological processes in both plants and microbes in the soil rhizosphere.
Research challenges in adapting grasslands to climate change
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Climate change poses many challenges to European grasslands, from droughts, heat waves and changing precipitation patterns in the south, to warmer winters and wetter summers in the north and increasing frequency of extreme weather events. This chapter reviews the probable impacts of climate change and associated challenges, considering the external context and the adaptiveness of European grassland systems. The chapter includes a number of detailed case studies of climate change impacts and adaptation options from Finland, Italy and Austria. Finally, the chapter considers the challenges and limitations for climate change mitigation in grasslands and priorities for research, providing detailed guidance on further reading on the topic.
Organic fertilizers and biofertilizers
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In recent years, both in the European Union and in the world, there has been intense development of organic agriculture, whose aim is to produce high-quality crops and healthy food while maintaining the biological balance of agroecosystems. An alternative to chemical fertilizers are products of natural origin, organic fertilizers, biofertilizers or natural growth bio-stimulants, which increase plant growth, yielding and resistance to pathogens and pests, and improve soil fertility, productivity and biodiversity. The chapter examines the role of biofertilizers and consortia of microorganisms to improve the effectiveness of organic fertilization, before moving on to consider the use of animal excrement, including manures, slurry and guano. The chapter considers the use of products or by-products of both animal and plant origin as fertilizers, before addressing the contributions of composts and biochar.
Progress in understanding and managing insect pests affecting sugarcane
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This chapter describes major achievements in pest management in sugarcane agroecosystems based on applied research conducted in different countries. The focus of the chapter is on two major groups of pests: stalk borers (Lepidoptera) and white grubs (Coleoptera). Chapter sections address determination of crop losses, biological control using parasitoids and entomopathogens, push-pull strategies with the use of companion (or service) plants, agricultural practices and their influence on pest population dynamics, insecticide use and biosecurity. The chapter also discusses new tools for pest detection and management such as modeling, remote sensing and use of geographical information systems (GIS). The chapter looks ahead to future developments such as an integrated pest management system for pests of sugarcane.
Protecting biodiversity in grasslands
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Grasslands in Europe are critically important to the biodiversity of agricultural landscapes. This chapter summarizes the conditions that facilitate biodiversity in permanent and semi-natural (i.e. managed) grasslands in temperate climate, with a particular focus on phytodiversity. The chapter exemplifies and explains losses in the biodiversity of managed grasslands in recent decades. It describes some of the main factors influencing biodiversity, leading to discussion of appropriate management measures and how these might be integrated into livestock production systems. Finally, the role of agri-environment schemes in preserving grassland biodiversity is considered. It is observed that the development of livestock systems is at risk of being decoupled from the grassland resources, and it is concluded that a more holistic approach to grassland management is necessary.
Oomycete and fungal pathogens of soybean
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Soybean production faces numerous biotic challenges, leading to significant yield losses each year. This chapter addresses oomycete and fungal pathogens of soybean. Case studies on the oomycete pathogens Phytophthora sojae and Pythium species as well as the true fungi Cercospora sojina, Phakopsora pachyrhizi and Macrophomina phaseolina, and the Fusarium species are presented. Through these case studies, the diversity in the pathogens which affect soybean, including their genetic diversity, different modes of infection and different host ranges is emphasized. The diverse range of management options and the future trends in research which should improve our ability to manage soybean diseases are also considered.
The nutritional and nutraceutical value of wheat
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Wheat is a source of nutrients and phytochemicals with nutraceutical value. These components are unevenly distributed in the different parts of the wheat kernel, and their content in wheat varies widely depending on variety of wheat (V), genotype (G), growing environments (E), year/season (Y) and interaction effect (GxE or VxY). Knowledge of the nutritional and nutraceutical value of wheat and its determining factors may be used to select wheat for inclusion in the diet, for food product development and for selecting characteristics during breeding. This chapter describes the nutrients and phytochemicals found in wheat and reviews the factors that influence variations in their concentrations. The chapter concludes by considering the effects of wheat processing on nutrient and phytochemical content in wheat.
Organic agriculture and agroecology in Latin America
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This chapter provides an account of the development and current status of agroecology and organic agriculture in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). It highlights the main contributions made by LAC farmers, practitioners, researchers and value chain actors to the worldwide growth of agroecology and organic agriculture. It provides an overview of certified and non-certified organic agriculture in the region, the guarantee systems in place and the markets for such products. National standards and regulations for organic agriculture are included, as well as programmes for organic agriculture and agroecology which have been developed over the last 20 years. Numerous factors including favourable policies, capacity building, provision of good quality public services and infrastructure development are discussed and found to be key to promoting the transition of smallholders into more sustainable farming systems. The chapter concludes with a review of the performance of organic systems in the LAC region.
The comparative and evolutionary genomics of sorghum
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Sorghum has a relatively small diploid genome, and retains much of the chromosomal structure and organization of its common ancestor. It also has multiple origins of domestication in different regions of Africa, resulting in a highly diverse germplasm well adapted to drought and other challenging environmental conditions. This makes sorghum ideal for dissecting the architectures of complex yet desirable traits. This chapter discusses what we know about the evolution and structure of the sorghum genome, the impact of domestication and the genetic architecture of key traits such as C4 photosynthesis and drought tolerance.
Predicting the effect of climate change on sugarcane cultivation
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Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) can be used to produce ethanol and biomass for energy generation, as part of a climate change mitigation policy. It is also an important crop from a food security perspective, with almost 75% of the world's sugar coming from sugarcane plantations. In this chapter we review the potential impacts of climate change on sugarcane crops, focusing on the likely effects of changes in air temperature and CO₂ concentration. The effects of changes in rainfall patterns and water stress are also discussed. Experimental and process-based dynamic crop growth models (PBCM) simulation results are used to show the potential climate change impacts on the crop for the main sugarcane-producing countries.
Modelling nutrient requirements for pigs to optimize feed efficiency
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Improvement of feed efficiency is crucial if pig production is to meet the challenge of sustainability in terms of production costs and environmental impact. This implies to precisely know the nutrient requirements of sows and growing pigs to develop adapted feeding strategies and thus optimize performance. This chapter describes existing modelling approaches developed to predict the nutrient requirement of a single individual animal (growing pig or sow) in terms of protein/amino acids, energy and minerals, and depending on characteristics of the pig and the feed, and environmental conditions. The chapter proposes and explains the integration of individual variability among animals into models for pig feeding, its application in precision feeding, and illustrates via a case study the relevance of the application of these models for improving feed efficiency.
Natural antifungal compounds for the control of diseases in wheat and other cereals
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Secondary metabolites are essential when considering the ecological context in which an organism operates. They have an array of functions, related to signalling and dealing with biotic and abiotic stress situations. For defence against pathogenic fungi, plants can synthesize various metabolites. Wheat, like several other cereals, produces various benzoxazinoids, which are also associated with herbicide detoxification and the defence against herbivores and microorganisms. Apart from these benzoxazinoids, wheat seems to produce only a limited number of other metabolites with known antifungal activity when compared to other cereals. Nevertheless, wheat is still capable of successfully defending itself against pathogenic fungi by outsourcing its defences, that is, through the mobilization of the microbial community. This chapter provides an overview of the way in which these natural antimicrobial compounds contribute to the defence of wheat against fungal pathogens, as well as considering the counter defensive actions undertaken by some of those fungal pathogens.
Nutritional, nutraceutical and functional properties of soybeans
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Soybeans have desirable nutritional properties, since they contain about twice the protein of other legumes per serving. Some soybean protein ingredients have protein digestibility corrected amino acid scores commensurate with proteins thought to be optimal to meet human protein needs. This chapter examines recent human clinical studies related to the efficacy and safety of soybean foods and food or dietary supplement ingredients including soybean oils, proteins, isoflavones and selected other compounds for which soybeans are a significant source.
Structure and chemistry of sorghum grain
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Sorghum is grown around the world under diverse environmental conditions. Combined with the high degree of genetic diversity present in sorghum, this can result in substantial variability in grain composition and grain quality. While similar to other cereal grains such as maize and millets in some aspects, sorghum has many unique compositional traits which impact grain quality and utilization. This chapter reviews the composition of sorghum grain, including its physical structure, composition of bio-macromolecules and micronutrients. This chapter also includes a summary of research showing how various factors can impact sorghum grain composition.
Nutritional composition and the value of pig meat
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Pork is a commonly consumed protein source which contributes various macro- and micronutrients to the diet of people living in the United States, some positively and negatively influencing indices of human health. This book chapter provides data about the nutritional content and current intakes of pork and pork products by people living in the United States as well as the effects of consuming pork on weight control, body composition, cardiometabolic health, cancer and sleep health. Pork, as part of a higher protein diet, can aid in weight control, have a favourable effect on body composition, and may improve sleep health. Cardiometabolic risk is not influenced by the consumption of pork as part of total red meat in human clinical trials, inconsistent with the observational evidence. Strong associations exist between processed red meats, inclusive of pork, and cardiometabolic morbidities and mortalities as well as cancer. More research is needed pertaining to the consumption of processed pork products on indices of human health.
Precision livestock farming and pasture management systems
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Precision livestock farming (PLF) focuses on individual animal monitoring and management. Precision pasture/rangeland management is concerned with monitoring and dealing with landscape spatial and temporal variability whilst considering the influence that animals bring to these systems. This chapter reviews a range of technologies currently applied or in development which facilitate this individual animal and refined landscape management across the spectrum of extensive grazing production systems. The chapter examines the challenges faced by the livestock industry and the potential solutions offered by precision management, focussing particularly on techniques currently applied in precision animal and pasture management. The chapter includes detailed case studies on using a basic farm GIS to determine sustainable long-term stocking rates, and integrating satellite multi-spectral imaging with plant growth modelling to manage livestock rotations. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and provides guidance on further reading.
Nutritional strategies to improve nitrogen efficiency and milk protein synthesis in dairy cows
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Dairy production is associated with significant losses of nitrogen to the environment, contributing to the degradation of air and water systems. These losses must be decreased to make dairy farming sustainable, and a primary means of doing this is to increase the conversion of feed protein into milk protein. This chapter considers the two nitrogen-utilising systems in the cow: the rumen microbiota and ruminant tissues. The more efficient both the rumen and tissue systems are, the lower the urinary nitrogen excretion. We review approaches to estimating rumen microbial protein synthesis, the protein and energy requirements of dairy cows and the use of milk urea nitrogen (MUN) to assess the nitrogen efficiency of dairy cows. We then consider the development of nutritional systems which account for rumen microbial synthesis, rumen-degradable and undegradable feed protein and endogenous protein supplies of amino acids based on utilisation of feed inputs.
Mapping and exploiting the tea genome
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Long-term cross-pollination has produced considerable heritable variation within and between populations of the tea plant and related species, resulting in a high level of genetic diversity. A good understanding and management of this pool of genetic diversity is of vital importance for crop improvement, since it directly affects the potential for genetic gain through selection. This chapter provides an overview of genetic diversity of tea plant and its characterization and utilization and examines the origins and global distribution of tea cultivars, assessing the current status of tea genetic resources. The chapter explains the processes of tea germplasm evaluation and characterization and examines the exploitation and utilization of the genetic diversity of tea, looking ahead to future research trends in this area for ensuring this diversity.
Nutritional considerations for soybean meal use in poultry diets
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The poultry feed industry uses about 50% of the soybean meal (SBM) produced in the United States each year. The meal is valuable to the animal feed industry because it is an excellent source of amino acids that would otherwise be lost to the human food chain after the oil has been removed from the bean. This chapter assesses the nutritional content of SBM, as well as its anti-nutritive compounds, and considers the effects of genetic modification on SBM. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area of research.
Precision agriculture and sugarcane production – a case study from the Burdekin region of Australia
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Precision agriculture (PA) involves the use of spatial information about crop performance and the biophysical characteristics of the production system at the field and sub-field scale, to optimise agronomic management decisions. This chapter uses the case study of a 26.7 ha field in the Burdekin sugarcane-growing region of Australia to illustrate how PA technologies might be used to enhance sugarcane production; in this case, a saving of A$330/ha in gypsum application costs through the use of variable-rate application (VRA). The chapter examines potential future prospects for further development of sugarcane PA including improved variable-rate fertiliser equipment, on-the-go sensing of commercial cane sugar (CCS) at harvest, detection and spot spraying of weeds, and a reduced risk of detrimental environmental impacts from sugarcane production through recognition that, under uniform management, areas that are low yielding have low efficiencies of fertiliser use and so may have increased risk of nutrient loss off-site.
Sustainable nutrition management of dairy cattle in intensive systems
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When measuring the sustainability of a dairy farm, one should take into account its technical and economic performance, its stewardship of natural resources, and the norms and policies of the society in which the farm operates. This means that managing dairy herd nutrition depends not only on meeting the nutrient requirements of the animals for full expression of their genetic potential, but also on the relationships between cattle nutrition, other components of the farm, the local economy and the aims of the dairy farm. In this chapter we discuss the importance of phosphorus and nitrogen in cow nutrition, the associated environmental concerns and a range of sustainable solutions to these concerns. We also address the carbon footprint associated with dairy farming by examining a case study of intensive dairy production systems in California and Wisconsin.
New developments in packaging of eggs to improve safety and quality
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The correct choice of the packaging system is a key factor for maintaining high-quality characteristics of eggs during storage. In this chapter, the fundamental aspects of shell egg packaging are reviewed. In particular, a possible explanation of critical issues will be discussed to offer an innovative solution of active packaging through the combination of CO2 atmosphere and humidity absorber. The proposed solution permits better maintenance of egg freshness during storage with the contemporaneous increase/modulation of its functionality.
Managing the soil biological community to improve soil health and reduce losses from nematode pests
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Plant-parasitic nematodes commonly cause yield losses of 10 to 20% in sugarcane, largely because varieties with resistance to key pests such as Pratylenchus and Meloidogyne are unavailable, rotation crops provide only temporary control and nematicides are prohibitively expensive. Given the inadequacy of conventional control measures, this chapter views nematode management from a systems perspective. It argues that plant-parasitic nematodes have only become pests because cane-growing soils have been exploited for many years and are physically, chemically and biologically degraded. Soil carbon levels have declined by 60–80% and since organic matter is the energy source that fuels the soil food web, the regulatory mechanisms that normally suppress nematode populations are no longer operative. Also, crops are unable to tolerate nematode damage, because their roots are growing in a suboptimal physical and chemical environment and are not functioning effectively. The only long-term solution is to restore the health of sugar cane soils. This means reducing tillage, addressing the compaction problems caused by harvest machinery and increasing soil carbon levels by retaining crop residues and amending soil with organic materials. These and other tactics required to build an active and diverse biological community capable of restoring soil health and suppressing nematode pests are discussed.
Supporting smallholders in soybean cultivation: the example of Zimbabwe
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Low crop productivity due to soil fertility decline is a major challenge constraining maize-based smallholder farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa. The decline in soil fertility is largely due to continuous cropping without soil replenishment and reduced N2 fixation. In Zimbabwe, soybean has emerged as a key crop that has the potential to help to improve soil fertility and food and income security among smallholder farmers. The majority of research has focused on the biophysical side of soybean production. This chapter adds to existing literature by focusing on the opportunities and constraints for soybean cultivation by smallholder farmers. We review collaborative projects that have promoted soybean cultivation by smallholder farmers, and make recommendations regarding the training, financial and marketing systems required to support smallholder farmers further.
Post-harvest storage management of mango fruit
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As soon as a high-quality fruit and good yield are achieved, the mango fruit is harvested and the post-harvest-handling venture begins. It is estimated that, from harvest to plate, more than one-third of the fruit yield is lost. The purpose of this chapter is to review existing information and research outcomes in the preservation of fruit quality and reduction of post-harvest damage and loss by adopting suitable technologies and knowledge during post-harvest operation, storage management, transportation and marketing of mango fruit.
Photosynthetic improvement of wheat plants
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The light-driven assimilation of CO2 in photosynthesis is the primary determinant of the biomass of wheat. The current theoretical maximum efficiency of photosynthesis in wheat is 4.6%, but in practice it rarely exceeds 2% and averages less than 1% in the field (Zhu et al. 2008). Improving this conversion efficiency represents a key opportunity to not only increase yield, but also to decrease the demand for land and increase the efficiency with which other resources are used. This chapter reviews some of the key factors determining photosynthetic performance and explores the options for improving the photosynthetic capacity and efficiency of wheat by selecting for a range of important traits.
Monitoring fruit quality and quantity in mangoes
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This chapter explores quality of mango from the perspectives of the grower, the packer, the retailer and the consumer. The chapter examines specifications for fruit at harvest maturity and at commercial maturity (eating stage), as well as technologies for monitoring relevant attributes, including machine vision in estimation of canopy flowering, temperature logging for heat sum fruit maturation models and tools for estimation of fruit size, colour and dry matter content. It discusses the importance of dry matter content in an eating quality specification for guiding harvest decisions. It also addresses use of machine vision in the context of estimating fruit number and fruit size in the orchard and estimating surface defects in the packhouse. Finally, the chapter discusses postharvest tools for measuring temperature, colour, firmness and ethylene and CO2 content. The chapter finally includes an example decision support system that uses heat sums and dry matter levels to guide in the decision to harvest.
Plant-animal interactions in grazing systems
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This chapter reviews the interactions between plants and animals that govern the production efficiency of temperate pasture-based livestock production systems. These interactions operate at different temporal and spatial scales, and are highly variable. We take as our case study the dry matter intake (DMI) of animals grazing pasture because DMI is central to most of the interactions. We consider management, plant, sward and animal factors affecting DMI, and review management practices and plant breeding objectives that have sought to increase it. We conclude that there is very limited scope to alter DMI in pasture-based production systems operating near the optimum for long-term financial and environmental sustainability. Rather we propose that plant breeding should focus on plant structural characteristics that favour consistent attainment of optimal post-grazing herbage mass because we can be confident this will increase total herbage accumulation, pasture utilisation and herbage nutritive value.
Molecular approaches in cassava breeding
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In cassava, as for other major crops, molecular markers can reveal the genetic basis for both qualitative and quantitative phenotypic changes. This chapter examines the genetic diversity of cassava, the process of marker-assisted selection (MAS) and the application of genome sequencing to cassava. The chapter looks ahead to the future potential of genetic engineering of cassava.
Organic grassland
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Organic farming makes up an increasing share of agricultural and food systems. Within organic agriculture, grasslands are of particular importance because of their multiple benefits to soils, crops, livestock and ecosystems. In this chapter, we review the multifunctionality of grasslands in the context of organic agriculture, with a special focus on crop rotations. Generally, differences between organic and non-organic systems are smaller for grasslands than for arable systems. However, marked differences between the production systems do occur with respect to nutrient management, particularly nitrogen. As nitrogen losses constitute one of the most important challenges for organic grassland management, we review current knowledge on the possibilities to contain such losses. Further we present two case studies, from the United Kingdom and Germany, showing that trade-offs between different aims, for example productivity and biodiversity conservation, are not restricted to conventionally managed grasslands but frequently occur in organic grassland systems as well.
Nutritional strategies to minimize emissions from sheep
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Agricultural production accounts for 10–12% of global annual greenhouse gas emissions, with livestock production (including sheep) being the most important contributing factor within this sector. The largest single contributor to agricultural greenhouse gas emissions is methane produced during enteric fermentation. This chapter describes the various approaches available to minimizing enteric emissions from sheep, including plant-based approaches and the use of additives in grazing sheep. The chapter also examines host-driven effects on the rumen and suggests future lines of development and research in this area.
Persistence and yield stability of temperate grassland legumes for sustainable animal production
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Forage legumes are essential for sustainable production systems, but their positive environmental and economic effects cannot be realized unless they also show persistence and yield stability. These are complex traits which depend on the interaction of different biotic and abiotic environmental factors with the genetic background of the sown species/cultivar. This chapter surveys the global cultivation of forage legumes and considers important challenges to achieving persistence and yield stability. The chapter includes a case study on the improvement of persistence in red clover by recurrent selection for general adaptation to the environment, and then discusses physiological studies on drought stress tolerance in white clover and broad-leafed birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.). Finally, the chapter considers potential trends in future research into improving the persistence and yield stability of forage legumes, in the face of increasing biotic and abiotic stresses.
Minimising the development of antimicrobial resistance on dairy farms: appropriate use of antibiotics for the treatment of mastitis
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Mastitis is the most prevalent bacterial disease among dairy cows, and the majority of antimicrobials given to dairy cows are for the prevention or treatment of this disease. Thus, a thorough understanding of mastitis is necessary when considering the appropriate use of antibiotics. After reviewing how antimicrobials are currently used on dairy farms, this chapter considers recent research on the prevalence and development of antimicrobial resistance in mastitis pathogens. It then shows how consistent diagnostic protocols and recording systems, attention to medical history, appropriate choice of antibiotics and control of treatment duration can all contribute to minimizing unnecessary use of antimicrobials and promoting effective treatment of mastitis.
Sequencing and assembly of the wheat genome
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The genome sequence is an essential prerequisite for defining the complete gene catalogue of an organism, and it provides a framework for identifying and understanding the function of variants associated with phenotypic traits of interest. For wheat, these traits include disease resistance, crop yield improvement, protein content, quality factors and resistance to abiotic stressors such as drought or poor soils. This chapter reviews the challenges posed by the structure and composition of the wheat genome and how they are being addressed through genome sequencing strategies. It describes the sequencing approaches and resources that have been generated to date and provides some examples of how they are used. The chapter also discusses the road map of the International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium for the completion of a reference sequence that will meet the needs of breeders and researchers seeking to improve crop varieties and to understand the dynamic genome environment and complexity of the world’s most important crop.
Modelling and decision support systems in precision agriculture
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Decision support systems (DSSs) are computerized systems, including models and databases, for decision-making purposes. In a precision agriculture (PA) framework, spatial and temporal requirements for DSSs are of particular importance but dealing with uncertainties and human aspects leading to adoption should not be dismissed. This chapter examines the key issues associated with deploying DSSs in PA before moving on to consider their human and social aspects. The chapter provides a number of detailed case studies on the application of DSSs, with an emphasis on nitrogen management. Finally, the chapter considers research options for DSSs to improve productivity in a PA framework, and looks ahead to future research trends in this area.
Meeting amino acid requirements in pig nutrition
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Protein is one of the major components of the pig’s body, and dietary protein is the sole source of essential amino acids required for the protein synthesis for body maintenance, growth and reproduction. The protein synthesis is limited when there is a deficiency of any amino acid, and it is therefore important to ensure that feed meets the amino acid requirements of pigs at their various growth stages. This chapter reviews the principles and practical aspects of meeting the amino acid requirements of pigs, with information organized according to the growth stage and physiological status.
Parasites affecting poultry
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Parasitic infections and infestations are a major challenge to poultry production worldwide. This chapter comprehensively surveys parasites affecting poultry, divided into the broad categories of protozoa, flagellates and worms as well as arthropods including lice, bedbugs, flies, beetles, mites, fleas and ticks. The chapter examines diagnosis, control, management and disinfection for each of the major parasites associated with poultry farming. It also addresses the pathology, epidemiology and molecular biology of the major parasitic infections, and suggests lines of future research and enquiry in this field.
Pathogens affecting beef
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Mankind has long recognized that animals harbour disease. Zoonotic pathogens are agents from animals that cause disease in humans. This chapter reviews the zoonotic diseases related to cattle. It describes zoonotic parasites and viruses and the pathogens related to cattle. Historically, good management practices and animal husbandry have improved the safety of beef supply. Therefore, pathogen control using good animal management and biosecurity practices, as well as the use of vaccines, is explained.
Sorghum breeding for abiotic stress tolerance
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Sorghum is a major global crop for food, feed and biofuel. Globally, domesticated sorghum is often grown on marginal lands and in environments exposing the plant to temperature extremes and water deficits. Although sorghum exhibits better abiotic stress tolerances than many crops, significant sorghum yield losses are experienced annually in response to unfavourable environments. This chapter focuses on methods for identifying diversity among germplasm collection. It then shows ways of exploiting germplasm diversity to improve soybean responses to low temperature and water-deficit stress.
Mango cultivation practices in the tropics: good agricultural practices to maximize sustainable yields
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Mango is grown in more than 100 countries and is a commercially important fruit for many countries in the tropics. However, mango cultivation faces various problems which require urgent attention if sustainable production is to be achieved. This chapter reviews the factors which affect mango productivity in the tropics and the significant constraints facing mango production in these areas. We discuss constraints related to soil, climate, orchard management, irrigation and nutrition, and in each case present strategies for addressing these constraints and promoting sustainable mango cultivation.
Site-specific nutrient management systems
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Site-specific nutrient management systems were created to manage for spatial and temporal variability in biophysical factors that determine the availability and demand of crop nutrients. These systems differ among geographical regions in the information utilized and the way they operate to accomplish their common purpose: namely, improve nutrient use efficiency and balance trade-offs between profitability and environmental concerns. This chapter looks at system inputs that are used to inform site-specific nutrient management, illustrates system processes and outputs with examples from the Midwestern and Western U.S., and identifies trends and further developmental needs.
Measuring wheat quality
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Wheat quality depends on the genetic make-up of a particular wheat sample. The environment in which it is grown then influences this quality potential. This chapter describes the effects of protein and starch on wheat quality, and the way these components give rise to wheat properties considered important to quality. The chapter examines methods of measuring flour quality and the importance of variety identification, as well as describing likely future trends in this area of research.
Organic seed production, certification and availability
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Through evolution, plants produce seeds with variation in speed of germination and, for instance, dormancy to spread the risk of germinating in the wrong season. Although domestication and breeding has created crops with more rapid germinating seeds, compared with their wild relatives, for many crops the variation in performance is such that upgrading and seed treatments are needed to create starting materials for commercial crop production. Measures are needed during the production itself, and during harvesting, cleaning and drying. In this chapter we will report on various factors that influence organic seed quality and availability, on methods for seed sorting, upgrading and storage, on methods of seed sanitation that are applicable for organic seeds and on seed certification systems. We will point on research that has been performed in the past and resulted in commercially available methods for upgrading of seed quality and on promising new research lines.
Organic pig production systems, welfare and sustainability
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Organic pig production systems seek to produce pig meat in a more ethical and natural manner. This involves adherence to standards relating to accommodation, feeding, health management, husbandry and behavioural freedom which differ from conventional pig production practice. To be sustainable, organic systems must command a market premium by demonstrating differentiation in terms of enhanced animal welfare and reduced environmental impact, whilst ensuring safety and healthiness of products. Whilst some of these claims can be justified, others are open to challenge in current systems. A great diversity in organic production systems and the outcomes which they achieve is apparent, but the growing organic market is leading to increasing research into organic pig production and continuous system improvement.
Mastitis, milk quality and yield
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Mastitis is one of the most economically important diseases in dairy production and it is defined as an inflammation of the mammary gland. This chapter examines the impact of clinical and subclinical mastitis in cows on milk quality, and provides a detailed account of indicators of mastitis. In addition, it describes the impact of mastitis on milk composition and quality, addressing its effect on the protein, fat, lactose and iron content of milk. The chapter also examines the impact of mastitis on milk yields and provides suggestions for further reading on this subject.
Making integrated pest management (IPM) work in sub-Saharan Africa
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Losses to biotic threats remain among the most important factors affecting crop productivity in the predominantly complex smallholder systems of sub-Saharan Africa. The unavoidable intensification of crop production will further exacerbate pest problems, and pest management needs to respond accordingly. This chapter reviews key challenges and needs for implementing safe and effective integrated pest management (IPM) in Africa, concentrating on cross-cutting issues, such as provision of healthy planting material, pesticide use, gender sensibility, improved collaboration with authorities and partners, and exchange with farmers through Farmer Field Schools and Farmer Field Fora.
Occurrence and avoidance of fungicide resistance in cereal diseases
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The targeted use of fungicides can help minimise the yield losses caused to grain cereals by plant pathogenic fungi. However, the long-term use of fungicide classes based on a single mode of action has imposed consistent selection pressures on certain pathogens. Over time, this has resulted in many cases of fungicide resistance, leading to a reduction or the total loss of field performance of a range of active ingredients. There is a pressing need to develop anti-resistance management strategies. This chapter briefly reviews the development of resistance in cereal pathogens, before presenting and evaluating a variety of anti-resistance strategies. We include case studies of how data from field trials have helped to illustrate the impact of different control strategies.
Organic dairy farming in developing countries
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In countries in the global south, often referred to as ‘developing countries’, organic dairy farming faces some challenges, but also has huge potential. Even without having a premium price for organic dairy products, organic management of smallholder farms can often be beneficial in terms of low costs and integration of animal manure in crop production and use of crop residuals as feed for dairy animals. Focusing on dairy farming in Africa, this chapter examines characteristics of milk from different species such as cow, goat, sheep and camel, and considers the challenges of organic dairy production in the developing world. The chapter analyses typical dairy production systems in Africa from breeding to milk distribution and suggests some future directions for research in the area of organic dairy farming in the developing world.
Optimizing the microbial shelf-life of fresh beef
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Beef spoilage is primarily caused by bacteria, and maximizing shelf-life is dependent on a multiple hurdle approach to generate conditions that inhibit microbial growth. This chapter begins by reviewing the factors that affect beef spoilage and microbial shelf-life, and the bacteria and processes involved in spoilage. Subsequent sections then consider methods for maximizing the microbial shelf-life of beef products, including minimizing the initial microbial burden in beef, chilling of beef carcasses and the wide variety of packaging technologies
Marker-assisted selection in cassava breeding
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By reducing the number of seedlings using marker-assisted selection (MAS), field breeders of cassava can allocate their limited phenotyping resources to a smaller number of selection candidates for further phenotypic evaluation of complex traits such as yield and drought tolerance. This chapter describes the strengths and limitations of MAS, the resources that are required, and outlines the practical considerations for its implementation. The chapter also describes the contribution of genome-wide studies (GWAS), summarizes the published quantitative trait loci (QTL) studies in cassava and looks ahead to future research and developments in this area.
Safety management and pathogen monitoring in poultry slaughterhouse operations: the case of the United States
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Preventing foodborne illnesses in a cost-effective way is an important challenge for the poultry industry. This chapter begins by reviewing the common foodborne pathogens associated with poultry. We then discuss processing operations from live transportation of birds, to slaughter, to post-chill processing, and consider the effects of these operations on carcass contamination. We review food safety management programmes during poultry slaughter, focusing on effective measures for surveillance and control in the United States. Chemical, biological and physical antimicrobial treatments are reviewed. Finally, we consider how the efficacy of pathogen reduction systems can be validated and verified through microbial testing.
Recent progress in understanding three major bacterial diseases of sugarcane: gumming, leaf scald and ratoon stunting
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This chapter describes recent insights provided by genomic and microscopy analyses of three bacterial pathogens of sugar cane, ‘Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum’, X. albilineans and Leifsonia xyli subsp. xyli, the causal agents of gumming, leaf scald and ratoon stunting, respectively. The chapter addresses genomic-based hypotheses regarding adaptation of the three pathogens to sugar cane and the origin of their respective ancestors. It examines the strategies used by X. albilineans and L. xyli subsp. xyli to spread in sugar cane. The chapter looks ahead to the development of further functional studies to improve the understanding of the interactions between sugar cane and bacterial pathogens, which are likely to contribute to better control of bacterial diseases of sugar cane
Maintaining the safety and quality of beef carcass meat
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Contamination of animal carcasses during slaughtering procedures is undesirable, but unavoidable in the conversion of live animals to meat for consumption. Internal muscle tissues are essentially sterile, and most initial contamination of red meat carcasses is contributed by the hide during removal. The exposed surface of the hide and the hair accumulate dust, dirt and faecal material, and this is the primary source of bacterial contamination during slaughter. In this chapter, we review the slaughter process and the mechanism of bacterial attachment to meat tissue. We then review the decontamination methods of knife trimming, water washing and steam vacuuming, and evaluate their effectiveness. We consider hot water, organic acid and other decontamination treatments; review the potential for contamination during fabrication; and finally, discuss the role of packaging, storage and shelf life estimates in ensuring the safety of meat delivered to consumers.
Nutraceutical benefits of eggs
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Hen eggs are nature’s perfect source for the everyday diet worldwide. Several components of hen eggs have biofunctional properties in humans beyond normal nutrition and have the potential for being used as active ingredients for nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products. Consequently, extensive studies have been conducted over the past decades to extract these products and to determine their biological functions. There are various biological functions of egg substances reported in the literature including anti-inflammatory, anti-hypertensive, anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, blood cholesterol/lipid-lowering, immune modulatory, anti-toxin/allergen, and skin/cartilage/bone strengthening. The new generation of hen nutrition formula and immune-modulating technology may be employed to develop fortified eggs with enhanced chemical compositions and biological features, such as omega-3 fatty acids and egg yolk IgY antibodies. Owing to numerous bioactive compounds present in eggs, they may be one of the best natural sources for the production of novel value-added nutraceutical preparations.
Progress in understanding fungal diseases affecting sugarcane: red rot
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Red rot is a disease of sugarcane stalks caused by the fungal pathogen Colletotrichum falcatum. It has been recorded in 77 countries worldwide, but occurs most severely in South Asian countries, especially India, Nepal, Pakistan, Myanmar and Bangladesh, as well as in Thailand and Vietnam. Developing red rot-resistant varieties has been the major management strategy to deal with the disease in most countries. This chapter reviews the economic impact of red rot, diagnosis, pathogen variability, application of molecular tools to understand pathogen biology, varietal resistance, screening methods and new management approaches including fungicide delivery.
Management of water resources for grasslands
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Grasslands support essential food and fibre production, biodiversity, and water function and other ecosystem services. Planted or native grasslands are typically located on drier, steeper or less fertile areas of any region. This chapter discusses water requirements of temperate pastures, monitoring and modelling grassland vegetation and water use, drought monitoring, and water resources management in grasslands.
Proximal crop sensing
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Today’s farmers are increasingly reliant on sensors for their farming operations. This chapter addresses the use of proximal sensors to evaluate a crop during the growing season. After briefly discussing the importance of sensors in modern farming and the crop properties which are of interest, we review the evolution of crop sensors. We then discuss three issues that are currently faced in sensor development: the limitations of current crop canopy sensors; detecting stresses other than nitrogen and sensor fusion and high-throughput phenotyping. Three case studies are presented, and future trends in research are considered.
Mechanisms for the transmission of pathogens into eggs
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Salmonella Enteritidis currently represents the major risk of eggborne disease. The frequent association of this bacterium with egg infection is ascribed to various factors, including its spread and persistence in the breeding environment, its long-term ability to colonize the hen’s genital tract leading to horizontal transmission of the pathogen and its ability to reach the nutritious compartment of the egg, the egg yolk. However, egg invasion by S. Enteritidis is naturally controlled thanks to the efficient antibacterial activities provided by egg white, and especially under the specific conditions of temperature encountered during egg formation and hatching.
Managing surface water for irrigation
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As the world’s population increases, so does the pressure on water resources to ensure that agriculture continues to meet global food demand. One way of coping with this increased pressure is to improve the management of surface water resources for irrigation, for instance to reduce water losses in large canal systems. This chapter presents a number of different strategies for improving and securing surface water irrigation systems. If irrigation schemes are to be sustainable, factors such as stakeholder commitment, sound design and efficient operation and maintenance must be ensured. Advanced irrigation technologies – such as sprinklers and drip irrigation systems – must be considered, along with decision support tools to assist farmers and managers in optimizing water allocation to different crops. The capacity of water institutions must be enhanced in order to solve entitlement, pricing and regulatory issues. It is concluded that reforms should aim at solving the underlying management issues, as well as delivering benefits to the people.
Methods for detecting pathogens in the beef food chain: detecting particular pathogens
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The main food-borne pathogens of concern in the beef food chain are Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and Salmonella; other pathogens, including Listeria monocytogenes and Campylobacter spp. may also be present. These pathogens pose contamination concerns in both the cattle production environment and beef products. This chapter reviews methods for detecting E. coli O157:H7 and non-O157 STEC, Salmonella, Listeria and Campylobacter, Clostridium, Bacillus cereus and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP). Further, the chapter also reviews the development of standardised methods for regulatory testing of E. coli.
Nematode pathogens of soybean
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In general, plant-parasitic nematodes that may detrimentally affect soybean production are microscopic roundworms that feed on or are in plant roots. This chapter examines the origins and management of a variety of parasitic nematodes affecting soybean, including soybean cyst nematodes, root-knot nematodes, lesion nematodes, reniform nematodes and lance nematodes. It also chapter addresses the challenge of nematode resistance in soybean and provides suggestions for further reading on this subject.
Managing grassland systems to optimise livestock production
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High prices of milk have encouraged intensive dairying systems using high inputs of chemical fertilisers, indoor feeding with high amounts of concentrate and imported protein at the expense of grazing. Consequently grassland acreage decreased considerably over the last 30 years, and the European dairy systems have become highly dependent on imported fossil energy and proteins. However, the various roles of grassland in providing regulating and supporting services are now widely recognised and grazing ruminants are highly appreciated by the public. This chapter reviews existing knowledge and tools for developing productive, efficient and environmentally friendly dairying systems based on grazing and grassland utilisation. The chapter will consider successively the expected characteristics for the right animal for grassland based systems, the grazing management practises, the supplementation, the more systematic use of legumes in multi species swards and the development of DSS which help farmers to design more efficient grazing management and to find the optimum between the twin objective of high performance by the herd and high rate of herbage utilisation. The chapter concludes by examining the considerable scope for improving animal and grassland performances within grassland-based systems.
Molecular breeding techniques to improve egg quality
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Multiple tools for the molecular analysis of variation at both the DNA and protein level have recently been developed. These molecular tools that include low cost sequencing, simultaneous genotyping of large numbers of single nucleotide polymorphisms chips, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and RNAseq (for gene expression) are enabling scientists to better understand the fundamental bases of egg-quality traits in poultry. Genomic selection methods have been developed to improve egg quality and have been implemented by major poultry breeding companies. This chapter looks at ways to improve external egg quality and internal egg quality utilizing these molecular tools. The Animal Genome Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) database currently includes 4676 chicken QTLs curated from 224 publications for 316 different chicken traits (www.animalgenome.org). Targeted genomic analysis of specific genes allows in-depth study of genes involved in the determination of egg quality. Further insights are gained with gene expression and regulation studies.
Precision tillage systems
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The commercial development of information-intensive precision agriculture technologies has given rise to a number of applications aimed at improving agricultural production through site-specific management, including precision tillage. This chapter describes developments in on-the-go soil strength sensing and the state of the art in sensor technology as applied to precision tillage. The chapter examines depth-prescribed tillage to control subsoil compaction, techniques of soil sensing to enable precision tillage and how to extract information from soil sensors. Finally, the chapter looks at the challenge of implementing depth control and tractor/implement guidance technology.
Monitoring trends in diseases of poultry
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Disease surveillance is a staple programme in most developed poultry systems and is a cooperative effort between individual poultry companies, regional and national disease control agencies and programmes, public and private diagnostic laboratories, research universities, wildlife agencies and allied animal health industries. Surveillance can be active in the form of sacrificing birds for clinical necropsy examination or submitting samples for diagnosis during a disease outbreak, or passive in the form of routine diagnostic assays designed to provide a historical picture of a flock or region. This chapter reviews both types of surveillance, covering diagnostic laboratories, diagnostic assays, high-quality sampling and submission, and epidemiology.
Post-harvest wheat losses in Africa: an Ethiopian case study
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This chapter discusses the results of a 2014 questionnaire-based survey instrument used to gauge perceptions of 200 Ethiopian wheat farmers on a wide range of wheat production and post-harvest handling and storage- related topics. It outlines the methods employed in the study, the demographics of the farmers surveyed, and the information obtained on crop production and post-harvest issues. The chapter also examines the significance of gender and food security emerging from the study, and includes suggestions on further reading in related fields.
Prevention and control of parasitic helminths in dairy cattle: key issues and challenges
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Parasitic helminth infections are one of the most important causes of production loss in livestock worldwide. Grazing dairy cattle are exposed to various worm species, all of which can affect health, welfare and productivity to varying degrees. For several decades, helminth control relied primarily on the frequent use of broad spectrum anthelmintics; however, the use of such treatments needs to be moderated to avoid selection pressure for anthelmintic resistance. This chapter describes the likely helminth threats to grazing dairy cattle, with particular emphasis on the issue of anthelmintic resistance. It then offers a review of progress in developing evidence-based control programmes to reduce selection pressure for anthelmintic resistance. Finally, the chapter reviews progress in the development of anti-helminth vaccines. Such vaccines are a long way off commercial availability, but recent progress suggests that these could form part of a sustainable solution to helminth control on dairy farms.
Modelling the effects of temperature and photoperiod on soybean reproductive development
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It has long been recognized that the development rate and yield of soybean are sensitive to temperature and photoperiod. This chapter considers a range of experimental evidence concerning the precise effects of these factors on soybean reproductive development, and reviews ten diverse methods of mathematically modelling these effects. In the course of this discussion, several scientific questions are raised, such as whether the photoperiod effect exists in post-flowering stages, and what the nature of such an effect might be. It is concluded that quantitative research of integrated modelling and experimentation at gene level may hold the key to improving the modelling of temperature and photoperiod effects on soybean development.
Managing sustainable food safety on dairy farms
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Within the dairy food chain, the production of milk is the first phase in a series of steps resulting in dairy food products ready to be consumed. At farm level, it is critical to ensure that good management practices minimize the risk of contamination in order to reach a level of risk acceptable to food safety authorities and to consumers. This chapter examines the criteria used for implementing on-farm food safety systems while producing milk in a sustainable manner. It begins by reviewing the principles, regulations and international standards on which Canadian dairy farms base food safety. We then show how these principles are applied in the Canadian dairy industry in on-farm sustainability programmes. The final three sections review on-farm safety systems to ensure safety and sustainability in the dairy industries of the United States, France and Australia.
Modelling crop growth and yield in tomato cultivation
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Crop-growth simulation models have become important tools for researchers and growers for the purpose of assisting management and improving production. The CROPGRO-Tomato model described in this chapter is one of a suite of models within the modelling package Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT), which is widely used and accepted by agricultural research communities (Jones et al., 2003). This model is mechanistic and process oriented (processes of carbon, water and N balance), and it simulates daily progress towards flowering and fruit set as well as daily growth of leaves, stems, roots and fruits over time until maturity or final harvest (Scholberg et al., 1997; Boote et al., 1998; Boote et al., 2012). This chapter describes the model, its sensitivity to climatic and management factors, what it is capable of predicting and how it can be used in various applications of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum Mill.) cultivation in order to address the challenges confronting industry and researchers.
Planning and sowing grasslands
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To be truly sustainable, forage-livestock systems must be well matched to the soils, geophysical and climate factors, and expected level of management available. This chapter provides an overview of the pasture renovation or establishment process, including a comprehensive planning process, selection of system-appropriate forage species and cultivars, and the steps for realizing the comprehensive plan, including initial management during the establishment or renovation year. Species selection is the weak link in the process. Although many forage agronomists have used various approaches to address this issue, the problem remains largely unsolved, with recommendations based primarily on location-dependent species and cultivar evaluation trials and grower experience. As a possible solution, the authors have included a vision for developing user-friendly, data-rich forage selection tools, and they provide a short review of the existing tools.
Life cycle assessment of mango systems
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Mango production systems have seldom been studied using the methodology of life cycle assessment (LCA). Important challenges are associated with the application of LCA to the environmental evaluation of fruit systems in general and mango in particular. This chapter describes the core principles of LCA methodology, the state of the art of LCA for fruits and associated key challenges. The chapter makes up-to-date recommendations on the use of LCA, and then presents and discusses the first complete LCA case study for export mango, from the Rio São Francisco Valley in Brazil. Finally, the chapter analyses the environmental challenges faced by mango systems across the world, highlighting the great potential of LCA to achieve more eco-friendly production and consumption of mango.
Minimizing the environmental impact of poultry production through improved feed formulation
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Every year, millions of broilers, turkeys and laying hens are raised to supply eggs and meat to an increasing number of consumers. Along with the growth of the commercial poultry industry, waste generated in live production operations and processing plants has become an important environmental concern because of the major pollutants entering our water, air and soil. This chapter will discuss the main environmental impacts of intensive poultry production and explain the role of precise feed formulation as a strategy to increase the efficiency of nutrient utilization, and ultimately, reduce the negative effects of poultry waste on the environment to achieve sustainable production of poultry products
Maintaining sheep flock health: an overview
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Improving the efficiency of livestock production is a fundamental challenge facing humanity, and maintaining the health of livestock is key to ensuring this. Systems for farming small ruminants such as sheep must meet the global need for food security while being economically, environmentally and socially sustainable. Nowadays, sustainable agriculture is threatened by a global reduction in land resources and water and hitherto irresponsible use of drugs and chemicals. This chapter describes efficient small ruminant livestock production, examining its ecological impact and the effects of advances in genetic improvement and other technologies. The chapter describes how managing the health of sheep flocks through health planning, nutritional management and ensuring biodiversity can ensure efficient production, and includes case studies addressing lamb growth rates and controlling parasitic infections. The chapter concludes that effective biosecurity, good nutrition, protection from infectious pathogens and endemic disease management in sheep flocks are essential for global food security.
Key factors limiting sustainable insect pest management in soybeans
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If sustainability implies the preservation of resources for future generations, then pest management tools, like insecticides and insect-resistant varieties, can be considered resources that should be preserved for future generations. Overuse of these tools can result in resistance such that their ability to prevent yield loss is lost. This chapter offers an overview of the relationship between sustainable crop production and integrated pest management before focusing on the challenge of invasive species in soybean cultivation. The chapter examines the application of insect resistance management, especially to Bt-soybeans, and includes two detailed case studies taken from two of the leading soybean production regions of the world, the United States and Brazil. The chapter looks ahead to future trends in this area and offers detailed guidance on further reading about this subject.
Meeting energy requirements in pig nutrition
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The level of energy in a pig’s diet influences the rate and efficiency of gain, the quality of the resulting carcass and even the quality of the pork produced from the carcass. However, energy requirements and energy use in pigs are not well understood, due to the complexity of the topic. Unlike nutrients in the diet, energy is supplied by numerous dietary constituents, and each of these is utilized as an energy source in different ways and in accordance with their metabolic fate. This chapter will discuss the basics of energy metabolism, energy systems, energy sources, energy requirements and methods to improve the utilization of energy by the pig.
Laying hen nutrition: optimizing energy intake, egg size and weight
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Hen nutrition must address a number of different goals, including maximizing egg production, maintaining egg quality, extending the laying cycle and ensuring hen health and welfare. This chapter focuses on the role of nutrition in optimizing energy intake, egg size and egg weight. It reviews the different nutritional requirements hens have in their pre-laying and laying phases; discusses how feed consumption can be controlled; and then reviews the effects of energy concentration, dietary lipids, dietary proteins and amino acids on egg weight. It also offers a discussion of how the inclusion of cereals and alternative protein sources in the diet can affect egg characteristics.
Key challenges and methods in identifying management zones
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Management zones (MZs) are delineated to identify homogenous regions with similar field characteristics and to differentiate the inputs according to the specific needs of the crops within each zone. Delineation of MZs can be based on soil and landscape attributes and/or plant parameters. There are several methods to delineate MZs. These include (1) empirical methods, where field maps are visually interpreted by the farmers according to personal knowledge; (2) geostatistical methods using statistical integration of georeferenced observations of different variables; (3) clustering techniques classifying data in different combinations of many variables in discrete classes or clusters, degree of agreement using a selection of the best-suited parameters for final MZ delineation and others. In this chapter, the most common methods for delineation of MZs are discussed and three case studies are presented. The case studies are analysed to show the importance of the formation of MZs for the optimization of input application.
Measuring and assessing beef quality and sensory traits for retailers and consumers
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Verifying qualities that contribute to a pleasurable eating experience prior to consumption is an obstacle for the beef industry. There are many ways to assess eating quality, such as sensory evaluation, shear force measurement and relying on the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) quality grading system. Most recently, research has focused on flavour evaluation and muscle profiling. Unfortunately, there is no silver bullet for non-destructive assessment of beef sensory properties. The industry has been searching for the perfect tool for prediction of consumer acceptability. The incorporation of palatability assessment values could be included in purveyor and retailer product specifications, while innovative research is needed to discover, modify and implement assessments that do not sacrifice time or costs and meet the demands of beef purveyors, retailers and consumers.
Marker-assisted selection in poultry
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Marker-assisted selection (MAS) is a form of indirect selection that depends on the accuracy of measuring the marker and the genetic correlation between them. This chapter describes the development of large numbers of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers associated with high-throughput automated technology, which has made MAS applicable to whole-genome prediction of breeding values. The chapter explores how these techniques have been successfully trialled in commercial poultry breeding programmes, as well as suggesting how future technological developments may permit the use of whole-genome sequencing rather than high-density SNP chips for prediction of breeding values of selection candidates.
Pathogens affecting raw milk from cows
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The aim of this chapter is to review what is known about pathogens affecting raw milk from cows and dairy products made from raw milk. Milk-borne zoonotic pathogenic microorganisms that can contaminate raw milk from cows or dairy products are described including sources of contamination. The growth of these pathogens during refrigerated storage of milk is discussed. The occurrence of pathogens in raw milk and outbreaks of illness related to contaminated raw milk from cows and raw milk cheese are also reviewed.
Key issues in the welfare of dairy cattle
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Concerns about dairy cattle welfare are widespread. Cattle welfare is influenced by various circumstances and conditions, which are related to and dependent on each other. Confinement, restricted movements, high milk yield, disrupted social structures, painful and frightening management procedures, unilateral breeding, diseases, transport, slaughter and poor stockmanship are main welfare issues. This chapter identifies some areas that require further research and remedial action. Production transparency and marketing fairness are essential to limit the risk for ethical conflicts. Transparency, quality assurance and fair labelling of milk products should be used as a means to inform consumers and enhance animal welfare, and this chapter looks into these factors.
Organic systems for raising poultry
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An organic system for raising poultry aims to provide a sustainable method of rearing poultry in an environment that allows natural behaviour to be expressed, and which eliminates pesticides, herbicides and other chemicals from feed, growing environment and carcass processing. This chapter reviews the important components of such a system, with sections covering housing and nutrition for organically reared poultry, the management of farm resources and bird health, ensuring food safety, and the oversight of poultry meat processing and product labelling.
Mapping the sheep genome
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The exploration of genomic variation is central to advances in animal genetic studies. Furthermore, the ability to access and analyse differences among animal genomes is an essential prerequisite to understanding the manifestation of disease, variation in production traits, demographic history and the impact of selection. This chapter reviews the tools and resources currently used for exploring genetic variation in the sheep genome, which will speed discovery and innovation for scientists working with sheep either as a production livestock species or as a biomedical model. The next steps in annotating the sheep genome are also explored, along with the expected outcomes of the next stage of research.
Manure management in organic farming
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Animal manure is the most important source of nutrients applied in most organic farming systems. Nitrogen (N) is often the most yield-limiting factor in non-leguminous crops, and thus lack of N may cause reduced yield and low protein content in many crops. In addition, N is the nutrient that is most easily lost, and these losses may have serious environmental impacts. This chapter reviews literature related to manure management and nutrient utilization, including ways to improve manure management in animal housing, during storage and after application in the field. The chapter considers anaerobic vs aerobic manure storage (composting), manure application methods and their effects on N utilization and soil carbon storage. The chapter explains how phosphorus and potassium applied in manure contribute to crop nutrient supply, especially when the soil availability is low, and also contribute to maintaining the soil fertility. Finally, the chapter looks ahead to future research trends in this area and provides detailed guidance on further reading on the subject.
Intelligent machinery for precision agriculture
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The innovative core of modern precision agriculture is the use of agricultural machinery to perform precise, responsive field operations in large-scale mechanized precision crop production. Integration of autonomous functions into such machinery will endow it with capabilities which could be described as ‘intelligent’. These include perception, reasoning and control of operations in the field with the flexibility to achieve predetermined operational goals without human supervision. In this chapter, we review the current level of state-of-the-art intelligent agricultural machinery. We discuss the different kinds of automated guidance systems available, as well as path planning, automated actuation systems and implement controls. Finally, we discuss the prospects for creating increasingly autonomous systems and consider the potential implications of such technology.
Mapping the soybean genome
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The soybean is one of the most important grain legumes, but genetic mapping had been less advanced than in other crops, which limited modern soybean molecular breeding. This chapter discusses the significant progress in mapping the soybean genome that has now been made. Also highlighted are the use of restriction fragment length polymorphism molecular markers, high-throughput genotyping markers, specific-locus amplified fragment sequencing mapping, whole-genome re-sequencing mapping and comparative genome mapping. This has allowed for the identification of quantitative trait loci or genes to improve yield, nutritional quality, as well as biotic and abiotic stress tolerances.
